Japan

Food
Sushi is, without doubt, one of the most famous foods to come from Japan. A dish that
was born in ancient times, sushi originated from the process of preserving fish in
fermented rice. Today it’s made with vinegared rice and fresh fish, presented in a
number of ways and shapes.
Sushi is a Japanese dish of prepared vinegared rice, usually with some sugar and salt,
accompanying a variety of ingredients, such as seafood, vegetables, and occasionally
tropical fruits.
The word “sushi” means “it's sour,” which reflects back to sushi's origins of being
preserved in salt
Sashimi
Centuries before Japanese people were eating sushi, they first enjoyed raw fish without
the rice. While the name “sashimi” refers to any thinly sliced raw food, including raw
beef (gyuu-sashi), chicken (tori-zashi), and even horse (basashi), fish and seafood are
the most popular varieties.

Most types of sashimi are seasoned with soy sauce by dipping each piece into a small
dish of soy sauce before eating it. It is usually the diners' responsibility to fill the small
dishes with soy sauce, and it is good manner to pour only as much soy sauce as
needed.

Depending on the type of sashimi, a little bit of wasabi or ground ginger may be added
to the sashimi piece. This is most elegantly done by dabbing the wasabi or ginger
directly onto the pieces of sashimi (as opposed to mixing it into the soy sauce). Some
people also enjoy eating the daikon and shiso garnishes; both vegetables have a fresh,
minty taste.

Religion

Shinto and Buddhism are Japan's two major religions. Shinto is as old as the
Japanese culture, while Buddhism was imported from the mainland in the 6th century.
Since then, the two religions have been co-existing relatively harmoniously and have
even complemented each other to a certain degree. Most Japanese consider
themselves Buddhist, Shintoist or both.

Religion does not play a big role in the everyday life of most Japanese people today.
The average person typically follows the religious rituals at ceremonies like
birth, weddings and funerals, may visit a shrine or temple on New Year and participates
at local festivals (matsuri), most of which have a religious background.
Religion in Japan is dominated by Shinto (the ethnic religion of the Japanese people)
and by Buddhism. According to surveys carried out in 2006[1] and 2008,[2] less than 40%
of the population of Japan identifies with an organized religion: around 35%
are Buddhists, 3% to 4% are members of Shinto sects and derived religions, and from
fewer than 1%[3][4][5] to 2.3% are Christians.[note 2]
Most of the Japanese (50% to 80% considering degrees of syncretism with
Buddhism, shinbutsu-shūgō[6]) pray and worship ancestors and gods (神, kami, shin or,
archaically, jin) at Shinto shrines or at private altars, while not identifying as "Shinto" or
"Shintoist" in surveys.[7] This is because these terms have little meaning for the majority
of the Japanese,[7] or because they define membership in Shinto organizations or
sects.[8][9] The term "religion" (宗教, shūkyō) itself in Japanese culture defines
only organized religions (that is, religions with specific doctrines and required
membership).[10] People who identify as "non-religious" (無宗教, mushūkyō) in surveys
actually mean that they do not belong to any religious organization, even though they
may take part in Shinto rituals and worship.[10]
Some scholars, such as Jun'ichi Isomae and Jason Ānanda Josephson, have
challenged the usefulness of the term "religion" in regard to Japanese "traditions",
arguing that the Japanese term and concept of "religion" (shūkyō) is an invention of the
19th century.[11] However, other scholars, such as Hans Martin Kramer and Ian Reader,
regard such claims as overstated and contend that the terms relate to terminology and
categorizations that existed in Japan prior to the 19th century
Language
Evidence shows that people inhabited Japan and its islands from the beginning of
the Palaeolithic Age. It is believed that they spoke a language; however it is unknown
what kind of language it was. Characters resembling written language have been found
at Stone Age excavation sites; however there are differing opinions as to what language
it may be.
Not until shortly after the turn of the second century did indications of language spoken
appear in Chinese history books. Chinese characters were adopted and records of
spoken language were made in Japan. Hiragana and katakana characters were
incorporated as a relatively accurate way to represent the sounds of Chinese
characters.
Ryukyuan languages[edit]
Chinese characters were first introduced to Ryukyuan languages shortly into the 13th
century. Details concerning the language before then are not well known. Fourteenth-
century records indicate that gifts from Ryukyu Islands to China used hiragana, which
indicates that these languages were tied to mainland Japanese at the time.
Ainu languages[edit]
There exist places in and around Tōhoku whose names were derived from Ainu
languages. It is well known that people in Hokkaido, Karafuto, and the Kuril
Islands used Ainu languages, but it is also thought that people in the eastern part of
mainland Japan once spoke these languages. According to 16th-century records, Ainu
languages didn’t have an alphabet. Only from the 19th century did Ainu languages begin
to use katakana.
Orok language[edit]
The Orok language emerged before the common era. Records show that they were
used during the latter part of the Edo period in Hokkaido, Karafuto and the Kuril Islands;
however, there are only a few speakers still in existence.
Nivkh language[edit]
Like Orok, the Nivkh language was spoken in Hokkaido, Karafuto, and the Kuril Islands,
but also along the Amur River. It is unknown whether speakers of Nivkh still remain in
Japan.
European languages[edit]
Since the Middle Ages, owing to visits from Europeans, Japanese has adopted a
number of foreign words.
Symbolism. National identity and unity are formally symbolized by a number of
conventional icons and motifs, including the cherry blossom, the red and white national
flag portraying the rising sun, and the chrysanthemum. These symbols have contested
meanings because they are associated with the imperial family and World War II. The
chrysanthemum, for example, serves as the crest of the imperial family, and cherry
blossoms were invoked in wartime propaganda to represent the glory of kamikaze
suicide pilots. Progressive political groups resist flying the national flag and singing the
national anthem (Kimigayo) because of their wartime associations.

The samurai (or bushi) were the warriors of premodern Japan. They later made up the
ruling military class that eventually became the highest ranking social caste of the Edo
Period (1603-1867). Samurai employed a range of weapons such as bows and arrows,
spears and guns, but their main weapon and symbol was the sword.
Geisha (芸者) (/ˈɡeɪʃə/; Japanese: [ɡeːɕa]), geiko (芸子), or geigi (芸妓) are Japanese
women who entertain through performing the ancient traditions of art, dance and
singing, and are distinctively characterized by their wearing of kimono and oshiroi
makeup.
Japan’s Mt. Fuji is an active volcano about 100 kilometers southwest of Tokyo.
Commonly called “Fuji-san,” it’s the country’s tallest peak, at 3,776 meters. A pilgrimage
site for centuries, it’s considered one of Japan’s 3 sacred mountains, and summit hikes
remain a popular activity. Its iconic profile is the subject of numerous works of art,
notably Edo Period prints by Hokusai and Hiroshige.

The Japanese feel a heightened sense of belonging and loyalty to their family as
interdependence is emphasised in the collectivist society. Individuals are expected to
serve their family’s interest before their own and show preferential treatment to fellow
family members. Furthermore, families also have a collective face in Japan. The act of
a single individual impacts the perception of one’s family name by others.

The typical Japanese household follows the nuclear family model; however, the
extended family is usually kept in close proximity and is visited often. Paternal
grandparents may live with their family as they grow older, but Japan’s small living
spaces usually limit multigenerational household situations.

The archetypal Japanese man works 6 days a week for long hours. It was once
considered inappropriate for mothers to hold jobs. While, gender equality is now
embraced, with women receiving equal educational and employment opportunities, men
still dominate the workforce.

Within the family, the structure is generally patriarchal. The husband/father is expected
to be the breadwinner and receive the utmost respect from his family. The wife and
children should facilitate his home-life needs as much as possible. Most mothers devote
their time to domestic duties and raising children. They have a lot of authority in their
households over their children. They make most of the decisions for their children’s
future, seeking the best educational opportunities available to them.

Many Japanese parents are utterly devoted to their children’s success. They want their
children to receive a good education and attend university. However, this is often
expressed in a way that places heavy expectations on the child to excel to reach their
parent’s aspirations – particularly in wealthier families.

Marriage and Dating

Dating practices in Japan are similar to those in Western cultures. Children usually start
dating around the age of 15 but only get married at an average age of 26/27.

When a couple does marry, the wedding can be very elaborate. The bride and groom
may have multiple outfits for photographs and the ceremony, varying between
traditional kimonos and modern dress. Guests may give typical wedding gifts or money
to the couple and may even leave with a gift from the couple.

Do’s

 Express flattery when it is due as this will give face to the recipient, however always
do so earnestly. An insincere compliment can cause a person to lose face instead.
Furthermore, do not compliment a single person too profusely since their obligation
to humbly deny praise can make them become embarrassed.
 It is good to add a lot of reassurance during conversation.
 If you reflect on an interaction with a Japanese person and feel you may have come
across impolitely, it is okay to apologise for the rudeness the next time you see them.
In Japan, apologies are made several times a day for rudeness that was not actually
committed.
 The Japanese often smile and nod throughout conversation. Remember that this is
done out of politeness to save face and does not necessarily indicate that they fully
understand or agree with what you are saying. Therefore, if you notice that your
Japanese counterpart’s English is limited, try not to interpret their encouraging
nodding as a cue that they totally comprehend what you are saying.
 Make a considered effort to be humble and modest. It is polite to lightheartedly
disagree with people when they compliment you.

Do not’s

 Avoid being blunt or frank about delicate topics. Sometimes blatant honesty can be
unappreciated as the Japanese form of communication is very indirect. Negative
news is delivered more discreetly.
 Do not raise your voice or lose your temper. Losing control of one’s emotions even in
the most frustrating situations is a sign of poor upbringing and is likely to make you
lose face in a Japanese person’s eyes.
 Do not tell third parties about a conversation you’ve had with another Japanese
person unless they have made it clear that it is okay to do so.
 Avoid discussing sensitive historical and political topics such as World War II.
 Avoid being openly critical or pointing out mistakes. The Japanese may take criticism
quite personally. For example, if they have taken you to a restaurant and you do not
like a dish served, commenting on its quality may be taken as a comment on their
skills as a host even though they did not prepare the dish. Such occurrences can
quickly cause a Japanese person to lose face.

MALAYSIA

Malaysia prides itself on multiculturalism, as embodied in Prime Minister Najib Razak’s

campaign for ethnic and religious equality under 1Malaysia. As a country with several
ethnic groups including Malays, Chinese, Indians and indigenous, as well as one that
houses almost all major global religions, Malaysia is about as diverse as it gets.
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Islam

Islam makes up the largest demographic in Malaysia accounting for 60% of the
population. Mosques dominate the skyline in all parts of the country with the exotic and
hypnotic call to prayer echoing around the neighbourhood five times each
day. Malaysia’s Sultans are said to be the ‘Guardians of Islam’ who act as the
ceremonial heads in nine out of thirteen states. Historically, out of all the major religions
in Malaysia, Islam is the youngest after its introduction by Indian traders in the 12th
century. Hindu King Mudzaffar Shah I renounced Hinduism and adopted Sunni Islam,
starting Kedah’s first Sultanate. Islam later entered a Golden Age under the Malacca
Sultanate in the 15th century and has continued to be the majority until today.

Putra Mosque in Putra Jaya near Kuala Lumpur © piya Sukchit/Shutterstock

Buddhism

Malaysia’s second largest religion dates back more than 2000 years, accounting for
approximately 20% of today’s population. Malaysian Chinese form the majority
practising Mahayana Buddhism, with a Theravada minority of Malaysian Indians and
Sri Lankans. Johor has the largest community, accounting for 30% of the state’s
demographics. Indian traders in the 3rd-century BC are widely believed to have brought
Buddhism to Malaysia. The religion has been present in Malaysia for 1500 years and
flourished under the Sri Vijaya Empire. The most important temples include Kuala
Lumpur’s Thean Hou, Penang’s Kek Lok Si and Perak’s Sam Poh Tong.

Penang’s famous Kek Lok Si Temple © aaabbbccc/Shutterstock

Christianity

Christianity arrived in Malaysia in the 7th century by Arab, Persian and Turkish traders.
Later, the Portuguese introduced Catholicism in 1511, while the Dutch brought
Protestantism in the late 17th century. British missionaries spread Christianity in Sabah
and Sarawak 200 years later. A total of 24% of Sarawakians identify as Christian,
making it Malaysia’s only Christian state. Anglican, Methodist and Roman Catholicism
make up the primary denominations in Malaysia. St Paul’s, a former Catholic
Portuguese church, along with the Protestant Dutch Anglican Christ Church in Melaka
are Malaysia’s best examples of Christian architecture.

St Paul’s Cathedral, the oldest church in Malaysia © NavinTar/Shutterstock

Hinduism

From a historical point of view, Indians played a significant contribution to religion in

Malaysia. Early Indian traders brought Hinduism and Buddhism to Malaysia more than
two millennia ago and Islam some 1400 years later. Hinduism and Buddhism spiked
around the 13th century. The number of Hindus rose again during the British colonial
era, starting 200 years ago. Migrant Tamils moved to Malaysia to work on rubber
plantations among other professions. Today, Hinduism is the fourth largest religion in
Malaysia, with the biggest communities in Negeri Sembilan and Selangor. A minority of
Indian Sikhs live in Malaysia too.

Kuala Lumpur’s Sri Mahamariamman Temple © EQRoy/Shutterstock

Paganism and Animism

Before the arrival of mainstream religion in Malaysia, the indigenous tribes of Sabah
and Sarawak often practised paganism and animism. The earlier polytheists saw Mount
Kinabalu as the sacred resting place of their ancestors. Deep superstitions, rituals and
sacrificing chickens were once widespread in many indigenous communities to appease
the spirits. Sadly, this has all but died out in Malaysia, with British missionaries
converting the animist villages to Christianity.

Malay Culture and Society

A Multi-Cultural Society
Malaysia is a multi-cultural society. The main ethnic groups are the native Malays as
well as large populations of Chinese, and Indians. When visiting the country it is clear
that the ethnicities retain their religions, customs and way of life. The most important
festivals of each group are public holidays.
Although growing up, children are educated in the same schools and will eventually
work in the same offices, few marry outside their own ethnicity. Families tend to socialise
within their own ethnic group – all part of retaining their individual traditions and
lifestyles.
Despite the ethnic differences there are commonalities culturally speaking.

Group Orientation
The family is considered the centre of the social structure. As a result there is a great
emphasis on unity, loyalty and respect for the elderly. The family is the place where the
individual can be guaranteed both emotional and financial support. When one member
of the family suffers a financial setback, the rest of the family will contribute what they
can to help out. Families tend to be extended, although in the larger cities this will
naturally differ.

The Concept of Face

Malays, Chinese and Indians all strive to maintain face and avoid shame both in public
and private. Face is a personal concept that embraces qualities such as a good name,
good character, and being held in esteem by one's peers. Face is considered a
commodity that can be given, lost, taken away, or earned. On top of this face also
extends to the family, school, company, and even the nation itself.
The desire to maintain face makes Malaysians strive for harmonious relationships.
Face can be lost by openly criticizing, insulting, or putting someone on the spot; doing
something that brings shame to the group; challenging someone in authority, especially
if this is done in public; showing anger at another person; refusing a request; not keeping
a promise; or disagreeing with someone publicly. Conversely, face can be saved by
remaining calm and courteous; discussing errors or transgressions in private; speaking
about problems without blaming anyone; using non-verbal communication to say "no";
and allowing the other person to get out of the situation with their pride intact.

NN) — In an age when the term "underrated" gets tossed about with impunity, it may
be difficult to take us seriously when we say Malaysian food isn't getting the global
recognition it deserves.
But the fact is, this stuff is good.
The sum of many delicious parts, Malaysian cuisine's influences include Chinese, Indian
and Malay.
In some ways it's similar to Indonesian food, with the two nations sharing many of the
same dishes. (Warning: debates over dish origins can turn nasty in these parts -- such
is the passion of the region's food lovers.)
Regardless, once you're in Malaysia and eating, you'll quickly dispense with historical
concerns and wonder instead where your next meal is coming from and how you can
you get to it sooner.
To help narrow your choices here are 40 of Malaysia's top dishes, in no particular order.
1. Mee goreng mamak

Mee goreng mamak.

courtesy tourism malaysia
This Indian Muslim dish is the complete package. Yellow noodles. Beef or chicken.
Shrimp. Soy sauce, veggies and eggs. A bit of chili tossed in for an irresistible jolt.
Sounds simple, right?
Sadly, you can try to replicate this one at home, but it's just not going to taste the way it
did when you chowed down at that gritty Malaysian hawker stall.

2. Apam balik

This is the ultimate Malaysian pancake.

Courtesy Yun Huang Yong/Creative Commons/Flickr
You haven't truly experienced Malaysian food until you thrill your taste buds with this
sweet treat.
A pancake-style snack wedded with the compact package of an omelet, apam balik is
stuffed with more than a sufficient amount of sugar, peanuts and the occasional sprinkle
of corn -- it's a dish that's constantly being reinvented.
3. Nasi kerabu

Don't let the blue rice put you off.

Courtesy Yun Huang Yong/Creative Commons/Flickr
If the blue rice doesn't spark your curiosity, the lines of people around the country
waiting to order this favorite Kelantanese dish should.
From the state of Kelantan in northern peninsular Malaysia, nasi kerabu gets its eye-
grabbing color from telang flowers, which are crushed and mixed into flour.
The aquamarine dish is topped with bean sprouts and fried coconut, then drenched in
spicy budu, a fermented fish sauce.
In true Kelantan style, you use your hands to dig into this one.

4. Ayam percik (chicken with percik sauce)

Delicious chicken.
Courtesy Alpha/Creative Commons/Flickr
KFC's popularity in the region (and across Asia) over other fast food chains won't
surprise those familiar with ayam percik.
Basically, it's barbecued chicken slathered in spicy chili, garlic and ginger sauce mixed
with coconut milk.
With the right amount of percik sauce, this staple Malaysian stall food packs more zing
than anything the Colonel can muster.
5. Nasi lemak

Nasi lemak -- food of a nation.

Dan Tham/CNN
Some call nasi lemak Malaysia's unofficial national dish. Everyone else calls it delicious.
Nasi lemak is basically rice cooked in coconut milk.
It's the sides that matter.
Depending on where you are in Malaysia, it comes with a variety of accompaniments
such as hard-boiled egg, peanuts, vegetables, lamb/chicken/or beef curry, seafood and
sambal (chili-based sauce).
Nasi lemak is traditionally eaten for breakfast but these days people are ordering it any
time of day.

6. Roti john

A Muslim trader prepares a Roti John during a Ramadan bazaar in Kuala Lumpur.
Rahman Roslan/Getty Images AsiaPac/Getty Images
Whoever John was, it's apparent that he preferred his sandwiches made with grilled
minced meat and egg in the middle of slim bread, and drowned in a confection of
condiments.
Mayonnaise, ketchup, barbecue and chili sauce -- choose one or choose them all.
7. Rendang (beef, chicken or lamb)

It's not a curry, OK?

Courtesy Alpha/Creative commons/Flickr
Though sometimes erroneously called a curry, Malaysian food aficionados point out that
this chunky cauldron of coconut milk and spices is nothing of the sort.
The difference is in how it's prepared: slowly simmered (to let the meat absorb the
spices) until the rosy liquid completely evaporates.
A favorite, especially during festive seasons, rendang is found across Malaysia.

8. Kuih

Kuih is one of Malaysia's favorite desserts.

TENGKU BAHAR/AFP/AFP/Getty Images
Variety, variety, variety -- that's way to explore kuih, or Malay-style pastries. Small
enough to snap up in a gulp and sugary enough to give you a modest jitter, kuih vendors
are the most colorful stalls of all.
This kaleidoscope of soft, sugary morsels goes quickly -- few pieces are left by the time
daylight begins to fade.
9. Nasi kandar

Nasi Kandar is easy to make and tasty too.

Courtesy amrufm/creative commons/flickr
Nasi kandar is essentially rice served with your choice of toppings, which commonly
include curry, fish, egg and okra.
Everything is laid out buffet style, though you can also order a la carte.
Found all over Malaysia, nasi kandar eateries are extremely popular, most open 24
hours and run by ethnic Indian Muslims.

10. Laksa

Laksa: Malaysia's greatest export.

Courtesy LWYang/Creative Commons/Flickr
A staple of Malaysian cuisine, laksa eateries have been migrating abroad in recent
years, making appearances in Bangkok, Shanghai and further afield.
There are multiple variations. For anyone who enjoys a taste of the volcanic kind, this
spicy noodle soup can get you there in its curry form.
Some like it with fish, others prawns.
Our favorite is Penang's asam laksa, in which tamarind features heavily ("asam" is
Malay for tamarind) to create a spicy-sour fish broth.
Forum

1. Countries and Their Cultures

2. Ja-Ma

3. Culture of Malaysia

Malaysia

Culture Name
Malaysian

Alternative Names
Outsiders often mistakenly refer to things Malaysian as simply "Malay," reflecting only
one of the ethnic groups in the society. Malaysians refer to their national culture
as kebudayaan Malaysia in the national language.

Orientation
Identification. Within Malaysian society there is a Malay culture, a Chinese culture, an
Indian culture, a Eurasian culture, along with the cultures of the indigenous groups of
the peninsula and north Borneo. A unified Malaysian culture is something only emerging
in the country. The important social distinction in the emergent national culture is
between Malay and non-Malay, represented by two groups: the Malay elite that
dominates the country's politics, and the largely Chinese middle class whose
prosperous lifestyle leads Malaysia's shift to a consumer society. The two groups mostly
live in the urban areas of the Malay Peninsula's west coast, and their sometimes
competing, sometimes parallel influences shape the shared life of Malaysia's citizens.
Sarawak and Sabah, the two Malaysian states located in north Borneo, tend to be less
a influential part of the national culture, and their vibrant local cultures are shrouded by
the bigger, wealthier peninsular society.
Location and Geography. Malaysia is physically split between west and east, parts
united into one country in 1963. Western Malaysia is on the southern tip of the Malay
peninsula, and stretches from the Thai border to the island of Singapore. Eastern
Malaysia includes the territories of Sabah and Sarawak on the north end of Borneo,
separated by the country of Brunei. Peninsular Malaysia is divided into west and east
by a central mountain range called the Banjaran Titiwangsa. Most large cities, heavy
industry, and immigrant groups are concentrated on the west coast; the east coast is
less populated, more agrarian, and demographically more Malay. The federal capital is
in the old tinmining center of Kuala Lumpur, located in the middle of the western
immigrant belt, but its move to the new Kuala Lumpur suburb of Putra Jaya will soon be
complete.
Demography. Malaysia's population comprises twenty-three million people, and
throughout its history the territory has been sparsely populated relative to its land area.
The government aims for increasing the national population to seventy million by the
year 2100. Eighty percent of the population lives on the peninsula. The most important
Malaysian demographic statistics are of ethnicity: 60 percent are classified as Malay,
25 percent as of Chinese descent, 10 percent of Indian descent, and 5 percent as
others. These population figures have an important place in peninsular history, because
Malaysia as a country was created with demography in mind. Malay leaders in the
1930s and 1940s organized their community around the issue of curbing immigration.
After independence, Malaysia was created when the Borneo territories with their
substantial indigenous populations were added to Malaya as a means of exceeding the
great number of Chinese and Indians in the country.
Linguistic Affiliation. Malay became Malaysia's sole national language in 1967 and
has been institutionalized with a modest degree of success. The Austronesian language
has an illustrious history as a lingua franca throughout the region, though English is also
widely spoken because it was the administrative language of the British colonizers.
Along with Malay and English other languages are popular: many Chinese Malaysians
speak some combination of Cantonese, Hokkien, and/or Mandarin; most Indian
Malaysians speak Tamil; and
Malaysia
numerous languages flourish among aboriginal groups in the peninsula, especially in
Sarawak and Sabah. The Malaysian government acknowledges this multilingualism
through such things as television news broadcasts in Malay, English, Mandarin, and
Tamil. Given their country's linguistic heterogeneity, Malaysians are adept at learning
languages, and knowing multiple languages is commonplace. Rapid industrialization
has sustained the importance of English and solidified it as the language of business.
Symbolism. The selection of official cultural symbols is a source of tension. In such a
diverse society, any national emblem risks privileging one group over another. For
example, the king is the symbol of the state, as well as a sign of Malay political
hegemony. Since ethnic diversity rules out the use of kin or blood metaphors to stand
for Malaysia, the society often emphasizes natural symbols, including the sea turtle, the
hibiscus flower, and the orangutan. The country's economic products and infrastructure
also provide national logos for Malaysia; the national car (Proton), Malaysia Airlines,
and the Petronas Towers (the world's tallest buildings) have all come to symbolize
modern Malaysia. The government slogan "Malaysia Boleh!" (Malaysia Can!) is meant
to encourage even greater accomplishments. A more humble, informal symbol for
society is a salad called rojak, a favorite Malaysian snack, whose eclectic mix of
ingredients evokes the population's diversity.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. The name Malaysia comes from an old term for the entire
Malay archipelago. A geographically truncated Malaysia emerged out of the territories
colonized by Britain in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Britain's
representatives gained varying degrees of control through agreements with the Malay
rulers of the peninsular states, often made by deceit or force. Britain was attracted to
the Malay peninsula by its vast reserves of tin, and later found that the rich soil was also
highly productive for growing rubber trees. Immigrants from south China and south India
came to British Malaya as labor, while the Malay population worked in small holdings
and rice cultivation. What was to become East Malaysia had different colonial
administrations: Sarawak was governed by a British family, the Brookes (styled as the
"White Rajas"), and Sabah was run by the British North Borneo Company. Together the
cosmopolitan hub of British interests was Singapore, the central port and center of
publishing, commerce, education, and administration. The climactic event in forming
Malaysia was the Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia from 1942-1945. Japanese
rule helped to invigorate a growing anti-colonial movement, which flourished following
the British return after the war. When the British attempted to organize their
administration of Malaya into one unit to be called the Malayan Union, strong Malay
protests to what seemed to usurp their historical claim to the territory forced the British
to modify the plan. The other crucial event was the largely Chinese communist rebellion
in 1948 that remained strong to the mid-1950s. To address Malay criticisms and to
promote counter-insurgency, the British undertook a vast range of nation-building
efforts. Local conservatives and radicals alike developed their own attempts to foster
unity among the disparate Malayan population. These grew into the Federation of
Malaya, which gained independence in 1957. In 1963, with the addition of Singapore
and the north Borneo territories, this federation became Malaysia. Difficulties of
integrating the predominately Chinese population of Singapore into Malaysia remained,
and under Malaysian directive Singapore became an independent republic in 1965.
National Identity. Throughout Malaysia's brief history, the shape of its national identity
has been a crucial question: should the national culture be essentially Malay, a hybrid,
or separate ethnic entities? The question reflects the tension between the indigenous
claims of the Malay population and the cultural and citizenship rights of the immigrant
groups. A tentative solution came when the Malay, Chinese, and Indian elites who
negotiated independence struck what has been called "the bargain." Their informal deal
exchanged Malay political dominance for immigrant citizenship and unfettered
economic pursuit. Some provisions of independence were more formal, and the
constitution granted several Malay "special rights" concerning land, language, the place
of the Malay Rulers, and Islam, based on their indigenous status. Including the Borneo
territories and Singapore in Malaysia revealed the fragility of "the bargain." Many Malays
remained poor; some Chinese politicians wanted greater political power. These
fractures in Malaysian society prompted Singapore's expulsion and produced the
watershed of contemporary Malaysian life, the May 1969 urban unrest in Kuala Lumpur.
Violence left hundreds dead; parliament was suspended for two years. As a result of
this experience the government placed tight curbs on political debate of national cultural
issues and began a comprehensive program of affirmative action for the Malay
population. This history hangs over all subsequent attempts to encourage official
integration of Malaysian society. In the 1990s a government plan to blend the population
into a single group called "Bangsa Malaysia" has generated excitement and criticism
from different constituencies of the population. Continuing debates demonstrate that
Malaysian national identity remains unsettled.
Ethnic Relations. Malaysia's ethnic diversity is both a blessing and a source of stress.
The melange makes Malaysia one of the most cosmopolitan places on earth, as it helps
sustain international relationships with the many societies represented in Malaysia: the
Indonesian archipelago, the Islamic world, India, China, and Europe. Malaysians easily
exchange ideas and techniques with the rest of the world, and have an influence in
global affairs. The same diversity presents seemingly intractable problems of social
cohesion, and the threat of ethnic violence adds considerable tension to Malaysian
politics.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

Urban and rural divisions are reinforced by ethnic diversity with agricultural areas
populated primarily by indigenous Malays and immigrants mostly in cities. Chinese
dominance of commerce means that most towns, especially on the west coast of the
peninsula, have a central road lined by Chinese shops. Other ethnic features influence
geography: a substantial part of the Indian population was brought in to work on the
rubber plantations, and many are still on the rural estates; some Chinese, as a part of
counter-insurgency, were rounded up into what were called "new villages." A key part
of the 1970s affirmative action policy has been to increase the number of Malays living
in the urban areas, especially Kuala Lumpur. Governmental use of Malay and Islamic
architectural aesthetics in new buildings also adds to the Malay urban presence. Given
the tensions of ethnicity, the social use of space carries strong political dimensions.
Public gatherings of five or more people require a police permit, and a ban on political
rallies successfully limits the appearance of crowds in Malaysia. It is therefore
understandable that Malaysians mark a

A house on Langkawi Island. Land ownership is a controversial issue in Malaysia, where

indigenous groups are struggling to protect their claims from commercial interests.
sharp difference between space inside the home and outside the home, with domestic
space carefully managed to receive outsiders: even many modest dwellings have a set
of chairs for guests in a front room of the house.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Malaysia's diversity has blessed the country with one of the most
exquisite cuisines in the world, and elements of Malay, Chinese, and Indian cooking are
both distinct and blended together. Rice and noodles are common to all cuisine; spicy
dishes are also favorites. Tropical fruits grow in abundance, and a local favorite is the
durian, known by its spiked shell and fermented flesh whose pungent aroma and taste
often separates locals from foreigners. Malaysia's affluence means that increasing
amounts of meat and processed foods supplement the country's diet, and concerns
about the health risks of their high-fat content are prominent in the press. This increased
affluence also allows Malaysians to eat outside the home more often; small hawker
stalls offer prepared food twenty-four hours a day in urban areas. Malaysia's ethnic
diversity is apparent in food prohibitions: Muslims are forbidden to eat pork which is a
favorite of the Chinese population; Hindus do not eat beef; some Buddhists are
vegetarian. Alcohol consumption also separates non-Muslims from Muslims.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. When Malaysians have guests they tend
to be very fastidious about hospitality, and an offer of food is a critical etiquette
requirement. Tea or coffee is usually prepared along with small snacks for visitors.
These refreshments sit in front of the guest until the host signals for them to be eaten.
As a sign of accepting the host's hospitality the guest must at least sip the beverage
and taste the food offered. These dynamics occur on a grander scale during a holiday
open house. At celebrations marking important ethnic and religious holidays, many
Malaysian families host friends and neighbors to visit and eat holiday delicacies. The
visits of people from other ethnic groups and religions on these occasions are taken as
evidence of Malaysian national amity.
Basic Economy. Malaysia has long been integrated into the global economy. Through
the early decades of the twentieth century, the Malay peninsula was a world leader in
the production of tin (sparked by the Western demand for canned food) and natural
rubber (needed to make automobile tires). The expansion of Malaysia's industrialization
heightened its dependence on imports for food and other necessities.
Land Tenure and Property. Land ownership is a controversial issue in Malaysia.
Following the rubber boom the British colonial government, eager to placate the Malay
population, designated portions of land as Malay reservations. Since this land could
only be sold to other Malays, planters and speculators were limited in what they could
purchase. Malay reserve land made ethnicity a state concern because land disputes
could only be settled with a legal definition of who was considered Malay. These land
tenure arrangements are still in effect and are crucial to Malay identity. In fact the Malay
claim to political dominance is that they are bumiputera (sons of the soil). Similar
struggles exist in east Malaysia, where the land rights of indigenous groups are bitterly
disputed with loggers eager to harvest the timber for export. Due to their different
colonial heritage, indigenous groups in Sarawak and Sabah have been less successful
in maintaining their territorial claims.
Commercial Activities. Basic necessities in Malaysia have fixed prices and, like many
developing countries, banking, retail, and other services are tightly regulated. The
country's commerce correlates with ethnicity, and government involvement has helped
Malays to compete in commercial activities long dominated by ethnic Chinese.
Liberalization of business and finance proceeds with these ethnic dynamics in mind.
Major Industries. The boom and bust in primary commodities such as rubber and tin
have given Malaysian society a cyclical rhythm tied to fickle external demand. In the
1970s the government began to diversify the economy (helped by an increase in oil
exports) and Malaysia is now well on its way to becoming an industrial country. The
country has a growing automotive industry, a substantial light-manufacturing sector
(textiles, air conditioners, televisions, and VCRs), and an expanding high technology
capacity (especially semi-conductors).
Trade. Malaysia's prominent place in the global economy as one of the world's twenty
largest trading nations is an important part of its identity as a society. Primary trading
partners include Japan, Singapore, and the United States, with Malaysia importing
industrial components and exporting finished products. Palm oil, rubber, tropical
hardwoods, and petroleum products are important commodities.
Division of Labor. The old ethnic division of labor (Malays in agriculture, Indians in the
professions and plantations, and Chinese in mining and commerce) has steadily
eroded. In its place, the Malaysian workforce is increasingly divided by class and
citizenship. Educated urban professionals fill the offices of large companies in a multi-
ethnic blend. Those without educational qualifications work in factories, petty trade, and
agricultural small holdings. As much as 20 percent of the workforce is foreign, many
from Indonesia and the Philippines, and dominate sectors such as construction work
and domestic service.

Social Stratification
Classes and Castes. Class position in Malaysia depends on a combination of political
connections, specialized skills, ability in English, and family money. The Malaysian elite,
trained in overseas universities, is highly cosmopolitan and continues to grow in
dominance as Malaysia's middle class expands. Even with the substantial stratification
of society by ethnicity, similar class experiences in business and lifestyle are bridging
old barriers.
Symbols of Social Stratification. In Malaysia's market economy, consumption
provides the primary symbols of stratification. Newly wealthy Malaysians learn how to
consume by following the lead of the Malay royalty and the prosperous business families
of Chinese descent. A mobile phone, gold jewelry, and fashionable clothing all indicate
one's high rank in the Malaysian social order. Given the striking mobility of Malaysian
society, one's vehicle marks class position even more than home ownership. Most
Malaysians can distinguish the difference between makes of cars, and access to at least
a motor scooter is a requirement for participation in contemporary Malaysian social life.
Kuala Lumpur has more motor vehicles than people. Skin color, often indicative of less
or more time working in the hot tropical sun, further marks class position. Distinct class
differences also appear in speech. Knowledge of English is vital to elevated class status,
and a person's fluency in that language indexes their social background.

Political Life
Government. Malaysia's government is nominally headed by the king whose position
rotates among the nine hereditary Malay rulers every five years. The king selects the
prime minister from the leading coalition in parliament, a body which is further

Beginning in the 1970s, the government has attempted to increase the number of
Malays living in urban areas like Kuala Lumpur (above).
divided into the elected representatives of the Dewan Rakyat and the appointed
senators of the Dewan Negara. Since independence Malaysian national elections have
been won by a coalition of ethnic-based political parties. Known first as the Alliance,
and, following the 1969 unrest, as the National Front, this coalition is itself dominated
by the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), a party composed of Malay
moderates. UMNO rule is aided by the gerrymandered parliamentary districts that over-
represent rural Malay constituencies. The UMNO president has always become
Malaysia's prime minister, so the two thousand delegates at the biannual UMNO
General Assembly are the real electoral force in the country, choosing the party
leadership that in turn leads the country.
Leadership and Political Officials. Malaysian political leaders demand a great deal of
deference from the public. The Malay term for government, kerajaan, refers to
the raja who ruled from the precolonial courts. High-ranking politicians are referred to
as yang berhormat (he who is honored), and sustain remarkable resiliency in office.
Their longevity is due to the fact that successful politicians are great patrons, with
considerable influence over the allocation of social benefits such as scholarships,
tenders, and permits. Clients, in return, show deference and give appropriate electoral
support. The mainstream press are also among the most consistent and most important
boosters of the ruling coalition's politicians. Even with the substantial power of the
political elite, corruption remains informal, and one can negotiate the lower levels of the
state bureaucracy without paying bribes. However, endless stories circulate of how
appropriate payments can oil a sometimes creaky process.
Social Problems and Control. Through its colonial history, British Malaya had one of
the largest per capita police forces of all British colonies. Police power increased during
the communist rebellion (the "Emergency") begun in 1948, which was fought primarily
as a police action. The Emergency also expanded the influence of the police Special
Branch intelligence division. Malaysia retains aspects of a police state. Emergency
regulations for such things as detention without trial (called the Internal Security Act)
remain in use; the police are a federal rather than local institution; and police quarters
(especially in more isolated rural areas) still have the bunker-like design necessary for
confronting an armed insurgency. Even in urban areas police carry considerable
firepower. Officers with M-16s are not a rarity and guards at jewelry shops often have
long-barrel shotguns. Criminals tend to be audacious given the fact that possession of
an illegal firearm carries a mandatory death sentence. Since the police focus more on
protecting commercial than residential property, people in housing estates and rural
areas will sometimes apprehend criminals themselves. The most elaborate crime
network is composed of Chinese triads who extend back in lineage to the colonial
period. Malaysia is close to the opium producing areas of the "Golden Triangle" where
Burma, Thailand, and Laos meet. Drug possession carries a mandatory death
sentence.
Military Activity. The Malaysian military's most striking characteristic is that, unlike its
neighbors, there has never been a military coup in the country. One reason is the
important social function of the military to insure Malay political dominance. The highest
ranks of the military are composed of ethnic Malays, as are a majority of those who
serve under them. The military's controversial role in establishing order following the
May 1969 urban rebellion further emphasizes the political function of the institution as
one supporting the Malay-dominated ruling coalition. The Malaysian armed forces,
though small in number, have been very active in United Nations peace-keeping,
including the Congo, Namibia, Somalia, and Bosnia.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

The Malaysian government has promoted rapid social change to integrate a national
society from its ethnic divisions. Its grandest program was originally called the New
Economic Policy (NEP), implemented between 1971 and 1990 and continued in
modified form as the National Development Policy (NDP). Since poverty eradication
was an aim of the NEP a considerable amount of energy has gone to social welfare
efforts. The consequences of these programs disseminate across the social landscape:
home mortgages feature two rates, a lower one for Malays and a higher one for others;
university admissions promote Malay enrollment; mundane government functions such
as allocating hawker licenses have an ethnic component. But the government has also
tried to ethnically integrate Malaysia's wealthy class; therefore many NEP-inspired
ethnic preferences have allowed prosperous Malays to accrue even greater wealth. The
dream of creating an affluent Malaysia continues in the government's 1991 plan of
Vision 2020, which projects that the country will be "fully developed" by the year 2020.
This new vision places faith in high technology, including the creation of a "Multi-Media
Super Corridor" outside of Kuala Lumpur, as the means for Malaysia to join the ranks
of wealthy industrialized countries, and to develop a more unified society.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

Through its welfare policies the government jealously guards its stewardship over social
issues, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) work under its close surveillance.
The state requires that all associations be registered, and failure to register can
effectively cripple an organization. NGO life is especially active in urban areas,
addressing problems peripheral to the state's priorities of ethnic redistribution and rapid
industrialization. Many prominent NGOs are affiliated with religious organizations, and
others congregate around issues of the environment, gender and sexuality, worker's
rights, and consumers' interests.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Malaysia's affluence has changed the gender divide in
the public sphere of work while maintaining the gendered division

Young people are instructed at an early age to socialize primarily with kin.
of labor in the household. Most conspicuous among the new developments are the
burgeoning factories that employ legions of women workers on the assembly lines.
Domestic labor is a different matter, with cooking and cleaning still deemed to be female
responsibilities. In wealthier families where both men and women work outside the
home there has been an increase in hiring domestic servants. Since Malaysian women
have other opportunities, nearly all of this domestic work goes to female foreign maids.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. Generally men have more power than
women in Malaysian society. Male dominance is codified in laws over such things as
the guardianship of children. The top politicians, business leaders, and religious
practitioners are predominately male. Yet Malaysian society shows considerable
suppleness in its gender divisions with prominent women emerging in many different
fields. Most of the major political parties have an active women's wing which provides
access to political power. Though opportunities for men and women differ by ethnic
group and social class, strict gender segregation has not been a part of modern
Malaysian life.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Even with significant changes in marriage practices, weddings reveal the
sharp differences in Malaysian society. There are two ways to marry: registering the
union with the government; and joining in marriage before a religious authority. Christian
Malaysians may marry Buddhists or Hindus answering only to their families and beliefs;
Muslim Malaysians who marry non-Muslims risk government sanction unless their
partner converts to Islam. Marriage practices emphasize Malaysia's separate ethnic
customs. Indians and Chinese undertake divination rites in search of compatibility and
auspicious dates, while Malays have elaborate gift exchanges. Malay wedding feasts
are often held in the home, and feature a large banquet with several dishes eaten over
rice prepared in oil (to say one is going to eat oiled rice means that a wedding is
imminent). Many Chinese weddings feature a multiple-course meal in a restaurant or
public hall, and most Indian ceremonies include intricate rituals. Since married partners
join families as well as individuals, the meeting between prospective in-laws is crucial
to the success of the union. For most Malaysians marriage is a crucial step toward
adulthood. Although the average age for marriage continues to increase, being single
into one's thirties generates concern for families and individuals alike. The social
importance of the institution makes interethnic marriage an issue of considerable stress.
Domestic Unit. Malaysian households have undergone a tremendous transformation
following the changes in the economy. The shift from agricultural commodities to
industrial production has made it difficult for extended families to live together. Yet as
family mobility expands, as a result of modern schedules, efforts to maintain kin ties
also increase. Improved telecommunications keep distant kin in contact, as does the
efficient transportation network. A dramatic example of this occurs on the major holidays
when millions return to hometowns for kin reunions.
Inheritance. The critical issue of inheritance is land. With the importance Malays place
on land ownership, it is rarely viewed as a commodity for sale, and the numerous empty
houses that dot the Malaysian landscape are testament to their absentee-owners
unwillingness to sell. Gold is also a valuable inheritance; Malaysians from all groups
readily turn extra cash into gold as a form of insurance for the future.
Kin Groups. The crucial kin distinctions in Malaysian culture are between ethnic
groups, which tend to limit intermarriage. Among the majority of Malays, kin groups are
more horizontal than vertical, meaning that siblings are more important than ancestors.
Those considered Malay make appropriate marriage partners; non-Malays do not.
These distinctions are somewhat flexible, however, and those that embrace Islam and
follow Malay customs are admitted as potential Malay marriage partners. Greater
flexibility in kinship practices also appears among immigrant groups amid the fresh
possibilities created by diasporic life. A striking example is the Baba community,
Chinese who immigrated prior to British rule and intermarried with locals, developing
their own hybrid language and cultural style. These dynamics point to the varied kinship
arrangements possible between the different ethnic communities in Malaysian society.

Socialization
Infant Care. Malaysian babies are lavished with considerable care. Most are born in
hospitals, though midwives still provide their services in more remote areas. Careful
prohibitions are rigidly followed for both the infant and the mother, according to the
various cultural customs. New mothers wear special clothes, eat foods to supplement
their strength, and refrain from performing tasks that might bring bad luck to their babies.
Grandmothers often live with their new grandchildren for the first few months of their
new life.
Child Rearing and Education. Malaysian child rearing practices and educational
experiences sustain the differences among the population. Most Malaysian children
learn the importance of age hierarchy, especially the proper use of titles to address their
elders. The family also teaches that kin are the appropriate source of friendly
companionship. The frequent presence of siblings and cousins provides familiarity with
the extended family and a preferred source of playmates. In turn, many families teach
that strangers are a source of suspicion. The school experience reinforces the ethnic
differences in the population, since the schools are divided into separate systems with
Malay-medium, Mandarin-medium, and Tamil-medium instruction. Yet the schools do
provide common experiences, the most important of which is measuring progress by
examination, which helps to emphasize mastery of accumulated knowledge as the point
of education. Outside of school, adolescents who mix freely with others or spend
significant time away from home are considered "social," a disparaging remark that
suggests involvement in illicit activity. A good Malaysian child respects
A textile worker creates a batik in Kota Bharu. Outside of northern peninsular Malaysia,
batik designs are usually produced in factories.
hierarchy, stays close to kin, follows past examples, and is demure among strangers.
These lessons teach Malaysian children how to fit into a diverse society.
Higher Education. Higher education is a vital part of Malaysian life, though the
universities that are the most influential in the society are located outside the country.
Hundreds of thousands of students have been educated in Britain, Australia, and the
United States; the experience of leaving Malaysia for training abroad is an important rite
of passage for many of the elite. Malaysia boasts a growing local university system that
supplements the foreign universities. The quality of local faculty, often higher than that
of the second- and third-tier foreign universities that many Malaysians attend, is rarely
sufficient to offset the cachet of gaining one's degree abroad.

Etiquette
Malaysian society is remarkable due to its openness to diversity. The blunders of an
outsider are tolerated, a charming dividend of Malaysia's cosmopolitan heritage. Yet
this same diversity can present challenges for Malaysians when interacting in public.
Because there is no single dominant cultural paradigm, social sanctions for
transgressing the rights of others are reduced. Maintaining public facilities is a source
of constant public concern, as is the proper etiquette for driving a motor vehicle.
Malaysian sociability instead works through finding points of connection. When
Malaysians meet strangers, they seek to fit them into a hierarchy via guesses about
one's religion (Muslims use the familiar Arabic greetings only to other Muslims); inquiries
into one's organization (as an initial question many Malaysians will ask, "who are you
attached to?"); and estimations of age (unknown older men are addressed by the
honorific "uncle," women as "auntie" in the appropriate language). Strangers shake
hands, and handshaking continues after the first meeting (Malays often raise the hand
to their heart after shaking), though it is sometimes frowned upon between men and
women. Greetings are always expressed with the right hand, which is the dominant
hand in Malaysian life. Since the left hand is used to cleanse the body, it is considered
inappropriate for use in receiving gifts, giving money, pointing directions, or passing
objects.

Religion
Religious Beliefs. Nearly all the world religions, including Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism,
and Christianity are present in Malaysia. Religion correlates strongly with ethnicity, with
most Muslims Malay, most Hindus Indian, and most Buddhists Chinese. The presence
of such diversity heightens the importance of religious identity, and most Malaysians
have a strong sense of how their religious practice differs from that of others (therefore
a Malaysian Christian also identifies as a non-Muslim). Religious holidays, especially
those celebrated with open houses, further blend the interreligious experience of the
population. Tension between religious communities is modest. The government is most
concerned with the practices of the Muslim majority, since Islam is the official religion
(60 percent of the population is Muslim). Debates form most often over the
government's role in religious life, such as whether the state should further promote
Islam and Muslim practices (limits on gambling, pork-rearing, availability of alcohol, and
the use of state funds for building mosques) or whether greater religious expression for
non-Muslims should be allowed.
Religious Practitioners. The government regulates religious policy for Malaysia's
Muslims, while the local mosque organizes opportunities for religious instruction and
expression. Outside these institutions, Islam has an important part in electoral politics
as Malay parties promote their Muslim credentials. Hindu, Christian, and Buddhist
clergy often have a presence in Malaysian life through cooperative ventures, and their
joint work helps to ameliorate their minority status. Religious missionaries work freely
proselytizing to non-Muslims, but evangelists interested in converting Muslims are
strictly forbidden by the state.
Rituals and Holy Places. Malaysia's most prominent holy place is the National
Mosque, built in the heart of Kuala Lumpur in 1965. Its strategic position emphasizes
the country's Islamic identity. Countrywide, the daily call to prayer from the mosques
amplifies the rhythm of Islamic rituals in the country, as does the procession of the
faithful to fulfill their prayers. Reminders of prayer times are included in television
programs and further highlight the centrality of Islam in Malaysia. Important holidays
include the birth of the Prophet and the pilgrimage to Mecca, all of which hold a
conspicuous place in the media. The month of fasting, Ramadan, includes acts of piety
beyond the customary refraining from food and drink during daylight hours and is
followed by a great celebration. Non-Muslim religious buildings, practices, and holidays
have a smaller public life in Malaysia. Part of this is due to fewer believers in the country,
and part is due to public policy which limits the building of churches and temples along
with the broadcasting of non-Muslim religious services. The important non-Muslim
holidays include Christmas, Deepavali (the Hindu festival of light), and Wesak day
(which celebrates the life of the Buddha). The Hindu holiday of Thaipussam merits
special attention, because devotees undergo spectacular rites of penance before vast
numbers of spectators, most dramatically at the famous Batu Caves, located in the
bluffs outside of Kuala Lumpur.
Death and the Afterlife. Malaysians have a strong interest in the metaphysical, and
stories about spirits and ghosts whether told in conversation, read in books, or seen on
television gain rapt attention. Many of these stories sustain a relationship with people
who have passed away, whether as a form of comfort or of fear. Cemeteries, including
vast fields of Chinese tombs marked with family characters and Muslim graves with the
distinctive twin stones, are sites of mystery. The real estate that surrounds them carries
only a modest price due to the reputed dangers of living nearby. Muslim funerals tend
to be community events, and an entire neighborhood will gather at the home of the
deceased to prepare the body for burial and say the requisite prayers. Corpses are
buried soon after death, following Muslim custom, and mourners display a minimum of
emotion lest they appear to reject the divine's decision. The ancestor memorials
maintained by Chinese clans are a common site in Malaysia, and the familiar small red
shrines containing offerings of oranges and joss sticks appear on neighborhood street
corners and in the rear of Chinese-owned shops. Faith in the efficacy of
the afterlife generates considerable public respect for religious graves and shrines even
from non-adherents.

Medicine and Health Care

Malaysia boasts a sophisticated system of modern health care with doctors trained in
advanced biomedicine. These services are concentrated in the large cities and radiate
out in decreasing availability. Customary practitioners, including Chinese herbalists and
Malay healers, supplement the services offered in clinics and hospitals and boast
diverse clientele.

Secular Celebrations
Given the large number of local and religious holidays observed in Malaysia, few
national secular celebrations fit into the calendar. Two important ones
Farm workers harvesting tea leaves. Ethnic division of labor, in which Malays work
almost entirely in agriculture, has eroded in recent years.
include the king's birthday, and the nation's independence day, 31 August. The strong
Malaysian interest in sports makes victories for the national team, especially in
badminton, a cause for revelry.

The Arts and the Humanities

Support for the Arts. Public support for the arts is meager. Malaysian society for the
past century has been so heavily geared toward economic development that the arts
have suffered, and many practitioners of Malaysia's aesthetic traditions mourn the lack
of apprentices to carry them on. The possibility exists for a Malaysian arts renaissance
amid the country's growing affluence.
Literature. The pre-colonial Malay rulers supported a rich variety of literary figures who
produced court chronicles, fables, and legends that form a prominent part of the
contemporary Malaysian cultural imagination. Developing a more contemporary
national literature has been a struggle because of language, with controversies over
whether Malaysian fiction should be composed solely in Malay or in other languages as
well. Though adult literacy is nearly 90 percent, the well-read newspapers lament that
the national belief in the importance of reading is stronger than the practice.
Graphic Arts. A small but vibrant group of graphic artists are productive in Malaysia.
Practitioners of batik, the art of painting textiles with wax followed by dying to bring out
the pattern, still work in northern peninsular Malaysia. Batik-inspired designs are often
produced in factories on shirts, sarongs, table cloths, or dresses forming an iconic
Malaysian aesthetic.
Performance Arts. Artistic performance in Malaysia is limited by the state's controls
over public assembly and expression. The requirement that the government approve all
scripts effectively limits what might be said in plays, films, and television. The preferred
performance genre in Malaysia is popular music, and concerts of the top Malay pop
singers have great followings in person and on television. Musical stars from Bombay
and Hong Kong also have substantial numbers of very committed fans, whose devotion
makes Malaysia an overseas stop on the tours of many performers. The favorite
Malaysian entertainment medium is television, as most homes have television sets.
Malaysians watch diverse programming: the standard export American fare, Japanese
animation, Hong Kong martial arts, Hindi musicals, and Malay drama. The advent of the
video cassette and the Internet was made for Malaysia's diverse society, allowing
Malaysians to make expressive choices that often defeat the state's censorship.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

Given the Malaysian government's considerable support for rapid industrialization,
scientific research is high on the list of its priorities. Malaysian universities produce
sophisticated research, though they are sapped for funds by the huge expenditure of
sending students overseas for their degrees. Malaysian scientists have made
substantial contributions in rubber and palm oil research, and this work will likely
continue to increase the productivity of these sectors. Government monitoring of social
science research increases the risks of critical scholarship though some academicians
are quite outspoken and carry considerable prestige in society.

China

Find out what Chinese dishes to try in China (customer favorites): sweet and sour pork,
kung pao chicken, fried noodles... See expert intros with pictures.

With a long history, unique features, numerous styles and exquisite cooking, Chinese
cuisine is one important constituent part of Chinese culture. Chinese traditional
dishes are famous for color, aroma, taste, meaning and appearance.

The following are the 8 most popular dishes among foreigners and Chinese. These
dishes are available in most large restaurants in China. For customers’ convenience,
we also list their Chinese character names.

1. Sweet and Sour Pork

Sweet and sour pork (糖醋里脊) has a bright orange-red color, and a delicious sweet
and sour taste.

At the very beginning there was only sweet and sour pork, but to meet demands, there
have been some developments on this dish. Now, the pork can be substituted by other
ingredients like chicken, beef or pork ribs. See How to Cook Sweet and Sour Pork.

2. Kung Pao Chicken

Kung Pao Chicken (宫保鸡丁) is a famous Sichuan-style specialty, popular with both
Chinese and foreigners. The major ingredients are diced chicken, dried chili, and fried
peanuts.

People in Western countries have created a Western-style gong bao chicken, for which
the diced chicken is covered with cornstarch, and vegetables, sweet and sour sauce
and mashed garlic are added. See How to Cook Kung Pao Chicken.

3. Ma Po Tofu
Ma po tofu (麻婆豆腐) is one of the most famous dishes in Chuan Cuisine with a history
of more than 100 years. Ma (麻) describes a spicy and hot taste which comes from
pepper powder, one kind of condiment usually used in Chuan Cuisine.

The milky tofu is enriched with brownish red ground beef and chopped green onion. It
is really a tasty delicacy. See recipes for mapo tofu.

4. Wontons

Since the Tang Dynasty (618–907), it has been a custom for people to eat wontons (馄
饨) on the winter solstice.

The most versatile shape of a wonton is simple a right triangle, similar to Italian tortellini.
Wontons are commonly boiled and served in soup or sometimes deep-fried. The filling
of wontons can be minced pork or diced shrimp.

5. Dumplings
With a long history of more than 1,800 years, dumplings are a traditional food widely
popular in North China. Dumplings (饺子) consist of minced meat and chopped
vegetables wrapped into a thin piece of dough skin.

Popular fillings are mince pork, diced shrimp, ground chicken, beef, and vegetables.
They can be cooked by boiling, steaming, or frying. Dumplings are a traditional dish
eaten on Chinese New Year’s Eve. See How to Make Chinese Dumplings.

6. Chow Mein

The "Chow mein" (炒面) is the Cantonese pronunciation of the Chinese characters
above, which means stir-fried noodles. Generally speaking, this stir-fried dish consists
of noodles, meat (usually chicken, beef, shrimp, or pork), onions and celery.

For making chow mein, the noodles need to be cooked in boiling water for a while. After
they becoming cool, then move to the step of stir-frying. See How to Cook Chow Mein.

7. Peking Roasted Duck

Peking duck (北京烤鸭) is a famous dish from Beijing, enjoying world fame, and
considered as one of China’s national dishes.

Peking duck is savored for its thin and crispy skin. The Sliced Peking duck is often eaten
with pancakes, sweet bean sauce, or soy with mashed garlic. It is a must-taste dish in
Beijing! Read more about Peking Roasted Duck.

8. Spring Rolls
Spring rolls (春卷) are a Cantonese dim sum of cylindrical shape. The filling of spring
rolls could be vegetables or meat, and the taste could be either sweet or savory.

After fillings are wrapped in spring roll wrappers, the next step is frying. Then the spring
rolls are given their golden yellow color.

It is a dish especially popular in Jiangxi, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Fujian, Guangzhou,

Shenzhen, Hong Kong, etc. Read more about Spring Rolls.

Religions & Beliefs in China

China has been a multi-religion country since the ancient times. It is well known that
Confucianism is an indigenous religion and is the soul of Chinese culture, which enjoyed
popular support among people and even became the guiding ideology for feudalism
society, but it did not develop into a national belief. It makes the culture more tolerant to
others, thus, many other religions have been brought into the country in different
dynasties, but none of them developed powerful enough in the history and they only
provide diverse people more spiritual support.
According to a latest survey, 85% of Chinese people have religious beliefs or had some
religious practices and only 15% of them are real atheists. The real atheists here refer
to those who lack belief in the existence of deities and do not join in any religious
activities. 185 million people believe in Buddhism and 33 million have faith in Christianity
and believes in the existence of God. Only 12 million people are Taoists, although more
than one hundred million have taken part in Taoism activities before. Thus, it is obvious
that the Buddhism has the widest influence. The other major religions are Taoism,
Confucianism, Islam and Christianity.

Buddhism
Being brought into China 2,000 years
ago, it was gradually widely accepted
by most Chinese people and
developed into three sections,
namely the Han, Tibetan and
Southern Buddhism. Buddhism not
only brought a different religion, but
also brought a different culture. It
influences the local culture on three
main aspects: literature, art and
ideology. Many famous poems have
ideas from Buddhism and many Buddha Statues in Yungang Grottoes, Datong
Buddhist stone statues can be found, Chinese Religion Pictures
which show its huge influence. It also
promotes the countries’ intercultural communications with foreign countries. In Tang
Dynasty (618 - 907), Jianzhen traveled to Japan to spread Buddhism as well as Chinese
culture. Xuanzang, who traveled to India to learn Buddhist doctrines, brought a plenty
information on the language of the countries he had been to.

Now, Buddhism has developed into the most important religion in the country. The latest
survey shows that 31% of the people who do not believe in this religion have
participated in some Buddhist activities and about 17 million people have already
become converts. Now more of those followers come from different walks of life such
as the intellectuals, business elites and the common people. Recently, there is a new
report, The Chinese Luxury Consumer White Paper 2012, jointly published by the
Industrial Bank and Hurun Report, which shows that 39% of the intellectuals and
businessmen have faith in Buddhism. Not only the number of the followers is increasing,
and the education of Buddhism obtains more attention from the society. Under the
Buddhist Association of China, 34 different levels of Buddhist academies as well as
almost 50 magazines can be found. Now in mainland China, there are about 13
thousand temples and 180 thousand monks and nuns.

Han Buddhism: With 8,400 temples and 50 thousand monks, it is the largest branch
on the mainland.
Tibetan Buddhism: As the second large sect, it has 3,000 temples and 120 thousand
monks.
Southern Buddhism: Having 8,000 monks and 1,600 temples, this sect has the
smallest scale.

Famous Buddhist Relics:

 Potala Palace, Lhasa
 Yonghe Lamasery, Beijing
 Jade Buddha Temple, Shanghai
 Big Wild Goose Pagoda, Xi'an
 Mt. Wutai, Shanxi
 Temple of Soul's Retreat, Hangzhou
 Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang
 Shaolin Temple, Henan
 White Horse Temple, Luoyang
Confucianism
Confucianism, not a real religion, is just an
ethical and philosophical system, which
developed from Confucius’ thoughts and later
was treated as a kind of belief to educate
common people. It obtained its stable position
under the reign of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty
(202BC-220AD), and became the ideology of
the society in the feudal system since then.
Based on the Four Books and Five Classics, the
traditions and principles in the Confucianism
played an important role in the formation of
Chinese people’s thinking patterns and
Statue of Confucius
teaching methods. For instance, Doctrine of the
Mean can be seen on communications among
people. Now, to some extent, where Chinese people stay or live, there will be
Confucianism.

Confucianism has worldwide influence. In many countries and regions of world such the
UK, USA, branches of Confucius Institutes are established in recent years to spread
Chinese culture and expand the language. In China, you can find many Confucius
temples, which is an important place for the candidates for important exams. In Beijing,
They hang some red wooden plates with lucky words in the Confucius Temple in the
hope of gaining high marks and a good future.

Famous Confucius Temples:

 Confucius Temple in Qufu
 Confucius Temple in Beijing
 Confucius Temple in Nanjing
Taoism
Taoism, with more than 1,800 years’ history
originated in the Warring Period and came
into being in Eastern Han Dynasty (25 - 220).
Now about 300 Taoist Temples are scattered
around China, in which about 30 thousand
Taoists lived in. Around 5 Taoist schools exist
in the country and two main sections are
included in Taoism. In the 1,800 years,
Taoism influenced the local culture deeply,
especially on traditional medicine and
literature. Based on some theories of
alchemists such as Wei Boyang in Eastern The Immortals Worshipped by Taoism
Han Dynasty, different kinds of medicine
prescriptions were created by Sun Simiao
and many other doctors. In literature, many fictional characters are closely related with
Taoism, such as the Jade Emperor. Apart from Mainland China, many Taoists live in
Hong Kong, Macau and some foreign countries.

 What is Taoism?
 History & System

Famous Taoist Relics:

 Wudang Mountain, Shiyan, Hubei
 Mt Qingcheng, Chengdu
  Mt. Huashan, Xi'an
 White Cloud Temple, Beijing

Islam
Being introduced into China in the 7th century in Tang Dynasty, Islam has more than
1,400 years’ history in the country. Now, Muslims live everywhere, but the highest
concentrations are Ningxia Hui Autonosmous Region, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous
Region, Gansu Province and even Qinghai Province. Sunni Islam was the main branch
worshipped by almost all the Muslims in the country.

Famous Islamic Relics:

 Great Mosque, Xi'an
 Dongguan Mosque, Xining

Christianity
Christianity was first introduced to China in Tang Dynasty, which was named as
Nestorianism during that time. After 1840, they swept the country. Although they were
suspended after 1949, it spread fast in recent years. Now about 30 million Chinese
people are Christians, who are organized in about 97 parishes. Most of Christians
gather in the south part of the country.

Famous Churches:
 East Church, Beijing (St Joseph's Church)
 St. Ignatius Cathedral, Shanghai
 Churches in Hong Kong
 Saint Sophia Church, Harbin (an Orthodox church)

In addition to the five main religions, Chinese people have some other traditional folk
beliefs. More than 200 million people believe the existence of the ancestors’ souls and
worship them, while about 700 million have taken part in the activities to worship their
ancestors or related activities. About 150 million people believe in Fengshui theory and
140 million people believe in God of Wealth. Chinese Astrology is very popular and
many people think the sign can decide one’s characters and future. Thus, it is obvious
that the traditional folk belief has a wide foundation among the local people. Now, more
and more Chinese people are fond of constellation in western culture. In the beginning
of a new year, some people will watch some fortune telling programs to see whether
they can succeed in the next year and learn how to avoid back luck.
Government Branches

Main Powers Election Process

The presidency is the ceremonial

office and serves as head of state. It
represents China in foreign relations
Executive The president is elected by the
and receives foreign diplomats. The
national people's congrress.
state council is the chief authority
overseeing subordinate people's
governments.

The chief justice is appointed by

The supreme people's court is
highest court of the land and
Judicial
supervises lower courts in local
municipalities.
the national people's congress.
Other justices and judges are
nominated by the chief justice
and appointed by the standing
committee of the national
people's congress.

The national people's congress

wields the highest power of the
government and appoints the state The national people's congress
council, president, and judges. It has 2987 members who are
Legislative
mediates policy differences of the indirectly elected by regional
party and government, amends legislatures.
constitution, and supervises
enforcement of constitution.
China is an extremely large country — first in population and fifth in area, according to
the CIA — and the customs and traditions of its people vary by geography and ethnicity.
About 1.4 billion people live in China, according to the World Bank, representing 56
ethnic minority groups. The largest group is the Han Chinese, with about 900 million
people. Other groups include the Tibetans, the Mongols, the Manchus, the Naxi, and
the Hezhen, which is smallest group, with fewer than 2,000 people.
"Significantly, individuals within communities create their own culture," said Cristina De
Rossi, an anthropologist at Barnet and Southgate College in London. Culture includes
religion, food, style, language, marriage, music, morals and many other things that make
up how a group acts and interacts. Here is a brief overview of some elements of the
Chinese culture.
Statue of Confucius at Confucian Temple in Shanghai, China.
(Image credit: Philip Lange Shutterstock)
Religion
The Chinese Communist Party that rules the nation is officially atheist, though it is
gradually becoming more tolerant of religions, according to the Council on Foreign
Relations. Currently, there are only five official religions. Any religion other than
Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism are illegal, even though the
Chinese constitution states that people are allowed freedom of religion. The gradual
tolerance of religion has only started to progress in the past few decades.
About a quarter of the people practice Taoism and Confucianism and other traditional
religions. There are also small numbers of Buddhists, Muslims and Christians. Although
numerous Protestant and Catholic ministries have been active in the country since the
early 19th century, they have made little progress in converting Chinese to these
religions.
The cremated remains of someone who may have been the Buddha were discovered
in Jingchuan County, China, with more than 260 Buddhist statues in late 2017. Buddha
was a spiritual teacher who lived between mid-6th and mid-4th centuries B.C. His
lessons founded Buddhism. [Cremated Remains of the 'Buddha' Discovered in Chinese
Village]
Language
There are seven major groups of dialects of the Chinese language, which each have
their own variations, according to Mount Holyoke College. Mandarin dialects are spoken
by 71.5 percent of the population, followed by Wu (8.5 percent), Yue (also called
Cantonese; 5 percent), Xiang (4.8 percent), Min (4.1 percent), Hakka (3.7 percent) and
Gan (2.4 percent).
Chinese dialects are very different, according to Jerry Norman, a former professor of
linguistics at the University of Washington and author of "Chinese (Cambridge
Language Surveys)" (Cambridge University Press, 1988). "Chinese is rather more like
a language family than a single language made up of a number of regional forms," he
wrote. "The Chinese dialectal complex is in many ways analogous to the Romance
language family in Europe. To take an extreme example, there is probably as much
difference between the dialects of Peking [Beijing] and Chaozhou as there is between
Italian and French."
The official national language of China is Pŭtōnghuà, a type of Mandarin spoken in the
capital Beijing, according to the Order of the President of the People's Republic of
China. Many Chinese are also fluent in English.
Food
Like other aspects of Chinese life, cuisine is heavily influenced by geography and ethnic
diversity. Among the main styles of Chinese cooking are Cantonese, which features stir-
fried dishes, and Szechuan, which relies heavily on use of peanuts, sesame paste and
ginger and is known for its spiciness.
Rice is not only a major food source in China; it is also a major element that helped
grow their society, according to "Pathways to Asian Civilizations: Tracing the Origins
and Spread of Rice and Rice Cultures," an 2011 article in the journal Rice by Dorian Q.
Fuller. The Chinese word for rice is fan, which also means "meal," and it is a staple of
their diet, as are bean sprouts, cabbage and scallions. Because they do not consume a
lot of meat — occasionally pork or chicken — tofu is a main source of protein for the
Chinese.

Chinese calligraphy. Chinese writing is based on symbols.

(Image credit: ariadna de raadt Shutterstock)
The arts
Chinese art is greatly influenced by the country's rich spiritual and mystical history. Many
sculptures and paintings depict spiritual figures of Buddhism, according to
the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Many musical instruments are integral to Chinese culture, including the flute-like xun
and the guqin, which is in the zither family.
Eastern-style martial arts were also developed in China, and it is the birthplace of kung
fu. This fighting technique is based on animal movements and was created in the mid-
1600s, according to Black Belt Magazine.
Ancient Chinese were avid writers and philosophers — especially during the Ming and
Qing dynasties — and that is reflected in the country's rich liturgical history.
Recently, archaeologists discovered detailed paintings in a 1,400-year-old tomb in
China. "The murals of this tomb had diversified motifs and rich connotations, many of
which cannot be found in other tombs of the same period," a team of archaeologists
wrote in an article recently published in a 2017 issue of the journal Chinese
Archaeology. [Ancient Tomb with 'Blue Monster' Mural Discovered in China]
Science & technology
China has invested large amounts of money in science advancements and currently
challenges the United States in scientific research. China spent 75 percent of what the
United States spent in 2015, according to the journal JCI Insight.
One recent 2017 development in Chinese science is teleportation. Chinese researchers
sent a packet of information from Tibet to a satellite in orbit, up to 870 miles (1,400
kilometers) above the Earth's surface, which is a new record for quantum teleportation
distance. [Chinese Scientists Just Set the Record for the Farthest Quantum
Teleportation]
Another 2017 advancement is the development of new bullet trains. Dubbed "Fuxing,"
which means "rejuvenation," these trains are high-speed transportation systems that
run between Beijing and Shanghai. The trains can travel at speeds of up to 350 km/h
(217 mph), making them the world's fastest trains.
Vietnam

Facts and Statistics

Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, Gulf of Tonkin, and South
China Sea, alongside China, Laos, and Cambodia
Capital: Hanoi
Climate: tropical in south; monsoonal in north with hot, rainy season (mid-May to mid-
September) and warm, dry season (mid-October to mid-March)
Population: 97 million (2019 est.)
Ethnic Make-up: Vietnamese 85%-90%, Chinese, Hmong, Thai, Khmer, Cham,
various mountain groups
Religions: Buddhist, Hoa Hao, Cao Dai, Christian (predominantly Roman Catholic,
some Protestant), indigenous beliefs and Muslim

The Language
Vietnamese, Vietnam's official language, is a tonal language that can be
compared to Cambodia's official language, Khmer. With each syllable, there are
six different tones that can be used, which change the definition and it often
makes it difficult for foreigners to pick up the language.

There are other languages spoken as well such as Chinese, Khmer, Cham and other
languages spoken by tribes inhabiting the mountainous regions. Although there are
some similarities to Southeast Asian languages, such as Chinese, Vietnamese is
thought to be a separate language group, although a member of the Austro-Asiatic
language family.
In written form, Vietnamese uses the Roman alphabet and accent marks to show tones.
This system of writing called quoc ngu, was created by Catholic missionaries in the 17th
century to translate the scriptures. Eventually this system, particularly after World War
I, replaced one using Chinese characters (chu nom), which had been the unofficial
written form used for centuries.

Vietnamese Culture & Society

Confucianism

The teachings of Confucius influence the Vietnamese describe the position of the
individual in Vietnamese society.
Confucianism is a system of behaviours and ethics that stress the obligations of people
towards one another based upon their relationship.

The basic tenets are based upon five different relationships:

Ruler and subject

Husband and wife
Parents and children
Brothers and sisters
Friend and friend

Confucianism stresses duty, loyalty, honour, filial piety, respect for age and seniority,
and sincerity.

The Family

Vietnamese life revolves around the family.

The Vietnamese family consists of the nuclear as well as the extended family.
It is not uncommon for three generations to be living together under one roof.
In Confucian tradition, the father is the head of the family and it is his responsibility to
provide food, clothing and shelter and make important decisions.
Within the same tradition it is believed that after someone dies their spirit lives on.
Descendents will "worship" their ancestors to ensure their good favour. On the
anniversary of a person's death, ceremonies are held in their memory. They are also
remembered during certain lunar festivals and souls are consulted prior to important
decisions or occasions such as a birth or a wedding.
Face

As with many other Asian nations, the concept of face is extremely important to the
Vietnamese.
Face is a tricky concept to explain but can be roughly described a quality that reflects a
person's reputation, dignity, and prestige.
It is possible to lose face, save face or give face to another person.
Companies as well as individuals can have face or lose face.
For foreigners it is important to be aware that you may unintentionally cause a loss of
face so it is important to be aware of your words and actions. Understanding how face
is lost, saved or given is critical.
Someone can be given face by complimenting them for their hospitality or business
acumen. Accusing someone of poor performance or reprimanding them publicly will
lead to a loss of face.

Collectivism

In general, the Vietnamese are a collectivists.

The individual is seen as secondary to the group - whether the family, school or
company.
As a result there are strict guidelines for social interaction that are designed to protect
a group's face.

Hierarchy

As with most group-orientated societies there are also hierarchical structures.

In Vietnam these are very much based upon age and status.
This derives from Confucianism, which emphasizes social order. Everyone is seen as
having a distinct place and role within the hierarchical structure, be it the family or
workplace.
An obvious example is seen in social situations where the oldest person in a group is
greeted or served first.
Within the family the head would be responsible for making decisions and approving
marriages.
How to Grill the Juiciest Boneless, Skinless Chicken Breasts

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Gallery: 20 Vietnamese Dishes You Should Know
ERIN ZIMMER
 Bánh cuốn
The bánh family includes a number of steamed rice cake-like dishes. So soft and
delicate, my favorite was this bánh cuốn straight from the steamer. Our Intrepid
Travel guide took us to a third-generation bánh cuốn master in Hanoi who mesmerized
us with her skills. She ladled each scoop of the rice flour-based batter onto the steamer,
covering it with a lid for a matter of seconds, then carefully transferred the gossamer-
thin sheets with a bamboo stick onto a tray to be filled with minced mushrooms and
pork. Each bite is topped with deep-fried shallot bits and must be dipped into that nước
chấm sauce.
Also in the bánh family: bánh bèo (literally "water fern cake") from the old imperial city
of Hue in central Vietnam. It's topped with chopped shrimp, scallions, mung bean paste,
crispy fried shallots, and fish sauce.

Phở
Phở is just one of many, many, MANY noodle soups in Vietnam. From a strictly linguistic
standpoint, phở refers to the rice noodles, not the soup itself. But it's become
synonymous with the staple soup served with various meat parts (usually beef or
chicken), bean sprouts, lime wedges, the essential greens (basil, mint, cilantro, and
onions), and whatever chili sauce and fish sauce you need to doctor up the broth to
your liking. It's cheap, tasty, and especially popular for breakfast in Hanoi. We visited a
popular phở joint that usually sells out by noon.
The northern-style phở in Hanoi is typically defined by a clear broth whereas the
southern-style broth tends to be slightly sweeter, murkier from added sauces, and
popping with more herbs and other garnishes.

Bún chả
Rice vermicelli ("bún") is a staple all over Vietnam. My first night in Hanoi, this one in
particular was a must-order. Bún chả. You really can't go to Hanoi without trying bún
chả. It comes with grilled pork sausage patties, a basket of herbs, bean sprouts, pickled
veggies, and, once again, the ever-important nước chấm sauce (pour it over
everything).
A note on bún: Vermicelli is found in many noodle soups too like bún rieu, a tomato
broth soup with crab and bún bò Huế (pronounced "boon ba hway") with beef (bò).
There are many, many bún dishes that didn't make this list but are nonetheless popular
and delicious.
 Gỏi cuốn (Spring
Rolls)
Gỏi cuốn literally means "salad rolls" and should be distinguished from the fried rolls,
which are also sometimes called spring rolls (or chả giò). The translucent cigar-shaped
rolls are packed with greens, sometimes shrimp and/or pork, and herbs. They need a
dunk in nước chấm of course. Almost every region in Vietnam has its own distinct spring
roll but no matter where you are, the wrapping and rolling process is more or less the
same.
 Bánh mì
Ah, yes. The bánh mì can be found all over the world at this point. But the creation story
harkens back to French colonialism, when the imperial forces in Vietnam brought with
them their crusty baguettes. Since then the Vietnamese have made this sandwich
entirely their own with fillings like pork belly, fish cakes, meatballs, and the very
necessary pickled carrots, daikon, and not-messing-around chilies. Do NOT wipe your
eyes after eating one of these. Those chilies will melt off your eyeballs.
 Ca Kho To
(Caramelized Fish
in Clay Pot)
Clay pots are kind of like the Asian cousin of the Dutch oven. The thick clay walls retain
heat and moisture, helping to soften and caramelize meats when braised. In this dish,
the fish develops a sweet-savory gooeyness from the sugar and fish sauce over the
course of the long braise. "This reminds me of my grandma," said my Vietnamese friend
who grew up eating this classic comfort food.
 Bánh xèo
Sorry to play favorites but bánh xèo (pronounced “boon say-oh"), you are my favorite.
It means "sizzling pancake," and it's just that. The savory, crisp-edged, crepe-like
pancake is best enjoyed straight from the pan. The batter is made with rice flour,
coconut milk, and turmeric (hence the nice golden-yellow hue) and is pan-fried
altogether with pork, shrimp, and a heap of bean sprouts. Wrap up the pancake with
lettuce and herbs. I'll never forget stuffing my face with these on tiny plastic stools at
Bale Well in Hoi An.
 Canh (Vietnamese
Soups)
The soup category is vast; too vast to cover thoroughly here. But one important
subcategory is the sour soups, or "canh chua," of the south, usually made with starfruit,
tamarind, pineapple, and/or tomatoes. They are full of contrasting flavors (sour, sweet,
and savory) and contrasting textures (various veggies and seafood).
 Banh Cam / Banh
Ran
From what I've been told, banh cam and banh ran are nearly identical to one another,
minus some nuanced regional differences. Crisp on the outside and chewy inside, these
golden-fried glutinous balls are speckled with sesame seeds and filled with a sweet
mung bean paste. One of the most beloved Vietnamese desserts and for obvious
reason. I mean, they are deep-fried balls of sweet mung bean-filled joy.
 Banh Chung /
Banh Tet
These banana leaf-wrapped parcels are eaten during the lunar new year celebration of
Tet, which is a very big deal in Vietnam (and coming up soon in February!). People buy
new clothes, paint their homes, clean everything, and cook for days in preparation of
the mega-feast. Many of these sticky rice cakes—known as Banh Tet during the
holiday—are prepared ahead of time, both to be eaten and to be placed before ancestral
altars. The glutinous rice bundle is tightly packed with fatty pork and mung bean.
 Goi (Vietnamese
Salads)
Goi is a generic term for "salad" in Vietnam but doesn't usually involve any lettuce. The
base instead can be a pile of thinly sliced green papaya or mango, lotus root, cabbage
or pomelo. Here's one we made in Hanoi with sliced banana flowers (thick, purple,
crunchy) and pickled carrots, cilantro, crushed peanuts, and, once again, the very
necessary nước chấm sauce.
 Cháo
Vietnam's rice porridge is thick, creamy, hearty and should be able to cure whatever
ails you—primarily a cold and hangovers. Top it with slices of chicken, beef, pork, fish,
or in this case, pig parts (mostly liver and tubular innards). This is a bowl of Cháo Lòng
from Saigon where street vendors can be easily spotted with their giant metal vats of
porridge, piles of offal, and stacks of golden fried dough. Scallions and black pepper are
scattered on top and at the table you'll get a platter of bean sprouts, lime wedges, ginger
and fish sauce to season the porridge to taste.
[Photograph: Cathy Danh]

Cơm tấm ("Broken

Rice")
When Vietnamese rice farmers couldn't sell their broken grains, which broke sometimes
while being processed from the field, they had to eat the poor rejected grains
themselves. This cheaper alternative to "unbroken" rice has actually become popular
over the years as some people like its softer texture. You'll find it on menus with a variety
of toppings; here it comes buried with pork skin, grilled pork chop, pork loaf, and an egg.
[Photograph: Tam Ngo]
 Rau muong
Otherwise known as water spinach or morning glory, this is a staple veggie in Vietnam.
If Vietnam declared a national vegetable, it'd probably be this. You'll find the greens stir-
fried with copious amounts of garlic or floating in a noodle soup.
 Cha Ca Hanoi
Cooking with dill is a uniquely northern Vietnamese thing. I didn't see (any?) dill once
we traveled south from Hanoi. But in this special Hanoi dish, flaky white fish is marinated
in turmeric and galangal and served with generous amounts of dill. Dill is treated more
like a vegetable than a garnish here.

Chè
Chè refers to any sweet pudding or dessert soup, which usually gets covered in jellied
or dried fruit toppings. Taste the rainbow of longans, rambutan, mangoes, jackfruit
chips, mung beans, black beans, and more sticky sweetness.
 Cao lầu
This is not something you'll find all over Vietnam—it's very unique to Hoi An, the historic
trading port town along the central coast. The most important element of this pork and
noodle dish is the noodles. They're made with water drawn from one specific well: the
thousand-year-old Ba Le well in Hoi An. (What if they were made with water from a
different well?! Let's not even entertain that thought.) The noodles are pre-soaked in the
magical well water along with lye made from wood ash brought from the Cham Islands
outside of Hoi An—told you these were special noodles! They end up having a special
chewiness and are served in some, but not much, broth with thinly sliced pork, herbs,
bean sprouts, and crisp crouton-like squares of fried dough.
 Hot Vit Lon (Fetal
Duck Eggs)
"Can I have one without a formed beak and face please?" That was an actual question
I uttered to myself when our guide Hanh was scooping out bites. This is not for the
squeamish. Like balut in the Philippines, the fertilized duck embryo is matured for a few
weeks then boiled. Tap the shell and inside you'll see the itty bitty creature's proto beak
and webbed feet. Spoon up the baby bits (eeeeek) with pickled garlic, and I'm going to
stop right there.
 Ca Phe (Coffee!)
Not a dish per se but sometimes feels more dessert than drink with all that glorious
sweetened condensed milk. I'll get into this more over on Serious Drinks soon, but what
you're looking at here is a special "egg coffee" from Hanoi. That foam perched on top
of the dense, dark coffee is sweetened condensed milk mixed up with a raw egg.
Mhmm.
 Nước chắm
Not a dish, but it's what accompanies just about every dish—this is the dipping sauce I
keep mentioning. Sweet, spicy, sour, and fishy, it comes in a little bowl on practically
every table, with every dish, every single day. I wouldn't be surprised if I had consumed
a few liters of nước chắm over the course of a week in Vietnam. It's made with fish
sauce (obviously), lime juice, sugar, garlic, chili peppers, and sometimes shredded
carrot or lemongrass.
The Vietnamese culture is one of the oldest in Southeast Asia and is heavily influenced
by the Chinese culture. After Vietnam attained independence from China in the 10th
century, the country began to expand southwards which led to the incorporation of
elements of the Champa and Khmer cultures into the Vietnamese culture. Later, French
colonial rule in Vietnam introduced the Western culture to the country and led to the
spread of Catholicism and the adoption of the Latin alphabet. Once the communist
regime started in Vietnam, several restrictions were placed over cultural exchanges with
the Western civilization and instead exposure to the cultures of other communist nations
like Cuba, Soviet Union, and others was encouraged. Despite the changes over the
years, some elements of the Vietnamese culture like the veneration of the ancestors,
respect for family values, devotion to study, etc., remained intact.
Social Beliefs And Customs In Vietnam

In Vietnam, family and clan are valued over individualism. Clan is the most important
social unit in the country and each clan features a patriarch heading the clan and a clan
altar. Even today, in some parts of the country, the tradition of clan members living
together in longhouses is quite prevalent. It is also not uncommon to see three to four
generations of a family living under the same roof. Members of a clan are related by
blood and often name their villages based on their clan names. Death commemorations
of clan members are usually attended by all members of the clan. Weddings in Vietnam
were earlier arranged mainly by parents and people were married young. However,
things have changed now and the Vietnamese youth enjoy greater freedom of selecting
the time of their marriage and their partner. Weddings are still mostly held in the
traditional manner with elaborate rituals and ceremonies.
The traditional funeral ceremony in Vietnam is also quite elaborate and long-stretched.
The body of the dead person is washed and dressed. A chopstick is wedged between
the teeth and the mouth is filled with three coins and a small amount of rice. The body
is then placed on a grass mat and buried in a coffin. The funeral is attended by all family
and friends and mourning rituals continue in several phases after the funeral day till it
ends after about two years. The number of rituals has, however, dwindled over the years
with modern burials and funerals being less elaborate than before.
Cuisine Of Vietnam

Vietnamese cuisine is appreciated across the world. It exhibits great diversity but can
be classified into three primary categories pertaining to the north, south, and central
regions of the country. Many types of noodles and noodle soups are popular here. Less
use of oil and greater use of vegetables is preferred. Soy sauce, fish sauce, mint, and
basil are popular ingredients. Rice is a staple of the region. The flavors of Vietnamese
food range from spicy and sour to sweet. The phở, a noodle soup originating in North
Vietnam is a noted Vietnamese dish and features rice noodles with beef or chicken soup
and scallions or bean sprouts as accompaniments.
Clothing Of Vietnam

The traditional clothing of the Vietnamese people changed significantly from time to time
and depended largely on the whims and fancies of the region’s rulers. The common
people of the country had greater freedom to choose their clothing prior to the Nguyễn
dynasty. During the rule of the Nguyễn dynasty, several restrictions were placed on the
type and colors of clothes that could be worn by the common people of Vietnam. Some
of the examples of traditional Vietnamese costumes are the Áo giao lĩnh, the Áo Tứ
Thân, Áo cánh, and the Áo bà ba. The first one refers to a cross-collared robe worn by
the Vietnamese men while the second is a four-part dress worn by the women. The last
two dresses were worn by the peasants in the north and south, respectively and
appeared like silk-pajama-type costumes. The color code of the dresses also varied
from time to time and during the rule of the Nguyễn dynasty, only the monarchs enjoyed
the exclusive rights of wearing golden clothes while purple and red were popular among
the nobles and aristocrats. The headgear worn in Vietnam changed over the years with
the conical hat or Nón Lá being the most popular among the people
Vietnamese Music And Dance
Vietnam is associated with a rich tradition of dance and music. Vietnamese music also
exhibits variance in different parts of the country. It is older and more formal in the north
while Champa culture exerts considerable influence on Central classical music and
music in the southern part of the country is a more lively affair. The country has nearly
50 national music instruments. The Imperial Court music and the Ca trù are important
traditional forms of Vietnamese music.
The great ethnic diversity of Vietnam has gifted the country with diverse dance forms.
These dances are usually performed at the cultural programs and festivals held in the
country. The Lion dance, platter dance, fan dance, imperial lantern dance are some of
the traditional dance forms of Vietnam. The dances that developed in the imperial courts
of Vietnam are quite complex in nature and require great skills to be mastered.
Vietnamese Arts And Literature

Literature in Vietnam has greatly evolved over the years from romanticism to realism.
Two aspects of the literature in the country are the folk literature and the written literature
both of which developed almost at the same time. Folk literature features fairytales, folk
legends, humorous stories, and epic poems. Written literature was previously written in
the Cham and Nom characters and focussed on poetry and prose. Now, it is mostly
written in the National Language and includes short stories, dramas, novels, etc.
Vietnamese art is mainly influenced by Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism.
However, more recently, the Cham and French influence have also been reflected in
the art presentations. Silk painting is popular in Vietnam and involves the liberal use of
colors. Calligraphy is also a much-respected art form and often, during festivals like the
Lunar New Year, people would visit a village teacher or an erudite scholar to obtain
calligraphy hangings for their homes. Vietnamese wood-block prints are also quite
popular. Water puppetry and several forms of theaters represent other performing art
forms in Vietnam.
Religions And Festivals Of Vietnam

Most people of Vietnam identify with the three major religions of Taoism, Buddhism, and
Confucianism. Catholic followers are also growing in the nation. The Vietnamese also
practice ancestor worship quite rigorously. Ancestor altars are set up at homes or offices
of the people. Several festivals including both traditional ones and those adopted from
other cultures are celebrated in the country with great pomp and glory. Three of the
most notable centuries-old traditional festivals of Vietnam are the Mid-autumn lantern
festival, Buddha's Birthday, and the Lunar New Year.
Martial Arts In Vietnam

Vietnam has a very well-developed tradition of martial arts that is heavily influenced by
Chinese martial arts. The "Viet Vo Dao”, the Vietnamese martial arts philosophy guides
the martial arts practice in the country. It is associated with intense spirituality because
of its close association with Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. The scissor kick is
a famous movement of this form of martial arts. Although Vietnamese martial arts is less
popular in other parts of the world than its Chinese or Japanese counterparts, there is
no doubt that it is gradually and steadily gaining greater popularity worldwide with the
establishment of schools teaching this martial art form in many parts of the world.

Government And Society

Constitutional framework

The first constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, adopted in 1980, established
a Council of State as a collective presidency and a Council of Ministers. In 1992 this
document was superseded by a second constitution, which, in addition to replacing the
Council of State with an elected president and otherwise reforming Vietnam’s
government and political structure, also outlined major shifts in foreign policy and
economic doctrine. In particular, it stressed the development of all economic sectors,
permitted private enterprise, and granted foreign investors the right to legal ownership
of their capital and assets while guaranteeing that their property would not be
nationalized by the state.
A unicameral, popularly elected National Assembly is the supreme organ of the
government. It elects the president, who is head of state, and the vice president, who is
nominated by the president. The cabinet consists of the prime minister, who is
nominated by the president and approved by the National Assembly, and deputy prime
ministers and the heads of government ministries and various state organizations, who
are named by the prime minister and confirmed by the Assembly. The cabinet (which
superseded the earlier Council of Ministers) coordinates and directs the ministries and
various state organizations of the central government and supervises the administrative
committees at the local government level.
Initially, administrative responsibilities were divided along narrow functional lines among
many ministries; there were, for example, numerous economic ministries concerned
with agriculture and the food industry, marine products, forestry, and water
conservancy. In the mid-1980s, such smaller ministries were consolidated to streamline
the system. Larger ministries now tend to be relatively self-sufficient, with their own
colleges, training institutions, and health, social, and cultural facilities. There are also
several commissions under the cabinet, such as the State Inspectorate. The prime
minister’s office oversees a number of general departments beneath the ministerial level
and committees that are formed to supervise major projects which involve more than
one ministry.

Local government

The country is divided administratively into more than 64 provinces (tinh), of

which Hanoi, Haiphong, Da Nang, Ho Chi Minh City, and Can Tho are municipalities
(thanh pho). These are further subdivided into several dozen urban districts (quan) and
hundreds of rural districts (huyen). Nearly 10,000 communes (xa) comprise Vietnam’s
lowest level of local administration. At the provincial, district, and commune levels, the
highest government authority is an elected People’s Council, the actual work of which
is carried out by a People’s Committee elected by the council.
Justice

The judicial system consists of courts and tribunals at various levels and the Supreme
People’s Procuracy. The National Assembly supervises the work of the Supreme
People’s Court, which is the highest court of appeal and the court of first instance for
special cases (such as treason). This court, in turn, supervises the judicial work of both
the local People’s Courts, which are responsible to their corresponding People’s
Councils, and the Military Tribunals. The People’s Courts function at all levels of
government except the commune, where the commune administrative committee
functions as a primary court.
The Supreme People’s Procuracy, with its local and military subdivisions, acts as a
watchdog for the state. It monitors the performance of government agencies, maintains
vast powers of surveillance, and acts as a prosecutor before the People’s Courts. The
Supreme People’s Procuracy is responsible to the National Assembly, or to its Standing
Committee, when the Assembly is not in session.

Vietnamese folk religion is the dominant religion in Vietnam. Some of these most
common folk religions include:
Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương
Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương is an organized folk religion in Vietnam that takes some of its
religious traditions from elements of Buddhism. That religion was started by a
Vietnamese mystic named Đoàn Minh Huyên (1807–1856) who while living in the Thất
Sơn mountains claimed to be a living embodiment of Buddha. Currently, there are
around 15,000 followers of the religion throughout Vietnam.
Minh Đạo
Minh Đạo is a religion that has its roots from the Xiantiandao (Tiên Thiên Đạo) religion
of China. That religion started to emerge in Vietnam around the city of Saigon in the
17th Century just as the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) of China declined and lost influence
in Vietnam. For most of its history the religion focused in literature, helping the poor and
worship but took on a more nationalistic tone at the beginning of the 20th Century.

Đạo Tứ Ân Hiếu Nghĩa

Đạo Tứ Ân Hiếu Nghĩa is an organized folk religion in Vietnam that was founded at
some point towards the end of the 19th Century. The religion currently has around
80,000 practitioners, mostly farmers throughout out the south of Vietnam, with most of
them located in the Tri Tôn district of the country.
Đạo Mẫu
This Vietnamese folk religion worships the various mother goddesses of Vietnam, a
practice that has gone on in Vietnam since its prehistory. These include, but are not
limited to, the worshiping of such goddesses as Bà Chúa Xứ (The Lady of the Realm)
and Bà Chúa Kho (The Lady of the Storehouse), as well as actual people, including the
female warrior Lady Triệu (225-248 AD) and the Trung Sisters, who were female military
leaders.
Buddhism - 12.2%

Buddhism is believed to have arrived in Vietnam from China at some point starting in
the 2nd Century. Buddhism in Vietnam does not have any institutional structures,
hierarchy, or sanghas that most traditional Buddhists follow, since it has grown in
isolation in a symbiotic way with Taoism and other native religions in Vietnam.
Catholicism - 6.8%

Roman Catholic Christianity first came into contact with Vietnam in the 16th Century via
Portuguese Catholic missionaries who first came to the country shortly after the
Portuguese made contact and starting trading. The Portuguese had mild success, but
it was not until Vietnam became a French colony (French Indochina 1887-1954) that
Catholicism made a definitive dent in the country. In 1933 John Baptist Nguyễn Bá Tòng
was made the first Vietnamese bishop and by 1976 the first Vietnamese cardinal,
Archbishop Joseph Mary Trịnh Như Khuê was ordained.
Caodaism - 6.8%

Caodaism, also known as the Cao Đài faith, is an organized monotheistic folk religion
that is unique to Vietnam. That religion started was officially established in 1926 in the
the city of Tây Ninh where the Declaration of the Founding of the Cao Đài Religion was
signed and shown to the French Governor for approval. The religion quickly grew rapidly
popular with its appeal towards nationalist spirit, message of universal salvation and its
ability to bring together underground sects in Vietnam.
Protestantism - 1.5%

Protestant Christianity first came to Vietnam in the early 20th Century when the
Canadian Christian and Missionary Alliance (C&MA) missionary Robert A. Jaffray
(1873-1954) visited the city of Da Nang in 1911. In 1963 the Evangelical Church of
Vietnam North (ECVN) was officially recognized by the government. However, it was
not until 2001 that another Protestant church, the Southern Evangelical Church of
Vietnam (SECV), was officially recognized. Since then more Protestant churches have
been recognized by the government.
Hoahaoism - 1.4%
Hoa Hao is a religious based on Buddhism that was established in 1939 by Huỳnh Phú
Sổ (1920-47). Followers of Hoa Hao consider Huỳnh Phú Sổ to be a prophet and that
the religion is the continuation of the Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương folk religion foundered
by Đoàn Minh Huyên. Both Sổ and Huyên are also believed to have been living
Buddhas and that they are destined to protect the country. The religion places a strong
emphasis on temple worship, ordination and stress aid to the poor and helping peasant
farmers. Both Buddhism and Hoa Hao are is recognized as one of the six state religions
of Vietnam.
Other - 0.1%

Other religions in Vietnam include Taoism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Orthodox

Christianity, and irreligion.
What is the Largest Religion in Vietnam?
The major religions in Vietnam include Vietnamese folk religion, Buddhism, Catholicism,
and Caodaism. Followers of Vietnamese folk religions make up 73.3% of the
population.\

Culture Name
South Korean

Alternative Names
Republic of Korea; Corean, Han'guk, Taehan, Taehanmin'guk

Orientation
Identification. Koryo (918–1392) and Choson (1392–1910) were the last two Korean
dynasties. Korean immigrants and their descendants in Russia, China, and Japan use
the names of those dynasties as a reference for their ethnicity. Despite the continued
use of Choson as a self-name in North Korea, the Japanese convention of referring to
the Korean nation by that name (pronounced Chosen in Japanese) can be offensive to
South Koreans because of its evocation of Japanese colonization of the nation (1910–
1945).
Koreans share a common culture, but a sense of regionalism exists between
northerners and southerners and between southeasterners and southwesterners in
terms of customs and perceived personality characteristics. Some suggest that this
regionalism dates back to Three Kingdoms of Koguryo (37 B.C.E. –668 C.E. ), Silla
(57 B.C.E. –935 C.E. ), and Paekche (18 B.C.E. –660 C.E. ). In South Korea politicized
regionalism has emerged between the southeastern (Kyongsang Province) and
southwestern regions (Cholla Province) since the late 1960s as a result of an uneven
pattern of development that benefits people in the southeast.
Location and Geography. South Korea occupies the southern half of the Korean
peninsula, which protrudes about 620 miles (1,000 kilometers) southward from the
Eurasian landmass between Soviet Siberia in the northeast and Chinese Manchuria to
the north. About three thousand islands belong to Korea, among which the Province of
Cheju Island is the largest. The total area of the peninsula, including the islands, is about
85,000 square miles (222,000 square kilometers), of which about 45 percent or about
38,000 square miles (99,000 square kilometers) constitutes the territory of South Korea.
Geopolitically, the peninsula is surrounded on three sides by the sea and by Russia,
China, and Japan. Korea has suffered from the attempts of these neighboring countries
to dominate it, particularly in the twentieth century. Each of them considers Korea to be
of major importance to its own security, and since 1945 the United States has had a
major security interest in the nation. The peninsula was divided at the 38th Parallel in
an agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union at the end of the World
War II. Subsequently, the Military Demarcation Line established by the Armistice
Agreement of 1953 to bring a cease-fire to the Korean War (1950–1953) replaced the
boundary. A 2.5-mile (four-kilometer) wide strip of land that runs along the cease-fire
line for about 150 miles (241 kilometers) is fixed at the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) as the
no man's land between North Korea and South Korea.
Korea is mountainous, and only about 20 percent of the land in the south is flat enough
for farming. Seoul, the capital, is in the northwestern part of the country on the Han
River, which flows toward the Yellow Sea. Seoul was first established as the walled
capital of the Choson Dynasty in 1394. Before Japan colonized Korea in 1910, Seoul
was the first city in east Asia to have electricity, trolley cars, a water system, telephones,
and telegraphs. Seoul has grown into a metropolis of more than ten million residents.
The palaces, shrines, and other vestiges of the Choson Dynasty are still prominent
features of the city north of the Han River, serving as major tourist attractions. In the
last few decades, the area south of the Han River has built trendy commercial centers
and high-rise condominium
South Korea
complexes for the middle and upper-middle classes.
Demography. In 1997, the population was 45.9 million, with 1,200 persons per square
mile (463 persons per square kilometer). Since the mid-1980s, when Korea stabilized
at a low level of fertility, remarkably high sex ratios at birth have resulted from son-
selective reproductive behaviors such as prenatal sex screening and sex-selective
abortion. Another notable demographic trend is the increasing ratio of the elderly: the
1997 census revealed that 6.3 percent of the total population was 65 years of age or
older.
Linguistic Affiliation. About seventy million people speak Korean. Most live on the
peninsula, but more than five million live across the globe. Korean is considered part of
the Tungusic branch of the Altaic group of the Ural-Altaic language family. It also has a
close relationship to Japanese in general structure, grammar, and vocabulary. The form
of Korean spoken around Seoul is regarded as standard. Major dialects differ mainly in
accent and intonation. Except for old Cheju dialect, all are mutually intelligible.
Koreans value their native tongue and their alphabet, han'gul , which was invented in
the mid-fifteenth century. Until then, Korea's aristocratic society used Chinese
characters, while the government and people used the writing system known as idu (a
transcription system of Korean words invented in the eighth century by Silla scholars
using Chinese characters). The Chinese writing system requires a basic knowledge of
several thousand characters. Commoners who did not have the time or means to master
Chinese could not read or write. Moreover, it is difficult to express spoken Korean in
Chinese characters.
Considering the frustrating situation of mass illiteracy and troubled by the incongruity
between spoken Korean and Chinese ideographs, King Sejong (1397–1450), the fourth
ruler (1418–1450) of the Choson Dynasty, commissioned a group of scholars to devise
a phonetic writing system that would represent the sounds of spoken Korean and could
be learned by all the people. The result was Hunmin Chong'um ("the Correct Sounds to
Teach the People"), or han'gul , as it is called today. The system was created in 1443
and promulgated in 1446. South Koreans observe Han'gul Day on 9 October with a
ceremony at King Sejong's tomb.
Han'gul is easy to learn since each letter corresponds to a phoneme, and Korea now
has one of the highest literacy rates in the world. UNESCO established the King Sejong
Literacy Prize in 1988 and offers it annually to an individual or group that contributes to
the eradication of illiteracy worldwide.
Symbolism. The national flag, T'aegukki , is a unique symbol. The flag
of T'aeguk ("Supreme Ultimate"), symbolizes the basic ideas of east Asian cosmology
shared by the peoples in the Chinese culture area. In the center of a white background
is a circle divided horizontally in two by an S-shaped line. The upper portion in red
represents the yang , and the lower portion in blue symbolizes the um ( yin in Chinese),
depicting the yinyang principle of a universe in perfect balance and harmony. The
central symbolism in the T'aeguk form is that while there is a constant movement of
opposites in the universe (day and night, good and evil, masculinity and femininity),
there is also balance. The four trigrams at the corners of the flag also express the ideas
of opposites and balance. The three unbroken lines in the upper left corner represent
heaven while the three broken lines placed diagonally in the lower right corner represent
the earth. The trigram in the upper right corner represents water, while the one placed
diagonally at the lower left corner represents fire.
In contrast to the cosmological symbolism in the flag, the national anthem, Aegukka ,
conjures a sense of the national identity of the Taehan people by making territorial
references to the East Sea (Sea of Japan), Paektusan ("White Head Mountain," on the
northern border with China), and the beautiful land of mugunghwa (the rose of Sharon,
the national flower). The phrase samch'ol-li kangsan ("three-thousand-li land of range
and river"), which is included in the national anthem, refers to the national territory.
The phrase han p'it-chul ("one bloodline") often is used by Koreans at home and abroad
to symbolize their shared identity as the members of a homogeneous nation. Blood and
territory thus are the most frequently invoked metaphors associated with the nation.
National days of celebration include Liberation Day ( Kwangbokchol ) on 15 August and
National Foundation Day ( Kaech'onjol ) on 3 October. Kwangbokchol (the Day of
Recovering the Light) celebrates the nation's liberation from Japanese colonial rule in
1945. Kaech'onjol (Heaven Opening Day) commemorates the founding of the first
Korean kingdom, KoChoson, by the legendary priest-king Tan'gun Wanggom.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. The Korean peninsula has been inhabited for more than
half a million years, and a Neolithic culture emerged around 6,000 B.C.E. The legendary
beginning date of the Korean people is said to be 2333 B.C.E. , when Tan'gun
established the kingdom of Choson ("Morning Freshness," often translated as the "Land
of Morning Calm") around today's P'yongyang. To distinguish it from the later Choson
Dynasty, it is now referred to as Ko ("Old") Choson.
In the legend, Tan'gun was born of a divine father, Hwan-ung, a son of the heavenly
king, and a woman who had been transformed from a bear. The bear and a tiger had
pleaded with Hwan-ung to transform them into human beings. Only the bear achieved
the transformation by following Hwanung's instructions, which included a hundred-day
seclusion to avoid sunlight and the ingestion of a bunch of mugwort ( ssuk ) and twenty
pieces of garlic. This bear turned woman then married Hwan-ung, and their offspring
was Tan'gun. A recent interpretation of the bear woman is that she came from a bear
totem tribe.
The Old Choson period is divided into the Tan'gun, Kija, and Wiman periods. Shortly
after the fall of Wiman Choson in 108 B.C.E. and the establishment of Chinese military
control in the north, the Three Kingdoms (Silla, Koguryo, and Paekche) period began.
In 668, Silla unified the Three Kingdoms. Silla's decline in the late ninth century brought
about the rise of Later Paekche and Later Koguryo. Wang Kon, who established the
Koryo Dynasty, eventually reunified the nation. A series of Mongol invasions that began
in 1231 devastated the country in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. General Yi
Song-gye overthrew Koryo and established the Choson Dynasty in 1392. Despite
invasions by Japan and Manchu (Qing) in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
respectively, Choson continued for more than five centuries until 1910, when Japan
colonized the nation for three and a half decades.
National Identity. Before the 1945 national division of the peninsula and the
subsequent establishment of the two political regimes of North and South Korea in 1948,
Koreans identified themselves as the people of Choson. Tan'gun as the founding
ancestor has had a symbolic meaning for Koreans throughout the nation's history. A
temple erected in Tan'gun's honor in 1429 stood in P'yongyang until its destruction
during the Korean War. In 1993, North Korea announced the discovery of Tan'gun's
tomb and a few remains of his skeleton at a site close to P'yongyang. Some Korean
calendars still print the Year of Tan'gun ( Tan'gi ) along with the Gregorian calendar
year, which the South Korean government officially adopted in 1962.
Ethnic Relations. Korea is one of the few countries in which ethnicity and nationality
coincide. The only immigrant ethnic minority group is a Chinese community of about
20,000 that is concentrated mainly in Seoul and has existed since the late nineteenth
century. Since the Korean War, the continued presence of the United States Forces–
Korea has resulted in the immigration of over one hundred thousand Korean women to
the United States as
A house in Oh Ju Kon village, Kangnung, South Korea, reflects a more modern
approach to South Korean rural housing.
soldiers' wives. Since the early 1990s, an increasing number of foreign workers from
Asian countries (including Korean Chinese) and Russia have entered South Korea in
pursuit of the "Korean Dreams."

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

Traditionally, dwellings with thatched roofs and houses with clay-tile roofs symbolized
rural—urban as well as lower-class—upper-class distinctions. The traditional houses
of yangban (gentry) families were divided by walls into women's quarters ( anch'ae ),
men's quarters ( sarangch'ae ), and servants' quarters ( haengnangch'ae ), reflecting
the Confucian rules of gender segregation and status discrimination between the
yangban and their servants in the social hierarchy of the Choson Dynasty. Western
architecture was introduced in the nineteenth century. The Gothic-style Myongdong
Cathedral (1898) is a prominent example of the earliest Western architecture in Seoul.
As part of government-sponsored rural development projects since the late 1960s,
thatched-roof houses in rural areas have mostly been replaced by concrete structures
with a variety of brightly colored slate roofs. The tile-roofed traditional urban residential
houses have also become almost extinct, partly because of the ravages of the Korean
War and the rush toward modernization and development. Now a wide range of
architectural styles coexists. For example, the Toksu Palace of the Choson Dynasty
built in the traditional style, the Romanesque Seoul City Hall built during Japanese rule,
and modem high-rise luxury hotels can all be seen from City Hall Plaza in downtown
Seoul.
According to the 1995 national census, about 88 percent of the population lives in urban
areas. Lack of land for construction and changes in people's lifestyle have combined to
make condominium apartments the dominant housing type in urban areas. Close to half
the urban population consists of condominium dwellers, but the bedrooms in most
condos still feature the ondol floor system. Traditional ondol floors were heated by
channeling warm air and smoke through a system of under-the-floor flues from an
exterior fireplace. Those floors typically were made of large pieces of flat stone tightly
covered with several square-yard-size pieces of lacquered paper in light golden brown
to present an aesthetically pleasing surface and prevent gas and smoke from entering
the room.
Customarily, the "lower end" of the room ( araemmok ), which is the closest to the
source of heat, was reserved for honored guests and the senior members of the
household, while people of lower social status occupied the "upper end" ( ummok ),
farthest from the source of heat and near the door. This customary practice reflected
the social hierarchy. This distinction does not exist in the modern apartments because
the heating system is centrally controlled.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. The rapid changes in lifestyles that have accompanied economic
development since the 1960s have changed the traditional pattern of eating rice at each
meal. Some urbanites may eat toast, eggs, and milk for breakfast, using a fork and
knife. Nonetheless, for many people a bowl of steamed white rice, a soybean-paste
vegetable soup, and a dish of kimch'I may still constitute the basic everyday meal, to
which steamed or seasoned vegetables, fish, meats, and other foods may be added as
side dishes ( panch'an ). Many people eat at a low table while sitting on the ondol floor,
using a spoon and chopsticks.
Kimch'I is the national dish. It is a pungent, often hot, mixture of fermented and/or
pickled vegetables. Almost any vegetable can be fermented to make kimch'I, but
Chinese cabbage and daikon radishes are the most commonly used. As part of the
national diet for centuries, it has many variations depending on the region, season,
occasion, and personal taste of the cook. Kimch'I has long been the test of a housewife's
culinary skills and a family tradition. A South Korean consumes an average of forty
pounds (eighteen kilograms) of kimch'I a year. Many companies produce kimch'I for
both domestic consumption and export.
Meat dishes such as pulgogi (barbecued meat) and kalbi (short ribs) are popular among
both Koreans and foreigners. They are traditionally charcoal-roasted after the meat has
been marinated in soy sauce, sesame oil, sugar, minced garlic, and other spices. The
foods available at restaurants range from sophisticated Western cuisine, to various
ethnic specialty foods, to both indigenous and foreign fast foods. There are no food
taboos, although Buddhist monks may practice vegetarianism and observe other food
taboos.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. A variety of ttok (rice cake), other
traditional confectionery, and fresh fruits are served to celebrate birthdays, marriages,
and the hwan'gap (the sixtieth birthday). The offerings at ch'arye , memorial services for
one's ancestors performed on special holidays, include rice wine, steamed white rice,
soup, barbecued meats, and fresh fruits. After ritual offerings
Kwang-mok-chong-wang, the guardian of the West at Pulguk-sa Temple in Kyongju,
South Korea.
of the wine and food to the ancestral spirits, the family members consume the food and
wine. Their ingestion symbolizes the receiving of blessings from the ancestral spirits.
Basic Economy. South Korea transformed its traditional agrarian subsistence
economy to a primarily industrialized one in little more than a generation. In 1962, when
the First Five-Year Economic Development Plan was launched, per capita gross
national product was $87 (U.S.), in contrast with $10,543 (U.S.) in 1996. However, rapid
increases in short-term debt precipitated by overinvestments by chaebols (family-
owned and -managed conglomerates) and insufficient foreign exchange reserves
caused the financial crisis of 1997, which necessitated emergency financial aid from the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) in December 1997. After a year of rising
unemployment, negative economic growth, and reforms of the financial sector in 1998,
the economy began to recover. For gross domestic product (GDP) of $406.7 billion
(U.S.), the country ranked thirteenth and for per capita GDP it ranked thirtieth among
the world's nations in 1999.
The working-age population (15 years or above) numbered 34.7 million, and 62.2
percent (21.6 million) of those people were in the labor force in 1997. More than two
thirds of them were employed in the service sector in 1997.
South Korea still produces most of its domestically consumed rice. Traditional cash
crops such as ginseng, tobacco, tea, and silkworms remain important. The livestock
industry raises beef and dairy cattle, hogs, and chickens. Meat production has
increased, largely in response increased consumption and government support. South
Korea imports beef and milk, exports pork to Japan, and maintains self-sufficiency in
chickens and most vegetable products.
Land Tenure and Property. Traditionally, land, especially farmland, was the main form
of wealth, and tenants had customary rights that allowed them to farm the same plots
year after year. The land survey and tax structure under colonial rule changed the nature
and extent of land tenure, forcing many owner-farmers to sell their land to the Japanese.
Some people argue that the violation of tenants' customary rights predates the
Japanese incursion. The majority of the agricultural population became impoverished,
landless tenants by the end of the colonial rule.
After the liberation, redistributions of land were effected in 1948, when former Japanese-
owned agricultural lands were sold to the incumbent tenants, and in 1950–1952, when
the government under the Land Reform Act (promulgated in 1949) acquired tenanted
land owned by absentee landlords and the balance of properties larger than 7.4 acres
held by owner-farmers. That property was sold to tenant farmers and those with no land.
The imposition of a maximum of three chongbo (7.4 acres) on legal land holdings meant
that large-scale landlords were eliminated, and the average farm size became less than
2.5 acres. The land reform was a political and social success, destroying the colonial
landlord class. However, it contributed to a fragmentation of the land into small holdings,
making cultivation inefficient and not conducive to mechanization. Since the 1960s,
systematic efforts have been made to increase, rearrange and consolidate farmland by
reclaiming mountain slopes and seashores as arable land to expand farm
mechanization and increase the utility of farmland. In 1975, the Arable Land
Preservation Law was modified to limit the use of arable land for purposes other than
farms.
In a country where natural resources are scarce, the efficient use of the land is essential.
Government land development projects started in the 1960s with the 1963 Law on
Integrated National Land Development, the 1964 Export Industrial Estates Assistance
Law, and the 1967 National Parks Law. Those laws were followed by the 1972 Law on
the Management of National Land and the 1973 Law on the Promotion of Industrial
Estates. In addition to the development of large-scale industrial estates at Ulsan,
P'ohang, and elsewhere, a superhighway linking Seoul and Pusan and large-scale
water resources development projects such as the Soyang Dam were constructed. A
basic land price pattern was officially determined to allow an equitable distribution of the
profits from land development. Despite a variety of regulations, however, speculation in
real estate has been a major device for accumulating wealth rapidly and irregularly.
Major Industries. The share of primary industry in the economic structure decreased
steadily from 26.6 percent in 1970 to 5.7 percent in 1997. Farmwork increasingly is done
by women and old men as young people leave for urban jobs. As a result of structural
reforms in the economy, Korea has built a strong industrial foundation, especially in the
areas of electronics, automobiles, shipbuilding, and petrochemicals. The shipbuilding
industry is second only to Japan's and has a 32 percent share of the world market. In
the semiconductor industry, Korea ranks third in the world market. Three Korean
companies supply more than 40 percent of the global demand for computer memory
chips. The Korean automobile and petrochemicals industries rank fifth in the world in
terms of production.
Trade. The economy is export-oriented and at the same time heavily dependent on
overseas raw materials. In 1999 exports were $143.7 billion (U.S.) and imports were
$119.8 billion (U.S.). Korea ranked twelfth for exports and fourteenth for imports among
the countries in the world. The major trading partners are the United States and Japan.
Since the 1980s, main export items have included computers, semiconductors,
automobiles, steel, shipbuilding, electronic goods, machinery, textiles, and fishery
products. Overseas construction is a critical source of foreign currency and invisible
export earnings. Major import items are steel, chemicals, timber and pulp, cereals,
petroleum and petroleum products, and electronics and electrical equipment. The
current account balance for the first half of 2000 marked a surplus of $4.4 billion (U.S.).
Division of Labor. Leading chaebol companies such as Hyundai, Samsung, and the
LG Group recruit white-collar workers from among college graduates through
the kongch'ae system (an open competitive

A farmer hauls rice on his back in Pong Hwang, Naju, South Korea. Rice is a staple of
the South Korean diet.
written examination and interviews). Smaller companies often rely on social connections
to hire employees. For executive and upper-level management jobs, companies may
scout the desired personnel by using a variety of means, including professional
headhunting services. Employment in the civil service, which is based on a grade
system, reflects a strong tradition of seniority. Positions are assigned strictly according
to grade, and remuneration is based on grade and length of service. Recruitment from
outside is allowed only at certain grade levels through the civil service examination
system, with age limitations that favor the young. Vacant positions, except at the lowest
grade level, are filled mostly by promotions based on seniority. The tradition of seniority,
however, is being challenged as part of the wide-ranging restructuring taking place in
the public sector as well as in the financial and corporate sectors as a result of the 1997
economic crisis.
Social Stratification
Classes and Castes. The traditional gentry ( yangban ) status was formally abolished
by the Kabo Reforms of 1894, but the legacy of the class system is seen in social
psychological and behavioral patterns. In 1994, 60 percent of South Koreans regarded
themselves as belonging to the middle class. The subjective perception of one's class
position was closely correlated with one's level of educational attainment. Eighty-three
percent of those with a college education perceived themselves as belonging to the
middle class, compared with 41 percent of those with a primary school education. In
general, industrialization and urbanization have contributed to a leveling of the nonkin
hierarchy in social life, but the income gap between the working classes and the
industrialist class as a new power elite has grown. Family background, education,
occupation, and the general acceptance of a meritocracy are major social factors that
contribute to the unequal distribution of wealth by class.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Major symbols of social status include the size of
one's condominium or house, the location of one's residence, chauffeur-driven large
automobiles, style and quality of dress, membership in a golf club, and the use of
honorifics in speech. According to the government classification, residential space
between eighteen and 25.7 p'yong (one p'yong equals 3.95 square yards) is regarded
as medium-sized housing. People in the middle and upper-middle classes tend to live
in apartment units of over thirty p'yong. The precise number of p'yong of one's
condominium often is interpreted as a barometer of one's wealth. Academic degrees
such as a doctorate and professional occupations such as medicine also symbolize
higher social status.

Political Life
Government. Koreans lived under a dynastic system until 1910. After liberation from
Japanese colonization in 1945, the southern half of the peninsula was occupied by the
United States and the northern half by the Soviet military until 1948, when two Koreas
emerged. Since then, South Korea has traveled a rocky road in its political development
from autocratic governments to a more democratic state, amending its constitution nine
times in the wake of tumultuous political events such as the Korean War, the April
Revolution of 1960, the 1961 and 1979 military coups, the 1980 Kwangju uprising, and
the 1987 democracy movement. The government has maintained a presidential system
except in 1960–1961, when a parliamentary system was in place. Government power
is shared by three branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial. The Constitutional
Court and the National Election Commission also perform governing functions.
The executive branch under the president as the head of state consists of the prime
minister, the State Council, seventeen executive ministries, seventeen independent
agencies, the Board of Inspection and Audit, and the National Intelligence Service. The
president is elected by popular vote for a single five-year term. The prime minister is
appointed by the president with the approval of the National Assembly. The legislature
consists of a single-house National Assembly whose 273 members serve four-year
terms. Some degree of local autonomy was restored for the first time since 1961 by the
implementation of local assembly elections in 1991 and popular elections of the heads
of provincial and municipal governments in 1995. The judiciary has three tiers of courts:
the Supreme Court, the high courts or appellate courts, and the district courts.

Hoeddeok (sweet syrupy pancakes)

Known as a sweeter version of the Western pancake, hoeddeok, or sometimes spelled

as hotteok, is a popular Korean street food, especially during the winter season. It is
essentially flat, circular dough that is filled with a mixture of cinnamon, honey, brown
sugar, and small pieces of peanut and cooked on a griddle. The delicacy has crunchy
exterior and soft interior as well as an irresistible flavor.

Bulgogi (marinated beef barbecue)

A juicy, savory dish of grilled marinated beef, bulgogi is one of the most popular Korean
meat dishes throughout the world, and was ranked as the 23rd most delicious food in
the world according to CNN Travel’s reader’s poll in 2011. It is often grilled with garlic
and sliced onions to add flavor to the meat. The meat is usually wrapped in lettuce and
it is also traditionally eaten with ssamjang (a thick, red spicy paste).

Bulgogi © Sergii Koval / Alamy Stock Photo

Samgyeopsal (pork strips)

One of the most popular Korean dishes in South Korea, samgyeopsal consists of grilled
slices of pork belly meat that are not marinated or seasoned. They are commonly dipped
in seasoning made of salt and pepper mixed in sesame seed oil, and then wrapped in
lettuce along with grilled slices of garlic, grilled slices of onion, shredded green onions,
and kimchi. It is one of the most common dishes found in any Korean restaurant
throughout the world.

Japchae (stir-fried noodles)

Often served as a side dish during lunch or dinner, japchae is a traditional Korean
noodle dish made up of stir-fried sweet potato, thinly shredded vegetables, beef, and a
hint of soy sauce and sugar. Depending on the chef, additional ingredients like
mushrooms are added to the mix. Japchae is known for its sweet and flavorful taste and
its soft yet slightly chewy texture.
Kimchi (fermented vegetables)

One of the oldest and probably the most essential dishes in Korean cuisine, kimchi is a
spicy and sour dish made up of fermented vegetables. It is prepared with various kinds
of ingredients, but the most common main ingredient is cabbage. Kimchi is popular
among foreigners for its unique flavor, as well as its high nutritional value, fiber content
and low calorie content. However, for Koreans, it is most popular due to its significant
cultural value. Without kimchi, dinner is considered incomplete.

Kimchi © Magdalena Bujak / Alamy Stock Photo

Ddukbokki (spicy rice cake)

Ddukbokki, also spelled tteokbokki, is a common spicy Korean food made of cylindrical
rice cakes, triangular fish cake, vegetables, and sweet red chili sauce. It is often sold
by pojangmacha (street vendors). People enjoy ddeukbokki for the combination of
spicy and sweet flavors.
Sundubu-jjigae (soft tofu stew)

Served in a large stone bowl, sundubu-jjigae is a common spicy Korean stew generally
made of dubu (tofu), vegetables, mushrooms, seafood, beef or pork,
and gochujang (chili paste). Depending on the chef and region, some ingredients are
removed, substituted or added to the mix. Though different variations exist, traditionally,
a raw egg is placed on top of the stew and mixed with the soup before serving to add
additional flavor to the dish.

Bibimbap (mixed rice)

Bibimbap is essentially a bowl of mixed ingredients including, but not limited to,
rice, namul (seasoned and sautéed vegetables), mushrooms, beef, soy
sauce, gochujang (chili pepper paste), and a fried egg. The ingredients found in
bibimbap vary by region, and the most famous versions of the dish are found in Jeonju,
Tongyeong, and Jinju.

Korean Bibimbap © Brent Hofacker / Alamy Stock Photo

Seolleongtang (ox bone soup)

A traditional hot Korean soup made from ox bones, ox meat and

briskets, seolleongtang is a local dish of Seoul, often seasoned with salt, ground black
pepper, chopped green onions, or minced garlic according to the consumer’s taste. The
broth is of a milky white, cloudy color and is often eaten with rice. Seolleongtang is
known for its soft yet chewy texture and flavorful broth, and can be found in most Korean
restaurants in Seoul.

Haemul Pajeon (seafood vegetable pancake)

A version of pajeon, which is a pancake-like Korean dish made predominantly with

green onions, egg batter, wheat flour, and rice flour, haemul pajeon incorporates
seafood to the common pancake. Common seafood ingredients used include, but are
not limited to, oysters, shrimp, squid, and clams. Haemul pajeon is generally eaten as
a main dish and is known for its soft and chewy texture as well as its mixture of seafood
flavors.

Samgyetang (ginseng chicken soup)

A common dish particularly during the summer, samgyetang is a traditional soup made
of chicken, garlic, rice, scallion, Korean jujube, Korean ginseng, and spices. It is known
to have a high nutritional value. Not only is it known for its healthy contents but it also is
popular simply for its creamy and meaty flavor.

Ginseng chicken soup © Ka Wing Yu / Alamy Stock Photo

Soondae (blood sausage)

Soondae, or sometimes spelled as sundae, is a unique Korean dish made of pig’s

intestines stuffed with several ingredients such as noodles, pork blood, and barley.
Versions of soondae differ in fillings and wrappings, and are often prepared differently
according to the province or city in South Korea. Nevertheless, though the recipes differ,
every soondae is chewy on the outside and soft and flavorful on the side, creating an
interesting mix of textures as well as flavors.

Naengmyeon (cold buckwheat noodles)

Naengmyeon is a common cold Korean noodle dish that consists of long, thin noodles,
cucumbers, slices of Korean pear, slices of beef and a hard-boiled egg. The noodles
are often made of buckwheat, potatoes, and sweet potatoes, but can also be made of
arrowroot and kudzu, depending on the type of naengmyeon. It is a popular dish
especially during the summer to cool off under the scorching heat and thick humid air
in South Korea.
Hobakjuk (pumpkin porridge)

A sweet and grainy dish, hobakjuk is a traditional Korean porridge made from steamed
pumpkin and glutinous rice that has been soaked in water. Though its appearance is
simple, it is extraordinarily sweet and flavorful due to the pumpkin. It is a popular meal
during breakfast hours, and is often a perfect meal choice for people who are unwell
and unable to consume heavy meals. It is served both hot and cold but is best when
hot.