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A Discussion of Exploration and Excavation Techniques Used in Archaeology

Name: Tanvi Shah

PRN: 15060321112

Course: Anthropology Today: Introduction to Archaeology- P6

Symbiosis School for Liberal Arts

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Introduction
The discipline of Archaeology is always associated with the notion of excitement and
adventure. In countless films and books, the archaeologist is portrayed as a daredevil, a thrill
seeker or a hero who must find the lost treasure or unravel an ancient script. Thus, many
individuals have this grand impression of archaeology in their minds. In reality, while there
have been many astonishing and large scale digs, the processes behind finding those
monuments or artifacts are not sudden and arbitrary. A lot of research and planning goes into
determining whether an area is should be excavated and contrary to popular beliefs, many
anthropologists spend time doing desk research rather than being present on archaeological
sites. Right from discovering a site of archeological importance to recording the artifacts that
are found, a systematic procedure has to be followed. Every step has to be filled with caution
because information in the field of archaeology is obtained only through the destruction of
existing features and if these features are not carefully destroyed, then important historical
and cultural knowledge could be lost forever. The paper explains different methods of
exploration and excavation of archaeological sites and critically analyzes the exploration and
excavation methods used in four real life case studies.

Exploration methods
The people of the past did not live with the intention of preserving their way of life
for future generations to study. Over the course of centuries, Natural disasters, plunderers,
new rulers and several other factors may have destroyed grand cities, temples, palaces etc.
and years of natural processes like erosion and deposition may have changed the nature of the
monuments or even buried them completely. If not for various exploration methods, these
sites may have been left undiscovered thereby eliminating a significant chunk of world
history. Every year hundreds of sites of various sizes are found, on land or underwater and
even in ice. Some Archaeological sites like the Stonehenge or the Taj Mahal have always
been known. However, many small sites have been lost in time and it is the responsibility of
the archaeologist to rediscover sites of potential historical and cultural importance. The first
step to explore a site is gathering the existing knowledge available.
Documents are one of the mains sources of locating an archaeological site. It
involves desktop study where the researchers carry out office-based investigation of existing
records to track down sites (Grant, Gorin, & Fleming, 2001). These records can be legal
documents like property ownership or wills; Tax and economic records that can give
information on ownership and use of land; pictorial records like paintings, engraving and
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photographs help in tracing changes in landscapes; written accounts like books, travelogues
and diaries describe monuments like they were before the modern period and give insight on
location and construction methods. Documents can be very detailed or very generalized and
although they are the starting point of research, they should not be the only source of tracking
down a site because sometimes documents make no mention of settlements or monuments
but that does not indicate that they did not exist there (Drewett, 2001). Maps are extremely
resourceful while trying to find archaeological sites since they record countries, towns, and
natural features quite accurately. Individual structures are represented pictorially on maps as
well. The first maps dates back to 2300 BC that the Babylonians created on clay tablets.
Thus, maps help archaeologists to locate prehistoric sites that may be currently destroyed.
Aerial photography is one of the most important remote sensing tools used by
archaeologists who are searching for new sites. A young member of the Royal Flying Corps
called O.G.S Crawford recognized the relevance of aerial photography during World War I.
He invented terms like Shadow sites, crop marks and soil marks to describe what he saw
from the airplane. These soil marks or crop marks help in identifying sub-surface features
like buried stone walls and other structures that are not visible from the ground. These buried
structures and features cause a slight difference in ground conditions like color or vegetation
that become apparent when viewed from above. Photographs can be taken at vertical and
oblique angles depending on what dimension of the site needs to be recorded.
Photogrammetry is the process of obtaining dimensional information from photographs and
applying that information to create scale drawings. Invention of new technology leads to new
exploration techniques. For instance, In Jordan, drones will do a five-year long survey of
looted Dead Sea sites. Drones are cheap and they give more detailed aerial data than
satellites.
Systematic ground survey is another method of determining whether sites are of
archaeological importance or not. This method is usually undertaken when a land needs to be
inspected for archaeological significance before any construction activities can take place on
it. Geographer, Peter Haggett defined four basic sampling strategies that can be used
depending on the time and money available. Fieldwalking or surface collection referes to
systematic collection of artifacts from ploughed soil that might have housed a human
settlement. Ceramics, burnt stone, metals and bones are often collected. It is relatively cheap
compared to other methods since a large area of land can be surveyed using volunteer labor
to collect the finds. It can determine the function and period of a site without excavation.
However, it is only really useful on arable land.
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Geophysical surveys are a non-destructive way of site investigation. It is a part of

remote sensing techniques. The most common techniques detect magnetic and electrical
irregularities but only experts possess the skill required to interpret the results. Resistivity
surveying, magnetometry, ground-penetrating radar, acoustic reflection and thermal sensing
are some of the geophysical survey techniques used. With the advent of computer based
technology, all types of data ranging from maps, text, photographs, field recordings could be
integrated into a GIS- Geographic Information System. A GIS can produce layers of
information on current land use, topographical mas, surface geology, vegetation etc. and
performs complex statistical analysis as well. It has revolutionized the presentation of
archaeological data.
Another way of finding traces of human activities in an area is by locating changes in
soil chemistry. It is based on the principle that all living things absorb phosphorous and then
discard it as organic waste. Thus, by tracing high concentration of phosphorous in the soil,
one can tract areas of human activity. This method is used in accordance with another method
like aerial photography or if a pottery scatter is found. However analysis of different metals
like copper, lead and calcium can give more details about the type of human activity found in
that region.
Besides, all these scientific techniques or literary records, one of the most effective sources of
locating archaeological sites are accounts of oral history. Quite recently, an excavation in
Moche Valley, Peru revealed a single mass sacrifice killing of over 140 children and 200
camelids by the Chimú state in 1450 AD. It is the largest child and camelid sacrifice known
so far. Only in 2011 when local residents pointed out that human and camelid bones were
eroding out of roadside dunes, was an emergency excavation conducted. No architectural
remains were found or sign of any human habitation but burial pits containing the skeletons
of children and lamas were dug up (Prieto , Verano , Goepfert , Kennett , Quilter, LeBlanc, et
al. 2019). Thus a lot of knowledge about archaeological sites maybe be undocumented but
known to only the locals of that region. Farmers area major source of archaeological
information and they might be able to identify areas where building rubble lies or where
dressed stones have been removed. Thus, even listening to local folktales may give an
archaeologist clues about potential sites.
It is important to note that many times archeological sites are found out of sheer
accident or by a stroke of luck by ordinary people like farmers, quarry workers or just
passers-by. The Xian terracotta army, the Moai rock carvings, Ajanta caves were all
accidental discoveries. Most of the time, only a tiny percent of these discoveries are reported
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to archaeologists, otherwise casual finds are just limited to local museums. Sometimes, the
person who found the archaeological site might not even think of it as an important area.
However, it is essential for archaeologists to show interest in these small discoveries so that
more people are encouraged to share whatever they have stumbled upon.

Exploration for Shipwrecks off Sunchi Reef, Goa, West Coast of India
The first case study is an exploration of Sunchi Reef in Goa that lies at the bottom of
the western coastline of India. The research paper discusses several marine archaeological
explorations that took place between 1997 and 1999 in an area of 50m x 50m at a depth of 3-
9m at Sunchi (Tripati, Gaur, Bandodker, & Bandodker, 2001). Before deciding the exact
location of exploration, Portuguese records housed at the Goa state archives in Panaji were
studied. These records had a list of ships lost off the Goan coast during the Portuguese rule
but did not provide an exact location of the shipwrecks and only stated that they occurred in
shallow waters due to severe storms. Studying the maritime history of Goa gave the
researchers a big clue where to look for a shipwreck and was the stepping-stone for the rest of
the archaeological expedition.
Divers were hired to conduct the swimline and circular search surveys to location of
the wreck. The dives were 5 to 10m in radius and lasted for about 30 minutes. As the name
suggests, in a swimline survey, a group of divers are spaced out on a line so that they are
within sight of each other. The divers swim in a particular direction keeping the line taut and
at right angles to the direction of motion. The divers observe the seabed and record and mark
material as they proceed. The main benefit of a swimline survey is that it ensures that any
particular area is visually searched by two divers, and thus there is a high certainty of sighting
an object. However, during this survey a high form of control should be maintained to get a
clear idea of the search path, otherwise the survey could end up being a hit or miss operation
(Green, 2004). Circular surveys are used when the visibility is low and it is used for quick
identification. In this technique it is important to maintain visual contact with the adjacent
diver and this technique can be successfully implemented after a lot of planning and training
in effective underwater communication. During surveys attention is paid to natural features
like rock outcrops, movement of sediments, seabed topography, water depth, current
direction and archaeological artifacts. During surveys, when artifacts are found, buoys are
tied to them and their position is marked. Additionally, the artifacts were recorded in situ
using video and photography methods.
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To fix the exact co-ordinates of the wreck and the artifacts found, a NAV 5000 DLX
GPS (Global Positioning system) was used. Using the GPS is extremely efficient because it
takes only 12 to 30 seconds to collect data on the location of the site (Tripati, Gaur, &
Sundaresh, 1997). However, there is a chance that the GPS signal is reflected off a rock
surface before reaching the researcher, increase the travel time of the signal thereby causing
errors that are impossible to correct. Boat-towed metal detector surveys were also carried
over the wreck site and adjoining areas. The use of metal detectors is an inexpensive remote
sensing technology that is non-destructive and non-intrusive. Metal detectors aid in
establishing the metallic debris distribution at a site that is useful for the archaeologist to
establish site boundaries, locate buried trash deposits and locate buried structural remains and
works effectively especially in shallow sites like the Sunchi Reef (Connor & Scott,1998).
However, this technique has been criticized of lacking sensitivity and in many instances
stability since many large metal objects cannot be detected more than a few meters away.
Thus, this can only be used in addition to several other archaeological reconnaissance
methods.
Besides employing several exploration techniques it was imperative for researchers to
apply knowledge of coastal and marine geology and hydrography in order to get an idea of
the marine erosional and depositional forces that have been at work. Topography,
sedimentary characteristics and water movement played an important role in the preservation
of the shipwreck. Artifacts are usually lifted by hand while large ones are carried in airbags.
Martaban pottery, Chinese ceramics, several elephant tusks, iron guns, stone bricks, granite
blocks and bottoms of glass bottles were found and this evidence suggests that the wreck is
from the early seventeenth century of the Portuguese period and gives us insight on the Indo-
Portuguese trade and commerce.

The use of Magnetic Prospection in the exploration of Iron Age Hillfort Interiors in Southern
England
The area from the South cost of England to North Wales is concentrated with remains
of Iron Age fortified hilltop settlements. Many of these Hillforts face the threat from
ploughing, grazing and other forms of erosion and so have been given a protected status. It is
not possible to carry out large-scale excavations in these areas and so this research paper
discusses how non-destructive methods can be used to analyze the interiors of these hillforts
for traces of human habitation and activity. Geophysical survey methods have been used to
analyze the interiors of the hill forts, especially magnetic survey techniques. The Earth’s
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magnetic field is uniform in any one place but human activity result in local magnetic
distortions. Magnetometry is a technique that records these minor variations in the Earth’s
magnetic field. The topsoil contains Haematite, which is a type of iron, and when a pit is dug
in the Earth it automatically fills up with topsoil that has a different magnetic concentration
that the surrounding subsoil (Grant, Gorin, & Fleming, 2001). Clay becomes magnetic and
retains the direction of the earth’s magnetic field after firing and an increased concentration
of Iron Oxide in the soil indicates that burning and organic decomposition took place thereby
hinting at general occupation activities. Much of this material is accumulated in pits and
features and are detected by a magnetometer. The first magnetometers were quite complex to
use but today the use of the fluxgate gradiometers enables large areas of land to be scanned
rapidly and they can also detect features that are buried 1m down and even provide images of
those buried features. Even in this study, a fluxgate gradiometer is used to survey the six
different hillfort sites that are located in the downlands of Wessex. The magnetometer
successfully detected features silted into the bedrock like storage pits, quarried and sunken
features like trackways. The permanently magnetized industrial features paint a picture of the
kind of manufacturing processes that may have taken place in the hillforts. At maiden castle
in Dorset, a large subcircular enclosure was detected at the center of the fort and it was
analyzed as a monument of a non-domestic area. In the Woolbury region at Hampshire, the
low level of magnetic activity inside the hillfort suggests that the settlement was of much
lower compared to other settlements and the site was abandoned in a decade or two. Several
roadways and entrances of the hillforts have been detected by the magnetometers as well.
One of the main drawbacks of using a magnetometer as a survey device is that it fails to
detect smaller features like gullies and pot holes because they are either so small that they are
missed by the standard reading intervals or are too poorly magnetized to be detectable.
However it is still a strong interpretative tool for the analysis of hillforts since it provides a
lot of information of the distribution and intensity of settlement activity. Using data collected
by the magnetometer, relationships between hillfort type and social and economic activities
in the Iron Age can be drawn. Using data collected through geophysical surveys, measures
can be taken to improve the management and conservation of these hillforts and reduce the
threat of ploughing. Signs can be placed and specific paths can be defined to ensure that no
one walks on the archaeological areas that are sensitive to erosion. This case study is a prime
example of magnetometers as an effective and efficient exploration technique.
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Excavation methods
Only when archaeologists have done background research, conducted surveys and are
completely familiar with the concerned site that the decision to excavate it is made. There are
no fixed rules for excavation and the methodology is constantly changing with change in
thought and technology. A lot of caution needs to be taken while planning an excavation
because once any material of past is removed or dug, the process is irreversible and the
material cannot be replaced. All excavation is destruction and as Kent Flannery rightly stated
in the American Anthropologist, “Archaeology is the only branch of anthropology where we
kill our informants in the process of studying them.” An archaeologist must maintain the
balance between the desire to protect archaeological remains for future generations and
adding to the body of knowledge in archaeology through excavations.
Excavations are usually of three types- research, rescue and salvage excavations.
Research excavations are sites where there is no immediate threat of destruction. The site is
merely selected because the archaeologist is interested in answering a particular question.
Here gaining archaeological knowledge is prioritized over preserving the site for future
generations. Research excavations are usually privately funded and do not have the support
of public funds. On the other hand, rescue excavations came into practice when there were a
significant number of archaeological sites facing the threat of destruction. Post the 1960s,
when road building, gravel extraction or laying of pipelines increased rapidly, there was the
danger od valuable evidence being lost. The scale of development was so huge that
excavation teams were needed all year round. Archaeologists visit sites and deicide if it is
worthy for excavation or not. This requires a lot of planning and co-ordination between the
government, the contractors and the archaeologists. In some rare cases, the archaeological
evidence is unexpectedly revealed and the archaeologists need to act fast. They either decide
to simply make a note of the artifacts found or excavate the site. Regardless, in this scenario
it is hard to carry out a pre-planned and systematic excavation.
The next step in the excavation process is to decide whether the entire archaeological
site must be excavated or if only excavating a certain section is sufficient enough to provide
the information needed. A site can be excavated either in a horizontal or a vertical fashion.
Digging vertical trenches will reveal the stratigraphy of the site, while open area excavations
will provide information on the culture of the site i.e the relationship between occupation,
individual structures and other features belonging from the same time period can be studied.
However, the box-grid or quadrant system of excavation allows the archaeologists to get a
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vertical and horizontal view simultaneously. Sir Mortimer Wheeler is credited for introducing
the box grid system in the first half of the twentieth century. the quadrant method is similar to
the box-grid system and it is relevant even today and its often employed to excavate hearths,
pits or even postholes. The feature is cut into four quadrants and the opposing quadrants are
excavated first. The topsoil id removed mechanically with a digger or using mattocks or
shovels. To recover tiny material fragments dentistry tools instruments can also be used. Soil
deposits are recognized, labeled and removed in sequence. Metal detectors may be used while
initially surveying the site but this equipment is used to check soil dumps for finds and also
alerts the diggers if there are any fragile metal objects in the area they are digging.

Excavation at the ‘Tree of Life’ site

The tree of life is an iconic location in south central Bahrain, about 40km south of the
capital al-Manamah. Prior to the excavation of the site, a documentation process was adopted
where in the excavation team photographed and filmed artifacts before they were removed
from the site; drew up an architectural plan and referred to previous literature that mentioned
the artifacts on the site. This excavation was conducted on behalf of the ministry of culture of
Bahrain. The long-term plan is to develop the site and build an on site museum to house
artifacts, especially the unique collection of pottery. Thus the nature of the excavation leans
more towards a research excavation since it is more to fulfill a cultural interest rather than
eliminate any developmental threats. The ‘Tree of life’ is called so because it has been
growing lusciously in arid conditions for almost 500 years and continues to survive till today.
Its fame has the potential to attract tourists and an archaeological excavation will add to the
historical importance of the site, thereby increasing the traffic of tourists near that site.
This case study covers excavations that were carried out between April and July 2010.
The excavation was undertaken 3m away from the trunk of tree so that the roots of the tree do
not get exposed or damaged. Excavations began in the northwestern section of the tell. Six
workers marked out the entire tell with 5m x 5m mesh boxes divided by balk lines that were
1m wide. The boxes were labeled by letters and serial numbering and the boxes were chosen
and dug at varying depths. Overall, the excavation was conducted in a horizontal method in
order to search for layers that may date pre-islamic times. Evidence from the excavation
indicated the existence of two residential layers, one was a long row of stones that could be
the remnants of houses that previously existed on the surface; and the second layer was a wall
extending to the bottom of several trenches.
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The stone tools found in the burial layers suggest that the Tree of Life has had
settlements dating back to the Neolithic period. One of the highlights of this excavation was
the full collection of pots found because it is rare to find a full assemblage of pots in Bahrain.
These storage pots were deliberately kept in a cluster, upside down thus suggesting that
presence of a storage factory. Results of test carried out on ceramics indicate that the site
dates back to the late Islamic period between 1440-1640. . A set of small flint pieces indicates
a lifestyle that was based around fishing. The discovery of a large quantity of fish bones
provide evidence of a garbage dump and reiterates the residents reliance on fish for
sustenance. Based on the type of artifacts, the structure of the walls and the remnants of the
houses, we get a clear idea of what the culture of residents at the site was at different periods
of time. The advantage of this method of excavation is that interpretation, recording, planning
and photography are simplified. Secondly, it is much easier to communicate the nature and
the importance of the site to others (Higginbotham, 1985). The archaeological features are
apparent to the visitors and it is required in this case since the government of Bahrain wants
to increase tourism in the country.

Archaeology from the Ice: Excavation Methods in a frozen Hut

This second case study on excavations is slightly unusual from the excavations one
reads about simply because it was undertaken in the Antarctic. Textbooks and research
papers do not usually focus on excavations in extreme conditions like ice and snow. Thus, it
would be interesting to know how the usually excavation techniques are applied in such
weather. In summer of 1984 and 1985, a private expedition by project blizzard was carried
out at The Mawsons huts site at Cape Denison. This site is of historical importance because it
was the first Australian occupation in Antarctica led by Douglas Mawson. The Australasian
Antarctic Expedition lived at Cape Denision from 1911 to 1914 and used the site as a base for
geographical exploration and scientific work. They build four wooden huts and installed
radio masts, meteorological equipment and survey stations. The site is very remote from
other stations and so has received relatively less human visitors than anywhere else in
Antarctica. The site needed to be Archaeologist Esther Lazer was the one to lead the
excavation expedition at Mawson’s huts site and in doing so she became the first
archaeologist to work in the Antarctic and pioneered survey methods suitable for those harsh
conditions.
Out of the four huts, the largest and most important building referred to as the ‘winter
building’ was excavated. While the hut was accessible to visitors in the 1950s, it has been
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pretty much covered in ice and snow since 1962. It is completely dark inside the hut and the
first challenge was working in limited artificial lighting provided by generator or batteries.
The temperature at the time of excavation was at a constant of -4 to -5 degrees Celsius. When
lazer and her team arrived at the main Mawson’s hut, it was found that a beam in the hut was
cracked in addition to several cracked joists as well. the excavation had to be carried out
immediately. The main problem was that usual texts do not provide any suitable methods to
excavate in snow and ice so the researchers had to figure out the best way possible on their
own. Lazer and her team ruled out the decision to not use any excavation methods that
involved melting ice since they believed that the artifacts made of ice would be lost if the
outer layer is thawed. Four pits were dug in the main hut and trench and traditional method of
excavation was followed. The stratigraphic method of excavation revealed various types of
snow and ice were found inside the main hut. The topmost layer was wind drifted snow, corn
snow i.e. a harder icy snow which was more than a year old and solid ice. Artifacts like
paper, wood, and iron were found in all layers. It is dangerous while shattering ice as small
chips can fly upwards, thus ice protection should be worn at all times. It is tricky while
excavating in ice because a few artifacts were damaged due to force applied while digging.
This happens because ice does not behave like soil or clay, which tends to peel away from the
artifacts instead fractures artifacts especially paper. one of the drawbacks of this excavation
was that because the atmosphere is extremely dry, stakes and pegs could not be anchored
securely which led to problems for the establishment of datum lines and grid. Mechanical
excavation techniques do not provide satisfactory results because of hazard to artifacts, thus
digging techniques with careful controlled melting needs to be developed for future
excavations in snow and ice.

Conclusion
The four case studies critiqued in this paper are extremely diverse and provide a
thorough understanding of why specific excavation methods are used in diverse settings. To
conduct a successful excavation it is essential for an archaeologist to be well versed with
different exploration and excavation techniques in order to apply this knowledge on site. As
explained in the essay ‘Loss of innocence’- archaeology is a discipline that strikes a fine
balance between organization and creativity. The archaeological data is analyzed using
scientific techniques and the results are displayed in mathematical terms, however,
archaeological observations warrant creative and imaginative interpretation.
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