CHAPTER ONE

Ideological Background And Theoretical

Framework Of India’s Foreign Policy

During Cold War Era.

 Chapter- 1

“Foreign policy is the key element in the process by which a state translates its broadly
conceived goals and interests into concrete cources of action to attain these interests”.

(Padelford and Lincoln)

Foreign Policy: An Introduction

Nations pursue their policies within the context of an

existing world environment. It is of cause obvious that
policies designed to serve a pattern of interests in one period
under one set of circumstances can be largely irrelevant in
another period.(1)

Foreign policy may be defined as the sum total of the

principles, aims and objectives which an independent country
evolves in maintaining its relations with other countries of the
world without any pressure what so – ever from any country
big or small, developing or under-developed, powerful or
weak. Foreign policy is the mirror of political status of a
country.(2) A country is often known in the world by the
foreign policy it maintains. Foreign policy essentially refers
to the interaction which a country has with the other
countries, their governments and about major international
problems. The life of the country, its defence and security as
well as its economics prosperity depend upon this policy, so
the foreign policy of a country is very important. (3)

Foreign policy and diplomacy have been described as

wheels with which the process of international relations
operates No state can live in isolation. Even before
independence of states reached the present stage the states
and several types of relations among themselves. These
included trade relations cultural relations and political
relations. Foreign policy is formulated by every state so as to
serve its national interests. The governments of states have to
decide on certain others.

Foreign policy has been defined by Modelski as the

system of activities involved by communities for changing
the behaviour of other states and for adjusting their own
activities to the international environment. He was also of the
opinion that the most important task of foreign policy must be
to “allow light on the ways in which states attempt to change
and succeed in changing the behaviour of other states. Hugh
Gibson has defined foreign policy as “a well rounded,
comprehensive plan based on knowledge and experience, for
changing the business of government with the rest of the
world. It is aimed at promoting and protecting the foreign
policy is an interaction between forces originating within
them.

A very good definition of foreign policy is given by

Cecil. V. Crab, Jr. he says: Reduced to its most fundamental
ingredients, foreign policy consists of two elements. National
objectives to be achieved and means for achieving them. The
interaction between national goals and the resources for
attaining them is the perennial subject of statecraft. In its
ingredients the foreign policy of all nations, great or small, is
(4)
the same. Foreign policy includes (a), the policy makers(b),
interests and objectives(c) principles of foreign policy and
means of foreign policy. It is a thought-out course of action
for achieving objectives in foreign relations as dictated by the
ideology of national interest. Foreign policy is the interaction
between ends and means.

Foreign policy making is a dynamic process.

Normally, change of government does not change the
fundaments of foreign policy of a state, though a
revolutionary change in political set-up may result in drastic
changes. It remains normally unchanged because foreign
policy of a state is determined by a number of factors that do
change, but their impact in shaping a country is “compounded
out of many factors and forces”. All of them interact and
determine the foreign policy. According to Paddleford and
Lincoln: “Fundamentally, foreign policy has its roots in the
unique historical backgrounds, political institutions, traditions
economic needs, power factors, aspirations, peculiar
geographical circumstances, and basic set of values held by a
nation.(5) According to J. Bandopadhyaya basic determinants
of foreign policy include geography, economic development
political traditions domestic milieu, international milieu,
military strength and national character. Brief mention will be
made of the factors that generally determine foreign policies.

Geography, the geographical situation is a basic

determinant. The size of the state large enough to support a
population, a climate that is neither excessively cold nor very
hot, a topography offering boundaries with natural barriers
such as mountains, rivers and seas and a compact territory
enable a country to make and implement independent foreign
policy. Geography and terrain were very important assets,
before modern military machinery came into existence like
the size and topography, natural resources and size of
population contribute to the power of the state, which in turn
shapes its foreign policy, of the geographical factors special
attention must be drawn to location. Britain and Japan though
small in size, because great nations because of their ability to
use the ocean as highways of commerce. The absence of
natural frontiers as in case of Poland often threaten their
security.

As Appadorai wrote, that Britain is separated from

Europe by twenty miles of water gave her an advantage
denied to several countries such as France and Germany
which had to spend much of their resources in fighting each
other on border problems.

History and traditions have significant influence on

foreign policy making. Historical ties of the United States
with Britain, the mother country, had an impact on the US
policy for a very long time. British imperialism in India, and
our struggle for freedom against colonialism and imperialism
has had direct impact on India‟s foreign policy. India‟s full
support to freedom struggle in Agro-Asian countries and fight
against racial discrimination was the outcome of our history.
The Democratic values in the U.S and secularism in India are
so deep rooted that they cannot be ignored by any foreign
policy maker in these countries.

The possession of raw materials and natural resources

and compulsions of economic development also determine
the course of a country‟s foreign policy. The political strength
of a country is often measured in terms of economic strength.
Hence this factor cannot be ignored while shaping the foreign
policy. A weak industrial base has adverse effectiveness of
the country‟s foreign policy. After independence, India has to
devote its attention to the process of development. For the
purpose she needed not only foreign aid but also foreign
technology.

The high national morale makes for a successful

conduct of foreign policy. Obviously, a homogeneous society
makes for strong national unity and high morale. Sharp
divisions in the society between rich and poor, between
different classes, communities and castes – have adverse
impact on foreign policy. Social cohesion therefore is another
factor in the shaping of successful foreign policy.

Political organisation, political tradition, structure of

government and enlightened leadership also contribute to the
shaping of an effective foreign policy and its traditions. The
tradition of peace, truth and non-violence enabled India to
insist on peaceful settlement of international disputes and
encourage disarmament.

Military strength of a country has direct impact on its

foreign policy. Possession of large and powerful armed
warfare makes for an effective and aggressive foreign policy.
A country with weak, military machine will normally be at a
disadvantage even at peaceful negoliations. It has been seen
that an enlightened leadership and high morale of people and
the army, as in the case of Israel make up for small size of
army and make for a successful foreign policy. A military
superior country would try to pursue a bold policy to
maximise its gains, and a weak country would try to minimise
its disadvantage.

International milieu is one of the most important

determinants of foreign policy. In any case, foreign policy is
the sum total of decisions taken by a country to regulate the
behaviour of other states. Therefore the international system
at any given point of time has direct impact on foreign
policies. Appadorai sums up the position as, the complexity
of foreign policy arises from the interaction of the desire of
states within the international community to achieve their
own national interests, and they consequent attitudes to
international issues. It is the basis of all international
relations. (7)

India’s Foreign Policy:

A country relation with other countries of the world is

known as her external relations. The external relations of a
country are based on certain principles and policies. They are
collectively called as Foreign Policy. Thus Foreign policy is
the totality of actions of a state in dealing with external
environment consisting of national, international and regional
actors. In other words foreign policy is the sum total of a
country‟s relationship with these actors while pursuing its
received goals and objectives through the process of foreign
policy a state translates its goals and interests into specific
courses of action. India‟s foreign policy is shaped by several
factors including its history, culture, geography and economy.
Our PM, Jawaharlal Nehru gave a definite shape to the
country‟s foreign policy. (8)

Indian ideology in the international affairs is based on

the five principles of Indias J.P under leaders like Nehru and
Mahatma Gandhi. These are a belief in friendly relations with
all countries of the world. The resolution of conflicts by
peaceful means, the sovereign equality of all states,
independent of through and action as manifested in the
principles of men – alignment and equity in the conduct of
international relations. Promotion of democratic values is
high on India‟s international relations. Another bench mark of
India‟s official ideology is secular nationalism. India is the
home for peoples from various religions and cultures. India
promotes secular values and freedom to follow any religion or
culture.

India‟s Foreign Policy after se became independent in

1947. It was in September 1946 that Jawaharlal Nehru
formulated the independent policy which has been followed
ever since. Successive Prime Ministers have endorsed that
policy and parliament has approved it. The essence of the
independent foreign policy is non-alignment i.e., India
refused to join either the communist bloc or the Western bloc
into which most of the nations were grouped during the days
of the cold war. She preferred to remain outside the contest.
Two other features of this policy have been (1) an emphasis
on peaceful negotiation as a means to resolving conflicts, the
temper of peace as Nehru put it and (2) a deliberate effort to
seek the friendship of all nations including the nations of the
communist bloc as well as the western bloc. (9)

In formulation of a foreign policy, both domestic and

external factors are taken into account. If we look at the way
the formulation of foreign policy in democratic and non-
democratic countries, they mobilize national power, define
their national interests, and peruse effective policies play
military strategy in the light of balance of power – which is
one of the basic principles of power politics game that acts to
control interstate relations. However, the formulation of
foreign policy is the result of its leaders capacity which gains
peoples support in implementing that foreign policy (10).

The phenomenon of Indian foreign policy, as it

manifested itself after the entry of the Indian Union as an
independent dominion and soon afterwards the Republic of
India into World politics, became a characteristics part of the
new states image, as well as of global international relations.
Often also called “Nehru‟s foreign policy”. It started to reveal
its distinctive features even before that after Delhi Interims
Government was installed in Nov. 1946, if not even earlier.
Naturally, some time had to elapse before the philosophy of
India‟s foreign policy asserted itself, before it was understood
as official policy by the powers in its complex, systematic
entirely. And as being of long-term significance, rather than a
matter of temporary tactics. At the same time it began to
attract serious attention of publicists and scholars mainly
because of its novel originality and indeed, because of its
historical importance in view of the newly – acquired political
sovereignty of a former colonial country. (11)

A quarter of a century has gone by since Jawaharlal

Nehru made his epoch making pronounament of India‟s
foreign policy as the Vice – President and member in charge
of External affairs in Viceroy Lord Wavell‟s. Foreign policy
of a nation is rooted in its domestic life but the latter itself
being an organic part of the wide world has to be in tune with
it. any nations capacity to influence the outside world and its
capacity to influence the outside world and its capacity to
absorb, and assimilate the world‟s impact and adjust itself to
its hard realities are dialectically related to each other.(12)

The guiding principles of Indias Foreign Policy have

been founded on Panchsheel, Pragmatism and pursuit of
national interest. In a period of rapid and continuing change,
foreign policy must be capable of responding optimally to
new challenges and opportunities. It has to be an integral part
of the larger effort of building the nation‟s capabilities
through economic development, strengthening social fabric
and well – being of the people and protecting Indias
sovereignty and territorial integrity. India‟s foreign policy if a
forward – looking engagement with the rest of the world,
based on rigorous, realistic and contemporary assessment of
the bilateral, regional and global geo – political and economic
milieu.

As many as 20 million people of Indian origin live and

work abroad and constitute an important link with the mother
country. An important role of India‟s foreign policy has been
to ensure their welfare as well being within the framework of
the laws of the country‟s where they live. (13)

Pre-Independence Policy.

Indian foreign policy is not a product of some specific

circumstances or conduct rather it has long historical past
dated back to ancient time. Throughout ancient and medieval
times we had cordial relationship with the people of the
globe. With the establishment of British colonialism in India,
its external relation particularly with neighbouring countries
was mainly shaped by colonial motives. They started
expansionist policy with regard to Burma Nepal, Afghanistan
and Tibet, Nationalist leaders` of that time condemned such
“Policy” and demanded independent foreign policy based
upon respect for national sovereignty, territorial integrity and
peaceful co-existence. In the first session in 1855 the Indian
National congress denounced the annexation of Burma and
objected to the military activity going on beyond the natural
lines of defences of this country.

In a letter addressed to the president of the peace

conference of 1919 Bal Gangadhar Tilak Wrote “India is self
– contained harbours, no design upon the integrity of other
states and has no ambition outside. In 1921 at meeting of the
All India Congress Committee in Delhi the Indian National
congress passed its first general resolution of foreign policy,
and openly declared that the present (British) government of
India in no way represents Indian opinion. In 1938 Another
significant pronounument about the foreign policy of India
was made at the Haripura session in 1938. This resolution
said”, the people of India the foreign policy was based on
various factors including socio-pol economic and cultural
India‟s foreign policy during the British rule underwent
drastic changes. It saw cross cultural and cross linguistic
connections between colonial powers in India. It generated a
penchant among the Indian elite to learn English and to
emulate British political institutions. In fact, before, 1857 it
was an era of Visualisation of India similar to the nation
states of Europe. The mutiny of 1857 created profound
impact on administrative, cultural, intellectual and
psychological attitudes leading to a renaissance like situation
a newly emerged middle class was seen in the form of linear
continuity of attitudes which was expressed in ideologies and
various movements. On the other hand, there was an assertive
reaction to the arrogance of the Western rulers. However
educationally India and West came closer and increasing
number of Indians going to England for higher studies
brought better technical know-how back into the country this
phase was therefore, market by increasing awareness.

In the post-first World War era Indias foreign policy

got real fillip when British – Indian delegation was given
separate representation in international conference and
deliberation, this not only intensified India‟s global
consciousness but also laid the foundation of Indian foreign
policy orientation in the post independence era.(14)

Desire to live in peace and friendship with their

neighbours and with all other countries, and for this purpose
wish to remove all causes of conflict between them in order,
therefore, to establish world peace on an enduring basis;
imperialism and exploitation of one people by another must
end.

Indian Independence Movement or Indian Movements.

Mohan Das Karam Chand Gandhi was the pre-eminent

political and ideological leader of India during the Indian
independence movement. It encompasses a wide area of
political organisation, philosophies and movements which
had the common aim of ending first British East India
company rule, and then British imperial authority, in parts of
South Asia, the independence movement saw various national
and regional campaigns agitations and efforts, same non-
violent and others not so.

The first organised militant movement were in Bengal,

but they later took to the political stage in the form of a
mainstream movement in the then newly formed Indian
National congress (INC) with prominent moderate leaders
seeking only their basic right to appear for Indian civil rights,
economic in nature, for the people of the soil. The early poet
of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards
political independence proposed by Bal, Pal and Aucbindo
Glosh. The last stage of the freedom struggle from the 1920‟s
on onwards saw congress adopt Mahandas Karamachand
Gandhij‟s policy of non-violence and civil resistance. (15)

Foreign policy of Independent India:

Immediately after independence India was in need of

consolidating herself politically and territorially. In order to
flight back the polarisation of the world between two super
powers, the US and the USSR, India adopted a non-aligned
stand. Further with a view to maintaining its politico –
strategic entity India tried to develop cordial relations with
Pakistan and China. It also tried to unite newly independent
nations on matters of common concern in order to concern
freedom of opinion. (16)

Therefore, after independence India evolved its foreign

policy on the background of her colonial sufferings. Basically
it was based on its inherited principal of peaceful- co-
existence mutual adjustment and amicable solution of
disputes. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India
was the chief architect of Indians foreign policy. Fight from
independence to the present time Indias foreign policy has run
more or less on the same line. Each and every government
that came in succeeding years has adhered to these basic
principles and objectives laid down during Nehruvian era this
shows continuity in our foreign policy. Hence looking back
our foreign policy so for can be analysed as. (17)

Jawaharlal Nehru and the Indian Foreign Policy:

“Foreign policies depend ultimately on internal

conditions and developments. Internal progress for us,
therefore, becomes essential if we are to play an effective part
in world affairs.” “Jawaharlal Nehru”.

There were many outstanding personalities in Nehru‟s

government. Nevertheless, they generally left the foreign
policy exclusively in the hands of the Prime Minister. The
Prime Ministers Office did not possess any statutory power.
Nehru‟s secretary Mathai himself wrote that its members
were “Only gatherers and conveyors and, in short, mechanics
men.” Nehru‟s foreign policy was exclusive forte of Nehru.

India‟s international prestige had rapidly resin till

nearly 1956. India had opted to stay off the cold war and
follow the policy of non – alignment. This policy is even 50
years later still the foundation stone of India‟s foreign policy.
Initially non – alignment was viewed with suspicion by both
the power blocs; but gradually they came to realise its utility.
India‟s role during Korean war was generally appreciated;
and India played a vital role in enabling the disputants to
reach an amicable settlement in respect of Indo – China in
1954. The Declaration of Panchsied jointly made by India and
China in 1954 was also warmly welcomed by several
countries. India under Nehru, was considered to be the
pioneer of the policy of peaceful co – existence. Non –
alignment and peaceful co – existence is two major
contributions of India and its first Prime Minister.

The conference of Agro – Asian countries held in 1955

at Bandung (Indonesia) was not only convened largely on
Nehru‟s initiative, but after the Bunding conference India
began to be recognised as a leading – power amongst the non
– alignment nations. The manner in which Nehru opposed
colonialism enabled India to occupy an important place in the
third world countries. During the Anglo – French attack on
Egypt, as a part of the Suez crisis India bitterly criticised the
aggression. This made India popular as a vehement opponent
of imperialism in Asia and Africa, and Champion of
Independence of the countries that were still under foreign
colonial rule.

Friendship with China had become an important pillar

of Indias foreign policy. But as P.D. Kaushik wrote. Chinas
clever tactics after 1959 put Indian leaders in a state of
confusion. At the initiative of Nehru, Nasser and Tito, the
Non-aligned Movement (NAM) was established in 1961 at
the Belgrade conference of 25 non – aligned countries, but
many countries adopted the policy of ignoring Indias stand in
the context of India – China conflict. After a long wait, Indian
army had to take action in December 1961, and it liberated
Goa from the Portuguese colonial rule. This action was fully
appreciated within the country, and it was described as a
success of India‟s foreign policy. (18)

In the initial years after independence indo China

relations was very cordial “Hindhi – Chini bhai, bhai” was the
popular slogan of that time. India and China also signed
„Panchased” agreement in 1954. But from 1955 on – words
Sino-Indian relationship deteriorated because of mutual
differences over Tibet and other border issued. These tensions
culminated with Sino-Indian war of 1962. India had very low
level relationship with major powers of the world. USSR saw
Nehru as an agent of capitalism led by America. On the other
had USA had suspicion regarding Indias non – alignment
policy.

During the period, three major conferences greatly

influenced the Indian World View. These conferences were
the Asian Relations Conference 1947. The Bunding
conference, 1955 and the Belgrade Summit, 1961. All the
three conferences had the same agenda i.e., commitment to
the United Nations and the proposed steps to strength the
commitment. Further India intended to become a role model
for Agro – Asian nations emerging from the colonial rule.
Moreover, India also articulated her views on colonialism,
apartheid racial discrimination, nuclear and general
discrimination. (19)

So far as Soviet Union was concerned, India showed

her inclination towards making friendly relations immediately
after independence. In fact, some of the scholars have opined
that India‟s foreign policy in the initial phases was nothing
but an extension of British Policy. Even if it is considered
true. India could not get any advantage from Britain. Neither
had it received any considerable support from US. The US on
the other hand made an alliance with Pakistan in South Asia.
All this led India move close to Soviet Union.

India’s foreign policy during Shastri period:

Jawaharlal Nehru died in office on 27th of May 1964

and left a void then congress party president K.Kamaraj was
instrumental in making Shastri Prime Minister on June. Lal
Bahadur Shastri, through mid-mannered and soft spoken, was
a Nehruvian socialist and thus held appeal to those wishing to
prevent the ascent of conservative right-Winger Moraji Desi.

Lal Bahadur Shastri in his first broadcast as prime

Minister, on 11 June 1964, Stated “these comes a time in the
life of every nation when it stands at the cross-roads of
history and must chose which may to go. But for us there
need be no difficulty or hesitation, no looking to right or left
our way is straight and clear-the building up of a socialist
democracy at home with freedom and prosperity for all, and
the maintenance of world peace and friendship with all
nations.”

Shastri worked by his natural characteristics to obtain

compromises between opposing view points, but in his short
tenure he was ineffectual in dealing with the economic crises
and food shortage in nation. However, he commanded a great
deal of respect in the Indian populace, and he used it to gain
advantage in pushing the green revolution in India, which
directly led to India becoming a food-surplus nation, although
he did not live to see it. During the 22 dry war with Pakistan
Lal Bahadur Shastri created the slogan of Jai Jawan Jai Kisan
(Hail the soldier, Hail the farmer) understanding the need to
boost Indias food production. Apart from emphasing the
Green Revolution he was instrumental in promoting the white
revolution. (20)

Shastri fortunately had two types of assets in his

possession to help him steer the ship of state through the
perilous sea of difficulties; the personality assets and the
assets that the democratic system brought to him. He was
basically right when he told Hiren Mukerjee in the Lok-Sabha
that in a democracy there is full freedom for rethinking and
independent thinking; there is nothing as a deviation (of
which he was accused) in a democracy. Where he was
patently wrong was in claiming his right to deviate by putting
himself in the category of great leaders of movement like
Tilak, Lalaji, Gandhiji and Nehru himself. They were not
running a state – system when they supposedly deviated they
were pioneers and leaders of a movement. But though he had
also participated in these movements yet politically he was
the creation of the system that these movements‟ leaders had
helped to „build‟. True, something of the movement had
survived in the congress party that still sat in the parliament
as a monolith. (.21)

India‟s foreign policy, during Shastri‟s brief tenure of

18 months. Proved to be more realistic than before. In the
post – Nehru period, India not only had to manage a hostile
China, but had also to deal with the growing US support to
Pakistan and also the emergence of Pindi Peking, Jakarta
Axix. This was a new anti – India combination of Pakistan,
China and Indonesia. Shastri regime had to devise Indias
foreign and security policies in the background of US – Pak
friendship, and the Axis.

Shastri laid greater emphasis on India‟s neighbours,

and friendly relations in South Asia. He initiated a move to
secure big powers nuclear umbrella for India. But Shastri had
to first handle the problem of Rann of Kutch (a dispute with
Pakistan) in 1965, and later in the same year had to face war
imposed by Pakistan. Shastri allowed a free hand to the armed
forces to devise proper strategy. This made it possible for
India to humble Pakistan in war in September 1965. India‟s
armed forced has been rapidly modernised after the Sino –
Indian war of 1962. India‟s victories success in the 1965 war
certainly helped raise the morale of the people and the forces,
and improved India‟s declining international prestige.

In Tashkent Shastri had to surrender to his trophies of

war and he did it in all good grace in the name of peace no
less then to help Ayub Khan to keep his bruised face. That is
what the Soviet Union wanted for but it was no less for their
own sake that they wanted it. They were assuming a new role
in the sub-untenanted as such they needed all support from
India to play such a mediatory role. India would not be made
to lose whatever it had earlier, that is before the outbreak of
war, but she should not try to keep now what she had gained
recently. (22)

India had to change its foreign policy drastically due to

some major changes that took place across the world. In fact,
in the evolution of India‟s foreign policy 1962 marks a
watershed as India switched over from romantic illusion to
political realism and presented her views more realistically.
This shift made India think of developing and subsequently.
Strengthening technological and military capabilities. In the
period of Lal Bahadur Shastri India initiated the policy of
development in the field of space and nuclear technology. (23)

Mrs. Indira Gandhi and the Indian Foreign Policy:

After Shastri‟s sudden demise, Nehru‟s daughter Indira

Gandhi was elected leader of the congress parliamentary
party and she became the Prime Minister. Nehru had given
political training to his daughter and Shastri had included her
in his cabinet. Mrs Gandhi strengthened the Prime Minister‟s
secretariat and it soon become an important centre of foreign
policy – making. Mrs Gandhi had a small group of people
including L.K. Jha. G. Parthasarthy, B.K. Nehru and D.P.
Dhar. This group was even effective than Mrs Gandhi‟s
Foreign Ministries. According to Harsh Kapoor, the entire
foreign policy formulation was informally and secretly done
by these gentlemen. The intelligence service was divided into
two parts Domestic intelligence as before remained the
concern of intelligence bureau, but external intelligence was
entrusted to an autonomous Research and analysis wing
(RAW) of the cabinet Secretariat. It was placed under direct
central of prime minister in her first eleven year tenure as
Prime Minister; Mrs. Gandhi took final foreign policy
decisions in her discretion. The decision to conclude the indo-
soviet treaty of friendship in 1971 was taken on the advice of
a very small group of advisors. The cabinet itself was taken
into confidence on the day the treaty was to be finalised or
signed similarly, such important decisions, as providing
assistance to the Govt. of Sri Lanka against violence by leftist
youth in 1971, to explode the nuclear device in 1974,
Sikkim‟s merger with India in 1975, and initiation of the
process of normalisation with China 1976, were largely taken
(24)
personality by prime Minister Indira Gandhi. . Friendship
with US, Indira Ghandi made efforts to improve relations
with US. She was able to serve military and economic help
from United States for raising India as a bulwark of
democracy against communist china. She also succeeded in
concluding an alliance with U.S.S.R.
 India continued with her non-alignment. In October,
1966, tripartite summit of three powers –India U.A.R. and
Yugoslavia was held at New Dehli. When Israel committed
aggression against Arabs, India condemned the action and
demanded in the Security Council that Israel action and
demanded in the Security Council that Israel be declared an
aggressor and proper action be taken against her. This support
continued even on subsequent issues such as incorporation of
Jerusalem at Aqsa Mosque and September war 1969.

Friendship with communist Block, as regards India‟s

relations with Soviet Union, they continued to be friendly
except when Russia stuck an arms deal with Pakistan in 1968
and when the India government condemned the Warsaw Pact
Powers action in Czechoslovakia. It may be noted that though
India condemned the action of Soviet action. (25)

Foreign Policy of India under Mrs. India Gandhi

became more pragmatic than before, though the basic
elements remained the same. India maintained cordial
relations with countries like Nepal, Maldives, Afghanistan,
Myanmar and Sri-Lanka in order to ensure a secure, safe and
stable South Asia avoiding any threat of war from Pakistan.
The change of guard at the helm of political affairs in India in
1977, much expectation was raised about a possible change in
India‟s foreign Policy. In this India tried to revitalise Indo-US
relations. In fact, for the first time equal partnership between
India and the US was sought. This led to the foundation of
bilateral relations with the United States instead of making it
a donor-recipient relationship as was pursued earlier.
 The creation of the Association of South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN) in 1967, to assist the development of its
member stares (Brunel, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam). It aimed
to eliminate trade barriers, promote cultural exchanges,
facilitate communications, and improves technology,
commerce and industry and wanted India to be a full time
member of this regional group. (26)

Foreign Policy during Desai’s period:

Prime Minister Morarji Desai and the Minister of

external Affairs Atal Bihari Vajpayee began significant
changes in India‟s foreign policy, moving away from the
course adopted by Indira‟s government Both Pakistan and
china had celebrated the ouster of Indira Gandhi, who had
preserved a hardline stance against India‟s rival neighbours.
In 1979 Atal Bihari Vajpayee became the highest – ranking
Indian official to visit Beijing, meeting China‟s leaders. The
Desai government re-established diplomatic relations with the
people‟s republic of China, which had been served due to the
Sino – Indian war of 1962. Both nations established regular
dialogue to resolve longstanding territorial disputes; expand
trade and enhance border security.

The Desai government ended India‟s support for the

guerrillas loyal to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The founding
leader of Bangladesh who has been assassinated in 1975 by
military officers are replaced by military regime that sought
to distance itself from India.
 India also sought to improve relations with the United
States which has been strained due to the letters support for
Pakistan during the 1971 war and India‟s subsequent
proximity with the Soviet Union. The Janata government
announced its desire to achieve “genuine” non – alignment in
the cold war which had been long – standing national policy.
In 1978, Jimmy carter became the first U.S President to make
an official visit to India. Both nations sought to improve trade
and expand cooperation in science and technology. Vajpayee
represented India at the U.N conference on Nuclear
disarmament, defending India‟s nuclear programme and its
refusal to sign non – proliferation treaties. (27).

Vajpayee paid a visit to China in February 1979. This

was the first visit by an Indian Foreign Minister since 1962
war. But, during his visit to china the Chinese attacked
neighbouring (communist) Vietnam Vajpayee cut short his
visit and returned home by way of protest against attack on a
fellow non – aligned country. In November 1977, India
concluded an agreement with Bangladesh on the sharing of
Ganga waters from Farakka. This agreement included several
concessions by India to Bangladesh and was criticised, among
others by former Prime Minister India Gandhi. In 1978 India
and Nepal signed treaties for trade and transit. A tripartite
agreement between India Indonesia and Thailand concluded
in June 1978 permanently demarcated maritime boundaries of
three countries in the vicinity of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. An agreement regarding Salal Hydroelectric scheme
was signed with Pakistan in April 1978. Thus, during the
brief lenure of Desai Government significant achievements
were made in realm of foreign policy. (28)

Charan Singh and the Indian Foreign Policy:

Chaudhary Charan Singh became Prime Minister in

1979 after Moraiji Desai. His speech to nation on India‟s
Independence Day (15 August 1979) was very prophetic in
which he identified Pakistan‟s nuclear ambition as a major
threat to India. He also mentioned that Indian labour las had
to be refined if India were to become competitively in world
economy. He also opened high land diplomatic relations with
Israel, which India Gandhi‟s government which look office
following the 1980‟s elections curtailed. He never faced the
Parliament and after his supporters, dismal performance in the
Lok Sabha election, he was succeeded by Mrs. Indira Gandhi
Charan Singh, the caretaker Prime Minister had hardy any
knowledge of international relations. The only NAM summit
in which Indian Prime Minister was absent was held at
Hawana during his tenure. The only question in which Charan
Singh took an unequivocal stand was in regard to Soviet
Union intervention in Afghanistan. He rushed to Delhi, in the
midst of election campaign in December 1979 called the
Soviet Ambassador and told him clearly that India stood for
the immediate soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan.(29)

Mrs.Indira’s Second Term as P.M and the Indian Foreign

Policy:
 After the ouster of Janata government and return of
congress (1) to power under Mrs. Indira Gandhi more
intimate relations were developed with Soviet Union. But
Mrs. Indira Gandhi also tried to improve relations with
United States which had been for from satisfactory during the
past few years.(30)

During her second tenure she had to face internal

disturbances on account of military in the border state of
Punjab. She visited America, and tried to create world public
opinion against foreign assistance and training being given to
the militants. President Reagen of the United States, like his
predecessor, tried to pressurise India to sign the NPT. India
was repeatedly told that the supply of enriched uranium for
Tarapur would be stopped, by was of punishment, if India did
not sign the NPT. In view of this, India initiated negotiations
with France for the supply of fuel for Tarapur plant. An
agreement to this effect was finally concluded during French
President Mitterrand‟s visit to India in November 1982.
France promised immediate supply of lighter enriched
uranium. It was also agreed that after its use as fuel, India
would itself re-enrich the uranium. Thus, as a result of Indira
Gandhi‟s successful diplomacy the crisis related to fuel
supply for Tarapur was amicably resolved.

Mrs. Gandhi continued the policy of normalisation of

relations with China, first initiated by her in 1976 and later
pursued by Desai government. Mrs Gandhi met Chinese
Prime Minister Hua Guo – feng, on the occasion of Yygoslar
President Tito‟s funeral in Belgrade in May 1980. This was
the first informal meeting of the Prime Minister of two
countries since the Nehru – Chou contacts. After prolonged
efforts, both formal and informal, it was agreed to initiate a
dialogue on the question of Sino – Indian border dispute this
decision was formally announced during Chinese Premier‟s to
India in June 1981. The two Prime Minister had another
informal meeting during the North – South Summit held at
Cancun in October 1981. A special Indian emissary R.N.
Kaw was sent to Peking with comprehensive proposals for the
solution of border dispute. Kaw went to china in October
1984. Just before the assassination of Indira Gandhi. (31)

Mr. Rajiv Gandhi and the Foreign Policy India:

Under Rajiv Gandhi, these were no change in countries

foreign Policy. He reiterated his faith in the principles
enunciated by Nehru and Indira Gandhi. He professed faith in
United Nations, non-aligned movement, opposition of
colonialism, narrowing down of international disparities
closer relations with immediate neighbours etc. He adhered to
these basic principles of foreign policy during his tenure.

He wanted to maintain cordial relations with both

USSR and the US, India also began pursuing the policy of
non intervention and tried to maintain better relations with
Pakistan and Sri Lanka through the South Asian Association
for regional cooperation (SAARC).(32)

Gandhi began leading in a direction significantly

different from his mother‟s socialism. He improved bilateral
relations with United States – Long strained.
 Owing to Indira‟s socialism and close friendship with
the USSR and expanded economic and scientific cooperation.
(33)

During his state visit to the Soviet Union he met with

primer Nokolai Tikhonov, Andrey Gromyko of the Ministry
of Foreign affairs and Mikhail Garbachev. Rajiv authorise an
extensive police and Army campaign to contain terrorism in
Punjab. A state of material law existed in the Punjab state,
and civil liberties, commerce and tourism were greatly
disrupted.

The Indo – Srilanka peace accord was signed by Rajiv

Gandhi and Sri Lankan president J.R. Jayewardane in
Colombo on 29 July 1987 with his speech while addressing
the joint session of the US congress and India, he famously
said, India is an old country, but a young nation; and like the
young every while, we are impatient. I am young and I too
have a dream. I dream of an India, strong independent, self
reliant and in the forefront of the front ranks of the nations of
the world in the service of mankind. (34)

V.P.Singh and the Foreign Policy of India:

The V.P. Singh come to power on anti-corruption

Mandate his government like the earlier Desai government
gave due respect to the views of Ministry of External Affairs.
The foreign secretary of India and Pakistan met in July 1990
in an attempt to initiate dialogue for normalisation of their
bilateral relations. Efforts were also made to improve lies
with Bangladesh. South Africa‟s prolonged colonial rule over
Namibia was a blot on the face of a decolonised world. After
a better struggle, South Africa bowed before the world public
opinion, and Namibia was granted independence on March
21, 1990. India was represented in this occasion by a multi-
party delegation headed by Prime Minister V.P. Singh. India
sought to establish cordial relations with the newly
independent Namibia. V.P. Singh visited Moscow in July
1990, during this visit a Moscow Declaration, signed by V.P.
Singh and Gorbanehev, and was issued. It was said in the
Declaration that no external interference in the internal affairs
of the India would be tolerated; meanwhile IPKE was recalled
by V.P. Singh government from Srilanka.

Objectives of Indian Foreign Policy.

Foreign Policy set out certain objectives before they

proceed to lay down basic principles and formulate the
policy. Several of these objectives are common though the
degree of emphasis always varies. A former Foreign
Secretary of India, Muchkand Dubey wrote;

The Primary purpose of any country‟s foreign policy is

to promote its national interest-to insure its security,
safeguard its sovereignty, contribute to its growth and
prosperity and generally enhance its stature, influence and
role in the comity of nations. A countries foreign policy
should also be able to serve the broader purpose of promoting
peace, disarmament and development and of establishing a
stable fair, and equitable global order.”(35)
 The purpose of Peace, disarmament and equitable
global order may at times be in conflict with national
Security, Sovereignty and devolvement, But in the national
interest. The goals of Indias Foreign Policy were simple and
straight forward. The primary and overriding goal has always
been the maintenance and promotion of international peace
and security. The ideals and objectives of our domestic as
well as foreign policy are enshrined mainly by Nehru,
combines national interest with broader objectives continuity
in foreign policy is a tribute to maturity of a nation and
wisdom of its leadership. The objectives of India‟s foreign
policy are so fundamental and generally accepted by the
people and different parties that they are known as bases of
national policy. That has resulted in continuity in India‟s
foreign policy for no government of India can afford to
abdicate independence of judgement and action and
compromise the basic values enshrined in our constitution.36

India after independence had to determine objectives

of its foreign policy under very difficult circumstances,
internally the partition of British India and creation of
Pakistan left a deep wound of hatred and ill-will, India was
till then one economic unit. Its division created many
economic problems which were further complicated by the
arrival of millions of Hindu and Sikh displaced persons from
Pakistan, they had to be rehabilitated. The country had to
tackle the gigantic problem of providing her vast population
with the necessities of life, like fixed, clothing and shelter.
Military India was not strong. India did possess vast potential
resources and manpower with which she could, in course of
lime, greatly increase her economic and military strength.(37)
There was another problem, related to international
consolidation. Even after British left India in 1947, there were
small pockets of French and Portuguese possessions India‟s
first effort naturally was to negotiate with the two powers.
After a prolonged negotiation, French agreed to withdraw, but
military action had to be taken as late as 1961, to liberate Goa
and other Portuguese pockets.

International situation was not very comfortable as the

cold war had begun and East-West relations were
deteriorating very fast. It is in this situation that India decided
that world Peace would be a cordial feature of India‟s foreign
policy. India desired peace not only merely as an ideal but
also as an essential condition for her own security. Nehru had
said “For a country like India which is in urgent need of all-
round development, peace is a primary consideration. It is for
this reason that India gave first priority to world peace. As
Nehru opined, “Indias approach to peace is a positive,
constructive approach, not a passive, negative, natural
approach.” India‟s message to the world has been insistence
on peaceful methods to solve all problems.

An important objective of India‟s foreign policy has

been elimination of nuclear weapons and education of
conventional armaments. In other words, comprehensive
disarmament has been an objective of our foreign policy.
India‟s goal of peace was not only directed by her self
interest, but also by idealism imbibed from Mahatma Gandhi;
Nehru once told an Amera audience that Gandhian ethics was
the cornerstone of India‟s foreign policy. Nehru said, the
great teder of my country Mahatma Gandhi always laid stress
on moral values and warned us never to subordinate means to
ends. “He insisted that” physical force need not necessarily be
the arbiter of mans destiny and that the method of waging a
struggle and the way of its termination are of Paramount
importance. (38)

Elimination of want, disease and illiteracy has been

another objective of foreign policy. These are ills not only of
Indian society, but also of most of the developing countries of
Asia and Africa. While India‟s domestic policy is directed at
removal of want and disease it is closely related with the
question of foreign aid and assistance. Besides, India choose
to cooperate with various international agencies so that she
could make her contribution in fighting disease, starvation,
poverty, illiteracy and famine in various underdeveloped
countries Organisation like a WHO,FAO,UNICEF And
UNESCO not only benefit India but we also want to use these
institutions to help the entire mankind.

Lastly India‟s objective has been to maintain friendly

relations with all, avoid military alliances follow non-
alignment as a moral principle, seek peaceful settlement of
international disputes and promote universal brotherhood and
humanism by following and advocating the five principles
containing in panchsheel. India tried to faithfully observe the
ideals of non-interference and peaceful co-existence. (39)
Principles of Indian Foreign Policy.

Non-Alignment Movement:

India wanted to act as a missionary of peace. These

factors prompted India to adopt a policy of non-alignment. It
was a positive decision to keep aloof from military pacts. By
non-alignment to any power bloc, India reserved the right to
judge every international issue on its merit and to express her
view freely and frankly without any fear and favour. She
condemned the naked Anglo – French aggression on Egypt,
the Russian repression in Hungry, the apartheid in South
Africa, the colonialism in Angola, the U.N. involvement in
Vietnam and the Israeli aggression against U.A.R while
explaining Indias interpretation of non – alignment Shri
Nehru himself said, When freedom is menaced or justice
threatened or aggression takes place, we cannot be or shall
not be neutral. (40)

The policy of non-alignment is the most important

contribution of India to international community immediately
after the hostilities ended in the Second World War, a new
and unprecedented tension between the erstwhile friends and
allied. The acute state of tension came to be called the cold
war. The division of the world into two power blocs led by
the United States and the former soviet union had caused the
cold war India had made up its mind not to join any of the
power Blocs. India‟s decision to follow an independent
foreign policy was dictated essentially by her national
interest, and also by her belief in moral values attached to the
ideal of friendship among all and pursuit of world peace.
India had decided to devote her emerges to her economic
development. For that India needed not only friendship with
neighbours and big powers, but also economic assistance
from different quarters. India made it clear that she would
reserve the right to freely express her opinion on international
problems. If she would join any of the power blocs then she
would lose this freedom. Indias geographical situation – her
location as a function of South East Asia and Middle East,
and her strategic position in the India Ocean, and as a
neighbour of communist China in the North – made it
imperative for her to keep away from military alliances the
policy of non – alignment is in accordance with Indian
philosophy and tradition. Non alignment movement is
regarded as the pillar of our foreign policy.(41)

Panchshed and Peaceful co-existence:

Peaceful co-existence of nations of diverse ideologies

and interests is an important principle of our foreign policy.
Indian philosophy of Vasudhaiva Kutumbkam principle of
our foreign policy of one world. In practice it means that
nations inhabited by people belonging to different religious
and having different social systems can co-exist, live together
in peace, while each follows its own system. The basic Indian
philosophy was formally recognised when in 1954 China
signed the famous declaration of the five principles, or
panchsheel as the bases of their mutual relationship, the five
principles are:

(a). mutual respect for each others territorial integrity and

sovereignty.
(b). mutual non – aggression

(c). mutual non – interference in each others internal

affairs.

(d). equality and mutual benefit and

9e). peaceful co-existence

The term panchsheel was formally used by Nehru at a

state banquet given in the honour of visiting Indonesian
President in September 1954. The term Panchsheel soon
became so popular that Nehru called itg an “international
coin”. These principles were incorporated in the Declaration
on world peace and corporation, adopted by the Asian –
African confidence held at Bandung (Indonesia) in April
1955, as well as in a resolution on principles of co-existence
adopted by inter – parliamentary union at its Helsinki session
in August 1955. By the end of 1956 many countries including
Afghanistan, Burma, Indonesia, Egypt, Nepal, Poland, USSR,
Saudi Arabia and Yugoslavia had endorsed Panchsheel. In
1959 the U.N General Assembly also resolved to adopt the
five principles. The term Panchsheel is found in ancient
Buddhist literature, and refers to five principles of good
conduct of the individuals. These were truth, non-violence,
celibacy, refrain from drinking and vow not to steal.

Anti Colonialism and Anti-Imperialism:

India knew the evils of economic exploitation under

colonialism. Therefore she did not want the contribution of
colonialism in any part of the world any from. Therefore,
after independence India showed zero tolerance towards
colonialism and imperialism. She was interested particularly
in the de-colonisation of the Asian, African and Latin
American countries. It supported liberation movements in
Indonesia, Libya against neo- colonialism and demanded a
new international economic order based on equity and
fairness. It also initiated the idea of South-South cooperation
to promote self-reliability among developing countries.

Anti-Racialism:

India was a victim of racial discrimination to end the

apartheid regime in South Africa India had time and again
urged the world community to pressurize its government.
India firmly believes in equality of all human beings. Its
policy is aimed at opposition to all forms of racial
discrimination; South Africa is the worst example of
discrimination against, and exploitation of the coloured
peoples including the people of Indian origin. India gave full
support to the cause of victims of racial discrimination.

India has consistently supported the establishment of

an equalitarian human society in which discrimination based
on colour, race, class, etc, does not exist. India firmly believes
that racialism is one of the sources of conflict in the world,
and therefore a threat to international peace and security.
India has supported the UN efforts leading adoption of
covenants of human Rights and the observance of
fundamental freedoms all over the world. (44)
Promotion of World Peace:

Achievement of world peace is the main aim of our

foreign Policy. Economic development was the main problem
of India after freedom. No economic development is possible
without peace because during the war all the resources of the
country are diverted towards War, we believe that
international disputes should be settled through negotiations
and peaceful means and not by force India believes in the
united Nations organisation‟s principle of peace and
development; without peace there is no progress of mankind.
As a member of the U.N.O India played an active role in
reducing tension on several occasion e.g. Korean War (1950)
Indo-China crisis (1954) Suez crisis (1956) and Congo
Problem (1960). India sent her military forces to several UN
peacekeeping missions in Congo, Angola, Gaza and
Cyprus.(45)

Faith in United Nations:

India has great faith in United Nations. She stands for

settlement of all disputes under the aegis of the UN through
peaceful means. The role of India in Korea and Indochina are
the outstanding examples of her co-operation with the United
Nations. India has refused to blindly follow either of the two
blocs within the United Nations. She has determined her
stand on the various world issues keeping in view the
interests of world peace. When India summoned a conference
of the Asian countries in New Delhi in January, 1949, she
was alleged to be trying to ignore and bypass the United
Nations. At the same time Nehru made it clear that we meet
 in no spirit of hostility to any nation or group of nations, but
in an endeavour to promote peace through the extension of
freedom. India has been making available to the UN, the
necessary men implement its decisions. She sent personal for
the observation Group in Lebanon to ensure that there was no
infiltration of personal or supply of arms or other material
across the Lebanese border. She contributed a contingent
during the Congolese conflict.

Faith in Pious Means:

Indian lays great emphasis on the good means. She has

always insisted that the means for the attainment of the
foreign policy objectives should be above – board and
conform to the well known tradition of India. To quote
Jawaharlal Nehru. Evil had to be opposed but not by a greater
evil. Violence and hatred could not be overcome by greater
violence and hatred, India‟s insistence on settlement of all
disputes through peaceful means and avoidance of war is a
clear, proof that she has not only professed faith in noble
means but also adhered to these professions. (46)

Determinants of India’s Foreign Policy.

(a) .Geography:
India‟s size, Climate, Location and topography have
played a vital role in shaping its foreign policy. Nehru had
said in 1949 that India‟s position was strategic and that no
power could ignore us he said look at the map, if you have to
consider any question affecting the Middle East, India in
availably comes into the picture. I you have no consider any
question concerning South-East Asia you cannot do so
without India. So also with the Far-East. While the Middle-
east may not be directly connected with India. Even if you
think in terms of regional organisations in India, you have to
keep in touch with other regions.

India is the gateway of both South-east Asia and the

Middle East, Security and vital interests are closely tied with
the future of the region. Nehru had also stated that India
becomes a kind of meeting ground for various trends and
forces and a meeting ground between what may be roughly
called as the East and the West.

The geo-political location of a country is important

determent factor Indias strategic location in South Asia as a
connecting link between West Asia and South East Asia- an
important trade route and defence Zone-has pushed for an
active ride in world and regional affairs. Two major powers
Russia and China on the north are formidable neighbours.
The Himalayas in the north and the vast expanse of Sea and
Ocean from part of the natural borders between India and her
neighbour safeguarding these borders is not an easy task,
considering the fact that neither the Himalayas nor the water
fronts give complete immunity against external aggressions
today. To secure that objective, India‟s foreign policy is
therefore concerned with the maintenance of friendly
relations and peace in her neighbourhood, As a result she is
vocal about any moves by powers outside the region to
militarise the area. An example bring her opposition to the
 acquisition by the United States of the Diego Garcia Island in
the Ocean as a naval base she, therefore insist on making the
Indian ocean a zone of peace.(47)

(b) History:
India‟s historical development as victim of British
colonialism and imperialism, and her non-violent freedom
struggle under the leadership of Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and
Azad were bound to have a share in the shaping of our
foreign policy. Not only this, the legacy of an ancient
civilisation and culture also helped in foreign policy
formulation. As V.P.Dutt says: “A proud civilisation with the
weight of centuries of tradition, and the rich legacy of what
appeared to Indians an abseiling anlisation, like china, she
was too deeply couscous of her priceless heritage to accept
the role of a client state India is too big a country to became
anybody‟s camp follower, Nehru had himself said that two
major aspects of our foreign policy viz, the positive aspect of
peace and the desire to promote a larger degree of
cooperation among nations, were partly due to Indias
traditional values and past thinking. The First Prime Minister
had said in 1958 that it was a privilege to be assouated with
world peace and added that, “in our domestic sphere also we
should work on lines, which are compatible with could be
called positive aspect of peace. (48)

(c).Ideology:

Ideology is the major determinant of foreign policy of

India; for example, the architect of modern India, Nehru who
believed in non-alignment and a just, and peaceful world
 politics, influenced the foreign policy so much that India
made it very clear to the world during the cold war that it did
not favour any of the power bloc. Similarly ideologies like
Gandhism, non-violence Satyagraha, democratic Socialism
has paved the way for humane approach and universal
brotherhood. It is this approach that has been influencing
India. The policy of non-alignment and securing economic
relations between the developing and developed countries
helped India to maintain cordial relations with both
communist and non-communist world. (49)

(d).Military Factor:

So far as military position is concerned, India is bound

to maintain a strong Navy seminally because of a long
coastline and its geostrategic location an the Indian ocean.
Yet, India believes in peace and property of nations, be it
small or large. (50)

(e).Economy:

The nature of India‟s economy also plays a major role

in shaping of the country‟s foreign policy. The bitter
experience of colonialism which left behind a backward
economy, pressed upon policy makes to rectify the lop-
sidedness, and pursue urgently a programme of sound
economic development. As an exporter of raw material like
cotton, minerals and importer of petroleum and heavy
machinery. India needed technological as well as financial
help from the industry advanced countries, with which it
maintained a steady relationship. Her consistent support to
non-alignment also steers her requirement of concentrating on
economic development and receiving assistance from all
quarters not wasting scarce resources on arms build up.

(f).Culture:

Our centuries old relations with the outside world are

a well established fact of history the seals of the Indus-Valley
have been found in such far off places as Mesopotamia. The
temples at Ankorvat in Indonesia bear proof of our historical
and cultural ties with the countries and people of Nepal,
Bhutan, Burma, (now renamed as Myanmar) Srilanka,
Pakistan and Bangladesh. The vision of treating entire
mankind as one family has indeed formed the functional basis
for the conduct of Indias foreign policy, Given such a
tradition, indo has never been wedded to a dichotomous East-
West or orient-occident world view. For her the world is a
single entity, the countries profoundly in flouncing one
another, and together building a better future for the entire
human race.51

(g).International situation:

When India attained independence, the cold war had

begun and the world was getting divided into two hostile
power blocs. It had its direct impact on the shaping of India‟s
policy of non-alignment. The process of decolonisation began
simultaneously with India‟s independence. Anti-colonialism
and anti-imperialism became the main focus of international
milieu. India fell in line with the efforts for acceleration of the
process of decolonisation. Second World War had ruined the
economics of several countries. Efforts were already initiated
for economic reconstruction and development. For that
purpose it freely sought help from the institutions like the
World Bank and international Minatory Fund created towards
the end of Second World War, ideological conflicts were
responsible for disputes, aggressions and War. Conflict
between Fascism and communism, between democracies and
totalitarian states were replaced by Marxism. India opted to
remain out of these ideological conflicts of post – War period.

Later when the cold war ended and new international

environment began to emerge with emphasis on liberalisation
in economies even of countries like china, India was inspired
to shift emphasis from public sector and partially controlled
economy to liberalisation, reduction of state central and
encouragement to foreign investments in private and joint
sectors. The process of reconciliation that began after the cold
war in areas such as Israel – Palestine dispute opened the
doors for negotiated solution of bilateral disputes in different
parts of the world. Indian also tried to accelerate resolution of
its disputes with China, Bangladesh and even Pakistan. Thus
international milieu had, and still has, its impact on shaping
of India‟s foreign policy.52
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23. Ibid. pp-181.

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31. Ibid, pp.305

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35. Ibid, pp. 316.

36. Muchkand Dubey, “Indians Foreign policy in the evolving global

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37. Ibid. pp-119.

38. K.P. Karunakaran, “ India in the world affairs” pp. 22-23.

39. Jawaharlal Nehru, “ Inside America” New Delhi, pp. 34.

40. Palmer and Perkins, “ International relations” AITBS-Publishing Co-

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41. U. Sharma, “International Relations (1914) present” educational

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42. V.N. Khanna, “ International relations” Vikas Publications, New

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43. M.S. Rajan, “ Studies in and Indian foreign policy” New Delhi, pp.
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44. Chronicle, Magazine, for civil servants 2009.

45. Palmer and Perkins, “International relations” A.T.T.B.S. publications,

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46. B.B. Chaudhary, “ Studies in social science” New Academic

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47. U. Sharma, “ International relations” Educational Publisher, Agra

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49. V.P. Dutt,, “ India Foreign policy”, Vikas Publications, New Delhi pp.
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50. Shrivastava, C.B.P India and the world changing scenario Kitab
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51. Shrivastava, “India's policy” pp. 4285-429.

52. A. Appadorai, “ Domestic Riots of India Foreign policy” Delhi pp-37.