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CE G547
Pavement Failures, Evaluation and
Rehabilitation

FUNCTIONAL EVALUATION

Pavement Evaluation

• The evaluation of the pavement condition is a fundamental

parameter.
• It determine the timing and type of intervention
(maintenance, rehabilitation or reconstruction) and the
overall pavement management practice.

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 2

Pavement Evaluation

• Usually, two types of pavement condition evaluation are

conducted:
• functional
• structural

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 3

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Functional evaluation

• The surface characteristics of a pavement and is user

related issues.
• Surface characteristics include
• longitudinal evenness (smoothness),
• skid resistance,
• rutting,
• cracking or any other surface distress that affects riding quality
and safety.
Functional evaluation is used to decide whether the
pavement needs to be maintained, rehabilitated or
reconstructed; essentially, the necessity for intervention and
its type is decided.
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 4

Structural evaluation

• It considers layer thickness, materials and strength and is

load related.
• Structural evaluation is used to determine the ability of the
pavement structure to carry traffic loading;
• The remaining life of the pavement is determined

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 5

Evaluation

• Functional evaluation and structural evaluation are

complimentary to each other.
• Quite often are best to be executed together, particularly
when more precise determination of pavement
rehabilitation strategy is required.
• The functional evaluation of pavements is carried out by
visual condition surveys or purposely built mobile devices.

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 6

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Visual condition survey

• The visual condition survey, also known as distress survey,

is the first step to functional evaluation
(a) recording of pavement distresses,
(b) pavement rating and
(c) detailed presentation of pavement condition.

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 7

Surface distresses to be recorded during

visual inspection

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 8

Functional Evaluation

• Traditionally, the pavement functional evaluation

information collected is grouped into three broad
categories, namely:

qServiceability
qSurface distress and
qSafety

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 9

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Serviceability- PSR

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 10

Present Serviceability Index

PSI is an estimate of the panel-obtained PSR index ranging

from 0 to 5.
!!!) - 0.01 C + P - 1.38 (!!!!
PSI = 5.03 - 1.91log(1 + !!!!
SV RD!!!!)2

PSI = 5.41 - 1.80 log(1 + !!!!

SV!!!) - 0.09 C + P

• C + P is the relative extent of cracking and patching in the

wheel-path (ft^2/1000 ft^2),
• !!!!
RD!!!!
is the average rut depth in the left and right wheel-
paths (inches)
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 11

Pavement Roughness (SV)

SV is a pavement roughness summary statistic referred to as the slope

variance (rad^2)
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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 12

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Factors Contributing to Roughness

qTraffic loading
qEnvironmental effects
qConstruction materials
qBuilt-in construction irregularities

• Short-wavelength roughness is normally caused by

localized pavement distresses, that is, depressions and
cracking.
• Long-wavelength roughness is normally caused by
environmental processes in combination with pavement
layer properties.

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 13

Road Roughness Measuring System (RRMS)

• Response-type (RTRRMS)
• Profilometer-type (PTRRMS)

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 14

Rolling Straight Edge

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 15

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Principle of rolling straight edge

1 2

b
h
h b
dh

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 16

RSE Measurements of Sinusoidal Road

Profile with Different-Length Beams

0.1

10

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 17

RSE Measurements of Sinusoidal Road

Profile with Different-Length Beams

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 18

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California Profilograh

• To reduce this type of bias, commercially available RSEs are

equipped with multiple transport wheel assemblies for carrying
the beam.
• 25ft long, Supported by a set of six staggered wheels on each
end.

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 19

Processing the California Profilograph Trace

for Calculating the PI

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 20

Bump Integrator

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 21

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Mays Ride Meter

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 22

Measuring Unevenness IRC SP 16-2004

• Towed Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator

• A standard pneumatic tyre wheel inflated to a tyre pressure
of 2. 1 kg/sqcm.
• with a single leaf spring on either side of the wheel
supporting the chassis.
Chassis
• 32 ± 1 km/hour.
• After 460 units which correspond to 1 km.
• Physical changes in the instrument, like, Wheel

• Affected by wearing of the tyre, braking etc.

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 23

Maximum Permissible Surface Unevenness

for Road Pavements

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 24

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Drawback of response type RRMS

• Lack the stability and the universality desired.

• Establishing relationships between the output of any pair
of such devices is possible only through regression.
• Outcome of which depends on the characteristics of the
pavement sections.

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 25

MERLIN (Machine for Evaluating Roughness

using Low cost INstrumentation)

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 26

MERLIN

900 mm

Front foot Rear foot

Reference

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 27

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Dipstick

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 28

Dipstick Operation

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 29

GMR Profilometer

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh

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Modern High-Speed Profilometer

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 31

Processing Profilometer Measurements

• The raw pavement elevation data calculated from the

electronic signals need to be filtered.
• Wavelengths shorter than the dimensions of pavement
macrotexture.
• Longer than roadway geometric features perceived as
longitudinal slope or curvature.

• Most data manipulation is carried out by the moving

average (MA) technique.

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 32

Processing Profilometer Measurements

• Replace the elevation of a number of consecutive points

with the average of their elevation

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 33

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N point average
B
j =i +
2 Dx
1
p f (i ) =
N
å B
p (j)
j =i -
2 Dx

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh

Quarter-Car System (QCS)

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh

International Roughness Index (IRI)

• The IRI is a mathematical model applied to a measured

profile.
• The IRI is computed as the cumulative movement of the
suspension of the QCS divided by the traveled distance.

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh

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Indices Summarizing Pavement

Roughness
• Efforts to establish such an index date back to the 1950s,
(i.e., the SV used in the AASHO Road Test).
• More recently, efforts to establish a ‘‘universal’’ and
‘‘transportable’’ index for quantifying pavement roughness
were led by the World Bank.
• This work produced the so-called International Roughness
Index

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 37

Quarter-Car System (QCS)

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh

International Roughness Index (IRI)

• The IRI is a mathematical model applied to a measured

profile.
• The IRI is computed as the cumulative movement of the
suspension of the QCS divided by the traveled distance.

1æ ö
X /S
IRI = ç
Lè ò |Z -Z
0
s u |dt ÷
ø
L= Length of measured section.
X=Certain distance in longitudinal direction
S= Speed simulated by QCS at 80 km/h
Zs , Zu =Time derivative of height position of sprung mass and unsprung mass
dt = time increment
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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 39

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Reference Quarter-Car (Golden Car)

Used to Define the IRI

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 40

Relationship between IRI and PSI

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 41

IRI ranges represented by different

classes of roads.

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 42

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IRI Advantages

• Reproducible and stable with time.

• Independent of equipment.
• Correlated to other indexes (PSI).
• Dependent of profile characteristics.

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 43

MERLIN

IRI = 0.593 + 0.471´ D

IRI = 1.913 + 0.490 ´ D

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 44

Frictional Evaluation of
Pavements

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Introduction

• Skid Resistance
• Surface Texture

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 46

Surface Texture

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 47

Mega texture and Roughness

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 48

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Surface Texture Measurement

• Sand Patch Method

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QR39ASLETyw

• Mean Texture Depth, MTD (mm)=

Volume of Sand / Area of patch

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 49

Frictional Force

Fn

Fs=f * Fn
V

Fs
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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 50

Factors affecting Skid Resistance

• Texture of the pavement surface

• Tread of a tire
• Presence of water at the interface between the two
• Amount of slippage between them.

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 51

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Skid resistance on wet road surfaces

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 52

Surface texture

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 53

Types of Friction

• Longitudinal Friction
• Lateral friction

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 54

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Skid resistance Measurement

Braking force coefficient Side force coefficient

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 55

Measuring Pavement Friction

• Locked wheel
• Fixed slip speed
• Variable slip speed
• Side force in yaw mode

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 56

Skid Resistance Measurement (Portable

devices in EU)

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 57

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Factor affecting friction:

Traffic
Side friction factor

Skid Number

Average daily traffic Nos. of Passes, millions

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 58

Seasonal Variation

80
Skid Resistance

60

40

20

0
JAN JULY JAN JULY JAN
1959 1960
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 59

Vehicle Factors: Speed & Tire Pressure

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 60

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Vehicle Factors: Wheel Load & Tire Thread

Wheel Load Tire Thread

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 61

Pavement Factors

• Micro & Macro Texture

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh

Friction Measurement: Locked Wheel

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 63

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 64

Locked-wheel Skid Trailers

• Skid Number
SN = 100 x friction factor

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh

Slip Tester

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh

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GripTester Surface Friction Tester

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 67

Dynatest Friction Tester

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 68

SAAB Friction Tester

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 69

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Fixed VS Variable Slip

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 70

Yaw Mode

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 71

Mu- meter

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 72

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Sideways-force Coefficient Routine

Investigation Machine (SCRIM)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-cYU79mkq20

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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh 73

Sideways-force coefficient (SFC)

• Sideways-force coefficient (SFC)

SFC= sideways force / vertical reaction
between tire and road
surface

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh

Laboratory Measurement:
British pendulum

contact path length of 126 ±

1 mm (for horizontal site
surfaces, not for laboratory
curved specimens for polished
stone determination)

The PTV is defined as the loss

of energy as the standard
rubber-coated slider assembly
slides across the test surface
and provides a standardized
value of slip/skid resistance
(CEN EN 13036-4 2011)

ASTM Method E303.

British Pendulum Numbers
(BPN)
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Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh

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International Friction Index

• IFI= (Sp, f (60))

• Sp is speed constant in km/h.

• SP = 113.6 x(Mean Texture Depth) − 11.6

• f (60) is normalized coefficient of friction at 60 km/h.

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus Pavement Failures, Evaluation and Rehabilitation Ⓒ Priyansh Singh

IFI= (F(60), Sp)

Sp= a+b*TX
Friction Number

Sp= Slip Speed

a, b = Calibration constant
depending on the
method to measure macro
F(60) Sp texture
TX= measure macro
texture
60
Slip Speed (S) FR(60)= FR(S)(MTD or MPD) )
* e^((S-60)/(Sp)

F(60)=[A+B*FR(60)]+C*TX

F(60)= Friction index at

60km/h slip speed
A, B = Calibration constant
depending on friction
measuring device
C= Calibration constant
when friction measured by
ribbed tire

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