yl:office administration

HYACINTH TUGMAN

The office – Cont’d

Contributor

HE SIZE of the organisation does impact

T on the nature of the duties and

responsibilities an employee is given. For
example, in a large organisation, an employee’s
task will be more specialised and specific to the
department in which he/she works. On the other
hand, in a small organisation, an employee’s
duties and responsibilities will be more
extensive and varied. For example, a receptionist
performs multiple tasks, such as receiving and
distributing mail, being in charge of accounts
payable and receivable, and even cleaning the
office.

‘Centralization’ refers to an arrangement

whereby office services which are used by all
departments or sections, for example,
computing, filing, mail handling, reprographics,
data processing, are organised at some central
point, usually under the direction of a supervisor
or manager.

ADVANTAGE OF CENTRALIZATION
 Better control over quality of work.
 Greater focus on standardisation of work.
 Staff become more specialised and skilled
in carrying out their job functions.
 Equipment are kept at one place instead of
being spread around the building.
 Noisy machinery are located in one place.
 Administration control can be more
effective.
DISADVANTAGE OF CENTRALIZATION
 Time wasted when staff have to leave their
department and wait to be served in centralized
office.
 Sometimes files are being used by other
departments and that prevents quick access to
needed services, which could result in serious
delays.
 Could prevent other staff members from
developing those skills performed in the
centralised department. For example, members
in the other departments may not learn to type,
file documents or use specialised machinery,
etc.
‘Decentralization’ refers to a situation where
various office services that support the
organisation’s operation are located in each
department throughout the company, for
example, duplicating equipment, computer and
Camperdown High’s Roteno Roberts heads the ball, scoring his first goal against St Mary’s College in Manning Cup action
recently. Roberts scored a hat-trick in Camperdown’s 9-0 win.
filing facilities can be found in almost every
department. Everyone in the department may
have access or just one or two individuals.
DISADVANTAGE OF DECENTRALIZATION
 Can create duplication of equipment and
labour – these can lead to a strain on the
company’s resources human and equipment.
 Untrained personnel can cause equipment
to break down due to improper use; this can
lead to a loss of productivity.
USE OF COMPUTER/SOFTWARE IN
BUSINESSES
Office workers use computers to:
 Write letters and messages.
 Send and receive emails.
 Access saved data.
 Share the use of relevant files.
 Make calculations using spreadsheet.
Computer software is the non-physical or
intangible part of a computer system which tells
the hardware parts such as the CPU, monitor
and keyboard, what to do. Software is divided
into two main groups – system software and
application software. System software consists
of operating software and utility programs.
Application software, known as productivity
software, is designed to perform specific tasks,
such as word processing.
ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics is the science of designing the
job, equipment and workplace to fit the worker.
Proper ergonomic design is necessary to
prevent:
 Repetitive strain injuries, which can
develop over time and can lead to long-term
disability.
 Carpal tunnel syndrome.
 Back injury.
TYPES OF OFFICE EQUIPMENT
Computer – Some of the many tasks
performed by the computer have already been
mentioned above.
Guillotine – Used to cut paper to precise
specifications.
Shredder – Used to shred documents that
may compromise the company’s security or
privacy.
Risograph – copies documents on a large
scale, where hundred or thousands of copies of
the same document are desired.
Fax machine – receives and sends
information electronically.
Next week, I will complete the last section of
this unit. Your assignment is to identify other
office equipment and give their functions, plus
name some operating software.
Hyacinth Tugman is an independent contributor. Send
questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

10 YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017


Market structures – Cont’d
YVONNE HARVEY
Contributor
HIS IS the last section in our lessons on
T market structures. As promised, it will
cover monopolistic competition and
oligopoly.
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION
This describes an imperfect market structure
in which a relatively large number of producers
are offering slightly differentiated products.
CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION
1. A relatively large number of sellers. This
makes the market highly competitive. In
addition, each firm’s market share is small and
collusion (coming together to act as a monopoly
in order to gain more profits) is difficult.
2. Independence. Each firm acts
independently of the others. That is, no firm
takes into account the reaction of its rival firms.
3. Freedom of entry into the market and exit
out of the market. In the long-run, firms will
enter and leave the industry due to the lack of
significant barriers to entry.
4. The product is differentiated. Each
individual seller has a product which is slightly
different from the product of the other
producers. This product differentiation is mainly
through brand names, but can also be through
physical and chemical differences.
5. Advertising takes place. Each seller seeks
to increase brand loyalty for his/her product
and, thereby, increase profits.
6. Firms are price makers/fixers. Therefore,
their demand curve is downward sloping. It is
also fairly elastic because of the relatively large
number of firms in the industry.
Examples of monopolistic competition in the
Caribbean: hairdressers, restaurants, taxi drivers
and gas (petrol-filling) stations.
SHORT-RUN PROFITS
The short-run profit situation is similar to that
of the perfect competitor. It is possible to earn
‘Baila Conmigo’ (‘Dance with Me’), choreographed by Barbara McDaniel.
supernormal profits. Subnormal and normal
profits are also possible.
LONG-RUN PROFITS
In the long-run, the similarity between perfect
competition and monopolistic competition
becomes more obvious. Through entry of new
firms and exit of some existing firms, profit will
tend towards normal in the long-run for all the
firms in the industry.
We move on now to yet another market structure.
OLIGOPOLY
Oligopoly refers to a market structure in
which a few firms dominate the industry in the
sense that between them, they share a large
proportion of the industry’s output. Some
oligopoly firms produce virtually identical
products (for example, metals, chemicals,
sugar) and are known as perfect oligopolies, and
some produce differentiated products (for
example, cars, soap powder, cigarettes,
electrical appliances) and are known as
imperfect oligopolies. Duopoly is a special form
of oligopoly in which there are only two firms in
the industry.
CHARACTERISTICS/FEATURES OF
OLIGOPOLY
1. There are only a few firms in the industry.
With only a few firms in the industry, each is big
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10 - 16, 2017
yl:principles of business
enough to influence price. Firms are, therefore,
price makers/price fixers.
2. Interdependence of firms. Since there are
only a few firms in the industry, each firm will
have to take into account the actions of rival
firms in the industry. For example, if one airline
announces discounted fares, generally, all the
other airlines will try to match the lower prices.
3. The product is either identical or
differentiated. Where the product is identical,
there is no need for advertising or non-price
competition. However, if the product is
differentiated, advertising and non-price
competition will take place in order to make
consumers believe that one brand is better than
the other.
4. There are barriers to entry. These barriers
may not be as strong as the barriers for the
monopolist. However, the effect is still the same.
Barriers will make it virtually impossible for
others to enter in the long run.
5. Prices tend to be stable. This is because
firms realise that decreases in price can lead to
‘price wars’ and they can end up losing so much
profit that they are eventually driven out of the
industry. They also know that raising prices will
be of no advantage to them since others will not
copy them.
6. Firms may be collusive or non-collusive.
When they are collusive, they may, for example,
formulate an agreement to set prices for
everyone at a certain level.
7. Oligopolies may price discriminate in order
to earn more profit.
PROFITS IN THE SHORT RUN
Like the monopolist, many oligopolistic firms
will earn supernormal profits in the short run.
PROFITS IN THE LONG RUN
If the barriers to entry are strong,
supernormal profits will be maintained. Where a
firm is earning less-than-normal profits in the
short run, it will leave the industry in the long
run.
Now for your practice questions.
(a) Define monopolistic competition and
oligopoly. (4 marks)
(b) Compare the market structures named in
(a) above, under the following headings:
(i) The number of firms in the industry.
(ii) The existence or non-existence of barriers
to entry.
(iii) Type of product. (6 marks)
(c) Give TWO examples of oligopoly
industries and TWO examples of monopolistic
industries in the Caribbean. (4 marks)
(d) “A monopolistic firm is earning
supernormal profits in the short run.” What do
you understand by this statement? (2 marks)
(e) Assume that firms under monopolistic
competition and oligopoly are earning
supernormal profits in the short run:
(i) How will their long-run profits differ?
(ii) Give reasons for the differences in their
long-run profits. (4 marks)
Total marks: 20
This completes market structures. I urge you
to do some reading on the topic. You will find
some interesting facts if you consult texts in
economics.
See you all next week. Bye for now.
Yvonne Harvey is an independent contributor. Send
questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
11
 yl:principles of accounts

Balance sheet – Part 2

ROXANNE WRIGHT WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Contributor b) Rodger Charles
Rodger Charles, owner of a movie theatre, gave the following
balances as of December 31, 2016: Statement of owner’s equity/capital for year ended December
HIS WEEK, we continue from where we left off last week, 31, 2016

T having already identified what is a balance sheet and its

three segments, which are:
 Assets Accounts Payable
$
22800
$ $
 Liabilities Capital January 1, 2016 32000
 Owner’s equity/capital Admissions Income 68400
Capital January 1, 2016 32000 Add Net Income 14800
We will now continue as we focus on the following:
1. Balance sheet equation Cash 15000 Less Drawings 10800
The accounting equation is shown in the statement known as Drawings 10800
the balance sheet; its equation is:
Increase in Capital 36000
Assets = Liabilities + Capital (A = L + C) Equipment 37000
Capital at December 31, 2016 35600
2. Effect of transactions on balance sheet items Film Rental Expense 12000
Each transaction will have an effect on at least two entries,
since each entry must have a corresponding entry to show an
Miscellaneous Expense 8000 c) Rodger Charles
increase or decrease while maintaining the balance sheet Notes Payable 2000 Balance sheet as at December 31, 2016
equation, as illustrated in the diagram below:
Rent Expense 20000 $ $
Transactions: Effect on asset: Effect on Things you must know:
Capital and
Liability: Salaries Expense 14000 Assets
Introduction of Capital Increase asset - Increase Owner may start or inject money in
Cash 15000
putting money in a business
bank account
Cash at Bank Capital the business by cash, or by putting
cash into a business bank account.
Supplies 8400
Supplies 8400
Purchase of an asset – Increase asset - An asset bought to be used in the
Computer business, such as a computer, is
A computer is bought
regarded as a fixed asset.
You are required to prepare: Equipment 37000
paying by cheque Decrease asset
– Cash at bank Assets bought paying by cheque
a. An income statement
Total assets 60400
reduces cash at the bank b. A statement of owner’s equity
Purchase of asset – Bought Increase asset Increase A person who the business owes
c. A balance sheet
stock of goods to incur a – stock of liability – money for goods is known in
liability goods Creditor accounting language as a creditor. Liabilities & Owner’s Equity
SOLUTION FOR WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Accounts Payable 22800
Sale of asset by credit- Increase asset A person who owes the business
– Debtor money for goods is known in
$ $
Stock-of goods sold on
accounting language as a debtor.
Notes Payable 2000
credit Decrease asset -
stock of goods Income 68400
Total Liabilities 24800
Sale of an asset- Increase asset Stock -of -goods is the assets
– bought by the business for resale to
Expenses: Capital 35600
make a profit.
Bank
Sold stock of goods for Rent 20000 And Owner’s Equity 60400
immediate payment by Decrease asset
cheque – stock of
goods
Salaries 14000
Payment of liability – Decrease asset Decrease A payment to a creditor by cheque Film Rental 12000 This is where we will end for this week. Join us next time as we
– liability- by the business reduces the amount
Paid a creditor by cheque continue to complete the syllabus. Grasp the concepts and retain
Cash at bank Creditor
of cash at bank.
Miscellaneous 8000
them. You will need them as you progress to excellence. See you
Collection of an asset-A Increase asset- A payment by a debtor by cheque
debtor paid by cheque increases the business cash at bank. Total Expenses 54000 next week.
Cash at bank
Decrease Net Income 14400 Roxanne Wright teaches at Immaculate Academy. Send questions and
debtor
comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

12 YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017


Structure and bonding
FRANCINE TAYLOR-CAMPBELL
Contributor
1. HOW DO ATOMS BOND?
Atoms form bonds in order to obtain an octet of electrons and
achieve stability. Atoms may bond in a variety of ways. This is
done by either sharing or transferring of electrons. During
covalent bonding, two non-metals share electrons in order to
become stable.
Covalent bonding is shown in substances such as methane,
ammonia and water.
Other examples of covalent bonding are carbon dioxide (CO2),
oxygen (O2), chlorine (Cl2).
Groups of covalently bonded atoms join together to form
molecules. These can form simple molecular or giant molecular
structures.
In electrovalent or ionic bonding, a metal and a non-metal will
bond by transferring electrons. The metal will lose or give up its
electrons to the non-metal, which gains or accepts the electrons.
This results in the formation of ions. Metal forms cations (positive
ions) and the non-metal forms anions (negative ions).
yl:chemistry
2. EXPLAIN THE BONDING THAT OCCURS IN 5. EXPLAIN WHY METALS ARE GOOD CONDUCTORS?
METALS. During metallic bonding, cations and delocalized electrons
Metal atoms are packed close together, resulting in overlapping bond. The delocalized electrons and cations are charged particles
outer shells. The outer shell (valence) electrons are lost from each which are able to conduct heat and an electric current.
atom to form cations and a sea of delocalized electrons. The
attraction between the cations and the delocalized electrons is 6. HOW ARE COVALENT COMPOUNDS DIFFERENT
called a metallic bond. FROM IONIC COMPOUNDS?
Covalent and ionic compounds generally display different
properties. Covalent compounds usually have molecular
structures, which means that they are not composed of ions or
other charged particles. Covalent compounds would, therefore, be
insoluble in water, poor conductors of electricity, and have low
melting and boiling points. Ionic compounds are composed of
ions, which makes them soluble in water, good conductors of
electricity when molten or dissolved in water, and have high
melting and boiling points.
3. DETERMINE THE FORMULA OF THE FOLLOWING
IONIC COMPOUNDS:
Sodium sulphide, aluminium chloride, lithium oxide.
Na2S – Sodium sulphide
AlCl3 – Aluminium chloride
Li2O – Lithium oxide
4. DETERMINE THE FORMULA OF THE COMPOUNDS
FORMED BETWEEN:
a) Carbon and chlorine
b) Nitrogen and hydrogen c) sulphur and oxygen
CCl4 – Carbon tetrachloride
NH3 – Ammonia
SO2 – Sulphur dioxide
Francine Taylor-Campbell is an independent contributor. Send questions and
comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017 13

SBA skills – Analysis and interpretation
MONACIA WILLIAMS
Contributor
“Anyone who has never made a mistake has
never tried anything new.”
– Albert Einstein
STARTED with the above quote from Einstein
I because many of us are afraid of making
mistakes and this causes us to be afraid to try
anything new. Guess what? This fear often
prevents us from becoming engaged in scientific
activity, hence enjoying science to the fullest
extent. I hope you are not being fazed by the
many challenges you may have encountered so
far, and that as you continue you will always feel
that the world is still there for you to conquer.
This week, we will look at another SBA skill –
analysis and interpretation (AI). This is a skill
that presents a lot of problems for students.
Why? Because students tend to look at the SBA
assignments as a grade to be obtained for
external exams rather than as investigations to
find answers to problems!
If you begin to view the assignments as
investigations for which solutions must be
found, then you will begin to realise that all labs
are AI labs. This means the results that you have
obtained from carrying out the experiment must
be carefully analysed and interpreted using the
scientific knowledge that you already have. Do
this and the writing-up of labs designated as AI
will become second nature. Before you even
realise what has happened, you would have
mastered the skill!
Laboratory exercises conducted for analysis
and interpretation are no different from those
done for observation, recording and reporting.
Data obtained from carrying out experiments
must be analysed, compared, interpreted and
have conclusions drawn.
So then, how should you write up an AI
experiment/investigation? The outline is the
same as for ORR. You begin with the Date; this
is very important, and you need to remember
that the date is the date of the day on which you
did the experiment and not the date of the day
on which you write it up. The Date is followed by
14
the Topic, the Aim, The Apparatus/Raw
Materials, Method, Observation, Discussion
and, finally, the Conclusion. For analysis and
interpretation, however, the focus is on the
discussion rather than on the presentation of the
observation/results. This, then, will be our focus
this week.
THE DISCUSSION
 The discussion begins with an
introduction. In the introduction, you will
introduce the science that forms the background
for the experiment you have just done; this is the
scientific knowledge that you had before the
experiment was done.
 The other paragraphs of the discussion
must involve an analysis of the results you have
recorded, even if they do not fit your expected
results. Questions that you can ask yourself
include ‘How do these results compare with
what was expected?’ and ‘What is the
significance of the changes that were seen?’ The
answers to these questions are included in the
discussion.
 What is the significance of the control? If
the control is compared with the test experiment,
what differences can be seen? Will these
differences help me to draw a conclusion?
 The discussion must be written in essay
form using paragraphs; it must never be written
as answers to questions. In other words, any
questions that you may have been given are
guides, not a format for your discussion.
 If there were any potential sources of error,
these should be identified and included. These
may include inaccuracies in measuring
volumes, reading balances and measuring time.
 If any precautions were taken, these must
also be included. This may include ensuring that
temperatures are kept constant.
 Any factor that could have affected the
accuracy of your results must also be included.
This is your limitation. Limitations must always
be included in your experimental write-up. If you
do not include one, you will lose a mark. Do not
confuse sources of error and precautions with
limitations! A limitation could be the number of
repeats that you did for your experiment. Were
they adequate for a valid conclusion to be
drawn?
 Your presentation ends with a conclusion.
This should be about one sentence and
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017
represents a brief answer to the aim or the
hypothesis that generated the experiment.
Below is an example of a discussion that was
done for an experiment, the aim of which was:
To investigate the effect of temperature on the
action of the enzyme diastase.
An ‘enzyme’ is a biological catalyst. Catalysts
affect the rate of a chemical reaction without
changing itself. All enzymes are proteins and
they all have a special pocket or cleft called the
active site and because they are proteins, they
will be affected by changes in concentration, pH
and temperature. The active site binds with the
substrate and breaks it down into a simpler
form. The enzyme diastase which was used in
this experiment converts starch to simple sugar.
Iodine and starch forms a complex which is
blue-black in colour.
The constants were the enzyme used and the
substrate used. The temperature was
manipulated, causing the time to vary.
Initially, the sample from the contents of all
the tubes turned to blue-black when iodine was
added. This showed that starch was still present,
indicating that diastase had not started the
breakdown of the starch.
After four minutes, the
sample from the
tube at 40°C did
not change to
blue-black, it
remained the
colour of iodine,
and this showed
that starch was no
longer present,
indicating that
diastase had completed
the breakdown of the starch.
The sample taken from the tube kept at 20°C did
not have a blue-black colour when it was tested
at 10 mins, indicating that the breakdown of the
starch was also completed. The sample from the
tubes kept at 0°C remained blue-black until it
was tested at 20 mins; this was unexpected and
could have been due to the difficulty in
maintaining the temperature at 0°C. At very low
temperatures, enzymes become deactivated and
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will not work, hence the diastase would not have
been able to break down the starch. The samples
taken from the test tubes kept at 80°C and
100°C were still blue-black after 30 mins,
showed that starch was still present, indicating
that diastase was not able to break it down.
Enzymes are denatured at high temperatures
such as 80°C and 100°C.
Denaturation changes the shape of the
enzyme so that the substrate can no longer fit at
the active site. If the substrate can no longer fit
the active site, then the breakdown cannot take
place.
The results show that the rate at which
diastase breaks down starch increases as the
temperature increases; this continues until the
rate begins to decrease with further increase in
temperature, after the temperature at which the
rate is fastest is passed. The temperature at
which the rate is fastest is known as the
optimum temperature.
LIMITATION
 It is difficult to maintain the water baths at
the required (constant) temperature.
CONCLUSION
The action of diastase is affected by
temperatures, at low temperatures it is slow and
the rate increases as the temperature increases
until the optimum temperature is reached, after
which the rate decreases until the action of
the enzyme stops.
Having written your discussion, go
back and read over your experiment.
Have you done justice to it?
See you next week!
Monacia Williams is an independent contributor.
Send questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

Ecosystems
JUDITH HENRY
Contributor
OBJECTIVES
 What is an ecosystem?
 What are three basic components of an
ecosystem?
 What are the different classification of the
ecosystem? Terrestrial and aquatic/open or
closed.
 What is the structure of the ecosystem?
 How do energy and matter travel through
ecosystems?
In an ecosystem, each organism has its own
niche or role to play.
The whole surface of Earth is a series of
connected ecosystems.
An ecosystem is a geographic area where
plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as
weather and landscape, work together to form a
bubble of life.
Ecosystems contain biotic, or living parts, as
well as abiotic factors, or non-living parts. Biotic
factors include plants, animals, and other
organisms. Abiotic factors include rocks,
temperature, and humidity.
Every factor in an ecosystem depends on
every other factor, either directly or indirectly.
An ecosystem is a community of plants and
animals interacting with each other in a given
area, and also with their non-living
environments. Like;
 Weather
 Earth
 Sun
 Soil
 Climate
 Atmosphere.
The ecosystem relates to the way that all these
different organisms live in close proximity to
each other and how they interact with each other.
These biotic and abiotic components are
regarded as linked together through nutrient
cycles and energy flows
As ecosystems are defined by the network of
interactions among organisms, and between
organisms and their environment, they can be of
any size but usually encompass specific, limited
spaces.
Ecosystems can be classified into three main
scales.
MICRO
A small-scale ecosystem, such as a pond,
puddle, tree trunk, under a rock, etc.
MESSO
A medium-scale ecosystem, such as a forest
or a large lake.
BIOME
A very large ecosystem or collection of
ecosystems with similar biotic and abiotic
factors, such as an entire rainforest with millions
of animals and trees, with many different water
bodies running through them.
Ecosystems are often connected in a larger
biome.
 Biomes are large sections of land, sea, or
atmosphere.
 Forests, ponds, reefs, and tundra are all
types of biomes, for example.
ECOSYSTEMS COME IN INDEFINITE
SIZES
Each ecosystem is unique, but all ecosystems
have three basic components:
 Autotrophs (producers of energy) plants.
 Heterotrophs (consumers of energy)
animals.
 Non-living matter ( the soil, sediments,
leaf litter, and other organic matter on the
ground or at the bottom of an aquatic system.)
THE STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM
 Basic functional level.
 Contains primary producers (plants)
capable of harvesting energy from the sun
through the process called photosynthesis.
 This energy then flows through the food
chain.
 Next-level consumers.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017
Consumers could be:
 Primary consumers (herbivores) .
 Secondary consumers (carnivores).
 These consumers feed on the captured
energy.
 Decomposers work at the bottom of the
food chain.
 Dead tissues and waste products are
produced at all levels.
 Scavengers, detritivores and decomposers
not only feed on this energy, but also break
organic matter back into its organic
constituents.
 It is the microbes that finish the job of
decomposition and produce organic
constituents that can again be used by
producers.
Please note that in ecosystems, both matter
and energy are conserved.
Energy flows through the system – usually
from light to heat – while matter is recycled.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF
ECOSYSTEMS
 Closed – Closed ecosystems are ones that
do not have any inputs (exchanges of energy
from the surrounding environment) or outputs
(exchanges of energy from within the
ecosystem).
 Open – Open ecosystems are ones that
have both inputs and outputs.
Ecosystems can be classified in a variety of
ways, but most commonly they are defined as
either terrestrial or aquatic.
TERRESTRIAL
 Are those that are found only on land.
 Six types of terrestrial ecosystems.
- Taiga
- Tundra,
- Deciduous forest
- Grasslands
- Tropical rain forests
- Deserts
AQUATIC
 Refers to living and non-living parts of a
waterbody and the interactions that take place
among them.
 Three types of aquatic ecosystems.
- Freshwater
- Marine
- Estuarine – places where rivers meet the sea
and may be defined as areas where salt water is
diluted with fresh water.
A freshwater body of water has fewer
yl:geography
dissolved compounds, or salts, present. It
covers less than one per cent of the earth and
are subdivided into lotic (systems with rapid,
flowing waters that move in a unidirectional way,
such as rivers and streams.), lentic (all standing
water habitats, such as lakes and ponds) and
wetlands.
A marine body of water has various salts
dissolved in it, hence the term ‘salt water’. The
average salinity of salt water is around 35 parts
per thousand. It covers over 70 per cent of the
earth’s surface. Oceans, estuaries, coral reefs
and coastal ecosystems are the various kinds of
marine ecosystems.
Estuarine areas are those that experience a
flux of both fresh and salt water, depending on
the tides and water currents.
The area where the Mississippi River meets
the Gulf of Mexico is considered estuarine
because there is a constant mix of fresh and salt
water.
HOW ENERGY AND MATTER TRAVEL
THROUGH ECOSYSTEMS
Both energy and matter are conserved, neither
created nor destroyed, but take different routes
through ecosystems:
 Matter is recycled; the same atoms are
reused over and over.
 Energy flows through the ecosystem,
usually entering as light and exiting as heat.
MATTER IS RECYCLED
 Through Earth’s ecosystems.
 Though it may move from one ecosystem
to another, as it does when nutrients are washed
away into a river.
 The same atoms are used over and over
again, assembled into different chemical forms
and incorporated into the bodies of different
organisms.
Now, let’s look at how chemical nutrients
move through a terrestrial ecosystem.
A land plant takes in carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and other nutrients, such as
nitrogen and phosphorous, from the soil to
build the molecules that make up its cells. When
an animal eats the plant, it uses the plant’s
molecules for energy and as building material
for its own cells, often rearranging atoms and
molecules into new forms.
When plants and animals break down
molecules as fuel, carbon dioxide is released
into the atmosphere. Also, when they excrete
CONTINUED ON PAGE 24
15

Parenting is not as easy as it looks
MAUREEN CAMPBELL
Contributor
IS THERE A PROBLEM WITH FAMILIES?
There is a problem. The growing rates of
abandonment and illegitimacy which have led to
the development of welfare programmes to
assist families, widows, abandoned or
unmarried women in supporting their children is
a cause for concern. In addition to the growing
self-sufficiency of women, declining fertility,
increasing rates of divorce and remarriage, and
childbirth outside of marriage have resulted in
many women being forced to take on the role of
fathers.
The question is, therefore, are we
ready/prepared for parenthood?
OBJECTIVES:
1. Describe factors which assist in the
preparation for parenthood.
2. Examine the characteristics of effective
parenting.
According to the Free Dictionary, a parent is
one who begets, gives birth to or nurtures and
raises a child; this is a father and/or mother.
We need to be physically, economically,
emotionally and psychologically ready for
parenthood. Most parents will tell you:
parenthood is an ongoing learning experience. It
is necessary to be prepared for parenthood. Kids
are adorable, but they’re also luxurious; we must
prepare for them. Financially, having a baby to
feed and clothe can put a strain on your budget
and may mean giving up things you want. It’s
important to work through any concerns you
have and get support for yourself and your baby.
Having support can help you balance your needs
with the needs of your child. Your family, friends
or even a doctor, counsellor or social worker can
help you work out how best to do this.
Having a baby means making changes in your
life. Children are wonderful and rewarding, but
they may also involve making some difficult
choices. As a parent, you will now spend more
time at home with your baby and less with your
friends. As a parent, it is important to take care
16
of yourself physically as well as emotionally.
Parenthood often keeps you on your toes – there
will always be new things to learn and new
changes to face. There is a great benefit to
eating well, getting regular exercise, relaxing
and talking through problems; you must stay
healthy and in control of your life.
IF YOU ARE FACING PROBLEMS YOU
SHOULD:
 Talk to someone. If you are finding things
tough, talking with someone you trust can help
you work through your feelings. If you have a
partner, talk and share your feelings with each
other in safe and supportive ways. Support each
other; this can be important for both of you. It’s
also often helpful to have support from someone
who has experienced parenthood. This could be
someone like your Mom, Dad or guardian, older
siblings or grandparents.
 Do things you enjoy, even if you’re at
home. You can leave your child with someone
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017
you trust so that you can have some time to
yourself. You may want to ask your partner,
parents, siblings, friends or neighbours to
babysit for a while. Make sure that your
babysitter is someone whom you trust.
 Get lots of rest. Sometimes having a child
can make your sleep patterns irregular. Babies
often need your attention at times when you
want to rest or sleep. It’s important that you try
to get some rest when your baby is sleeping so
that you can catch up on lost sleep for yourself.
 Have fun times with your baby. There are
lots of great things you can do with your child. A
parents’ group can be a good place for you to
get some support and for you and your child to
make new friends. It can also be a great social
activity for both of you.
 Getting help. There may be times when
being a parent can get you down. If you feel like
things are overwhelming you, it may be helpful
to talk with someone like a counsellor, your
local doctor or someone else you can trust.
yl:social studies
AS GOOD PARENTS, WE SHOULD
POSSESS THE FOLLOWING:
 Problem-solving skills.
 Communication skills.
 Socialising skills.
 Disciplinary skills.
 Knowledge of good nutrition.
 Showing of love and warmth.
 Money management skills.
 Children’s sense of self is developed in
part when they see themselves through their
parents’ eyes. Your tone of voice, your body
language, and your expressions are absorbed by
your children. Your words and actions as a
parent affect your child’s self-esteem more than
anything else.
 Praising accomplishments, however small,
will make them feel proud; letting them do
things independently will make them feel
capable and strong. By contrast, belittling
comments or comparing them unfavorably with
others will make them feel worthless.
 Make a point of finding something to
praise every day. Be generous with rewards;
your love, hugs and compliments can work
wonders and are often great reward.
 Discipline is necessary in every
household. The goal of discipline is to help
children choose acceptable behaviours and
learn self-control. They may test the limits you
establish for them, but they need those limits to
grow into responsible adults.
 Many parents find it rewarding to schedule
social time with their children. Create a ‘special
time’ each week to be together and let your
children help decide how to spend the time. Be
aware that you’re constantly being observed by
your kids. Model the traits you wish to cultivate
in your child/children: respect, friendliness,
honesty, kindness, tolerance. Exhibit unselfish
behaviour.
 Make your expectations clear. If there is a
problem, describe it, express your feelings, and
invite your children to work on a solution with
you. Be sure to include consequences. Make
suggestions and offer choices. Be open to your
children’s suggestions as well. Negotiate. It is
believed that children who participate in
decision-making are more motivated to carry
CONTINUED ON PAGE 24

DEBBION HYMAN
Contributor
OBJECTIVE
Students should be able to:
1. Describe the administrative system in
Spanish America.
2. Describe three effects of Spanish
colonisation on the indigenous populations.
In this week’s lesson, we will focus on the
system of government used in the Americas by
Spain, as well as on the effects of their
arrival/interaction with the indigenous peoples
of the region.
Spain created a vast overseas empire in the
Americas. Figure 1 outlines the span of their
settlement/colonization of the region by the
1600s. The map also outlines the
administrations (viceroyalties) created for
governance across the region.
GOVERNMENT
The system of government introduced in
Spanish America was largely influenced and
controlled by the metropole. The hierarchical
structure was set up in the following format:
a) King
b) Council of Indies
c) Viceroys
d) Governors
e) Audiencias
f) Cabildos
g) Visitadors
The Council of Indies was responsible for
establishing regulations and policies for the
colonies. There were four viceroyalties ( see
figure 1) in Spanish America and each was to
supervise the settlements in a particular area
and put laws into effect. The governor was the
individual in charge of a colony. The visitadors
visited the territories every two years to ensure
that the viceroyalties were being effectively
administered.
THE SPANISH MONOPOLY
The system of mercantilism influenced the
trading system in the Spanish Americas.
Mercantilism referred to a policy of restricting
the colonies from participating in foreign trade.
In other words, traders had to have a licence
from Spain to trade in the colonies. This
ensured maximum profit for Spain, as they were
Spanish colonization and its effects on the
indigenous populations in the Americas
ensured of at least duties on all goods traded.
Even the trade in slaves was protected – traders
had to have a special licence called an asiento.
The Casa de Contractacion was the body in
charge of Spain’s economic management in the
Americas.
THE COLONISTS
The various groups in Spanish America by
the mid-16th century included peninsulares,
creoles, mestizos and African slaves.
Peninsulares, several of them of lesser nobility
(hidalgos), officials and peasants, came directly
from Spain. Creoles in the context of Spanish
America are whites born in the colonies. The
mestizos were individuals of mixed descent
(Spanish and ‘Indians’). There were also
Africans, individuals captured from West Africa
or born in the Caribbean into a life or servitude.
THE CHURCH
The official religion for Spanish America was
Roman Catholicism. Priests were appointed to
every village and were given land grants. They
were in charge of education, medical care and
the spiritual life of all inhabitants including the
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017
Figure 1
indigenous peoples.
ECONOMY
The natural resources of each settlement
largely determined its most popular industry. As
a result, farming, mining, shipbuilding and
ranching were the popular economic activities in
Spanish America.
THE EFFECTS OF SPANISH AMERICAN
COLONIZATION ON THE INDIGENOUS
POPULATIONS
The establishment of Spanish settlements in
the Americas had a tremendous impact on the
indigenous populations in those areas. In fact,
the greatest impact of Spanish contact with the
indigenous peoples was the introduction of ‘Old
World’ diseases that decimated their
populations. These diseases included smallpox
and measles, for which the indigenous
population had no immunity.
There was also the forced system of labour
(encomienda) which witnessed many
indigenous people dying from overwork. The
encomienda system was a system in which
yl:history
indigenous people were used for labour in
return for the trust of educating and
Christianising them. This resulted in the native
population being forced into working on
agricultural lands to provide food for the
Spanish, as well as working in gold mines. Also,
murders, suicide and infanticide also played a
role in the decimation of the Taino population.
The end result was a genocide.
The decimation of the Taino population saw
the Spanish introducing the Laws of Burgos to
turn the tide of their decline. Some of its
stipulations included:
a) Natives could not be enslaved for any
reason.
b) All enslaved natives must be set free.
c) The courts must protect the natives from
ill-treatment.
These changes did very little as less than a
century after contact with the Spanish, the Taino
population was completely decimated.
Debbion Hyman is an independent contributor. Send
questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
17

MELISSA MCKENZIE
Contributor
TUDENTS, IN this week’s lesson, we will
S look at the rules that govern capital letters
and punctuation marks. After all, it is
important that when you are writing your stories
or essays, you capitalize and punctuate
correctly.
RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION
Capital letters should be used for:
 The pronoun ‘I’.
 Proper nouns like names of people,
places, for official titles or planets.
 Days of the week and months of the year.
 The beginning of a sentence.
 Languages such as Italian or Mandarin.
 Religious festivals, religions or holy days
like Christmas or Sabbath.
 Brand names such as Honda, Fila,
Supreme or Gucci.
Knowing the rules of capitalization is
essential and, at this level of your academic
development, capitalization errors should be
minimal if not non-existent.
PUNCTUATION MARKS
Our movements on the road are directed by
street signs and, similarly, punctuation marks
direct how we use our words in writing.
Punctuation marks are essential when you are
writing, as they show the reader where
sentences start and finish, and if they are used
properly, they make your writing easy to
understand.
CONSIDER THE PARAGRAPH BELOW:
Sarahs mother was very happy to hear that
her daughter had done well in her CSEC
examination she felt such pride that she wanted
to cry, how was she going to show her how
proud she felt she decided that she was going to
surprise her with a gift.
WAS THE PARAGRAPH PROPERLY
PUNCTUATED?
Definitely not. Punctuation errors like those in
the paragraph above should not be present in
your own writing. Let’s review some key
punctuation rules.
THE BASIC RULES
18
Back to basics
FULL STOP
This punctuation mark is used at the end of a
statement. For example: The choir is preparing
for the competition.
QUESTION MARK
This is used at the end of a question. For
example: Did she visit her mother?
EXCLAMATION MARK
This is used to express strong emotion or
excitement. For example: I got a grade one! This
is amazing!
COMMA
It marks a slight break between different parts
of a sentence. If it is used properly, a comma
makes meaning clearer. Commas are used in
lists, direct speech, to separate clauses, to mark
off certain parts of a sentence, and with
‘however’.
EXAMPLES:
 Saturday morning started with a hearty
breakfast of scrambled eggs, bacon, sausage,
and French toast. (In lists.)
 The teacher said, “You did well in your
mathematics test.” (To set off direct speech.)
 Before he started to answer the questions,
he whispered a prayer. (To separate clauses.)
 The play, The Tempest, is a part of the new
English B syllabus. (Marking off parts of the
sentence.)
 However, please note that you will receive
the top award. You should use a comma after
‘however’ when however means ‘by contrast’ or
‘on the other hand’. Don’t use a comma after
however when it means ‘in whatever way. For
example: However you look at it, idling will
affect your schoolwork.
SEMICOLON
 Use a semicolon when sentences in a
compound sentence are not connected by a
conjunction (such as “and”). The idea in each
sentence is normally related.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10 - 16, 2017
Example: ‘I enjoy reading mystery novels;
Tyrone prefers reading science fiction.’
 Use a semicolon between independent
clauses in a sentence that are connected by any
of the following transitional words or phrases:
accordingly, consequently, for example, for
instance, furthermore, however, instead,
moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, and
therefore.
Example: I planned to study Saturday
morning; however, the power in our house went
out due to a storm.
COLON
 Use a colon before a list that is preceded
by a complete sentence or main/independent
clause. Some variation of the word ‘follow’ is
often used in such a case.
Example: On our next vacation, we plan to
visit the following parishes: Portland, St Ann, St
James and Hanover.
 Use a colon to divide hours from minutes.
Example: I have an appointment with the
doctor at 9:30 a.m. tomorrow.
EXCLAMATION POINT/MARK
 Use an exclamation mark at the end of a
sentence to show strong emotion. Example:
‘Leave me alone!’
 Use an exclamation mark after an
interjection at the start of a sentence. Example:
‘Unbelievable! That driving test was so much
harder than I thought!’
APOSTROPHE
Some students experience challenges when
they are to use the apostrophe. They either
overuse it or they do not use it all. I have seen
the apostrophe being used in words like ask’s or
see’s and plan’s. Mistakes like these should be
avoided.
MAIN USES
 Use an apostrophe to indicate the
omission of a letter or letters in a contraction.
Example: “I don’t (contraction of do not)
believe she will change her mind.”
Example: It’s a humid evening. Please note
yl:english language
the difference between it’s and its because these
two words are often confused. ‘It’s’ is a
contraction of the words it is and ‘its’ indicates
ownership. For example: The dog spun excitedly
when it saw its owner.
 Use an apostrophe plus the letter ‘s’ to
show possession.
Example: Bobby’s bike is on the porch.
INVERTED COMMAS
Inverted commas can be single - ‘y’ - or
double - ‘’y’’ They are also known as quotation
marks or quotes.
MAIN USES
Inverted commas are mainly used in the
following cases:
 To indicate the beginning and end of direct
speech (i.e. a speaker’s words written down
exactly as they are spoken):
EXAMPLES:
 ‘That song,’ he said, ‘was rather
inspirational.’
 She whispered to Mark, ‘I am so eager to
hear what is going to happen tomorrow.’
 To mark off a word or phrase that is being
discussed or that is being directly quoted from a
person, book or article:
Example: He urged the students to ‘dream
big’.
Please note: There is no rule about which
inverted commas to use, but you should stick to
one or the other throughout a piece of writing.
Single inverted commas are generally more
common in British English while American
English tends to prefer double ones.
These punctuation marks are the most
commonly used and you are required to use
them appropriately. The stories, essays or
summaries that you write should be properly
punctuated and capital letters placed where they
are needed. Appropriate usage of these
CONTINUED ON PAGE 24

BERYL CLARKE
Contributor
“It will flame out, like shining from shook foil;”
T IS very good to have you back. Let’s get
I right into our exploration of God’s Grandeur.
As you already know, this poem is a sonnet,
but before we consider the poet’s style, we have
to come to grips with what the persona is
saying. The first line boldly declares that the
world is infused with splendour, magnificence,
that is of God. The use of the word ‘charged’
introduces God’s powerful, impressive input.
The succeeding lines down to ‘Crushed’ at the
start of the fourth line speak to the fact that
God’s awesome work cannot be hidden.
Did you know that aluminium foil reflects
98% light? So, if you shake it, as the speaker
suggests, it is visible in the same way that the
world, which is God’s wonderful handiwork, can
be clearly seen. This is indeed a positive
introduction to the poem. The mood does not
last long, for the rest of the fourth line brings
into opposition what God made with man’s
actions. Man, we are told, does not think of the
punishment that will result from the way he is
abusing nature. The use of ‘now’ may be
suggesting that there was a time when human
beings appreciated the world as God made it, or
the question leads one to wonder why is it that
man does not stop at this point and take stock of
the situation that he is creating.
A peek into the life of the poet, Gerard Manley
Hopkins, informs us that he was a priest. It is
not surprising, therefore, that he praises God for
creating the world as He did. Hopkins wrote at a
time when industrialization was having an
impact on the environment, which he saw as
negative. The rest of the octave deals with how
man in his desire for material wealth has
denuded the earth of its beauty. The use of
powerful images emphasizes the speaker’s point.
The repetitive ‘have trod, have trod, have trod;’
does not only reveal the heaviness, the cruelty
with which nature has been treated, but suggests
as well the monotony of industrialization. The
speaker/persona pulls no punches in lines six,
seven and eight when he describes just how
badly man has damaged the earth. Try to read
them orally and you will realise that the diction
slows you down, again giving intensity to the
harm of which he accuses humans.
‘And all is seared with trade; bleared, smeared
‘God’s Grandeur’
Intense action during a NBL match between Urban Knights and Majesty
Gardens at the National Stadium.
with toil;
And wears man’s smudge and shares man’s
smell:’
These are telling words that show up a great
gap between the earth as given to man and how
he, through his hunger for money, has made it
less attractive, perhaps even ugly. Have you
noticed the sound repetition of ‘ea’ in ‘s-ea-red’,
‘bl-ea-red’ and ‘sm-ea-red’? Quickly, identify the
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017
figure of speech used here. Humans, the lines
tell us, have dirty hands (smudge) and a strong
smell which have harmed the earth. Hands
which leave a smudge/smear, in this case, refers
not only to man’s hands leaving an imprint on
what he touches, but more so to the effect of his
general actions.
Do you know what type of sonnet this one is?
There are certain characteristics of the two major
yl:english literature
types which make it easy to tell whether it is
Shakespearean or Petrarchan. We’ll return to
this later, but now, let us deal with the last six
lines of God’s Grandeur.
“And for all this nature is never spent;”
Huh! After all of man’s bad treatment we come
up on a sharp, unexpected statement. Yet, we
should not really be surprised for initially, we
had been told that it is God who is behind the
grandeur. Once we accept that, we must be
aware that man’s destructive actions cannot
overcome nature. There is always more
springing up to replace what has been taken to
replenish the earth. What do you think of the
line: ‘There lives the dearest freshness deep
down things;’? Nice? Thought-provoking?
Difficult? Please replace the word ‘lives’ with the
word ‘exists’ and see if things become any
clearer. Next, I would like you to go to line seven
and eight and take a good look at
‘the soil Is bare now, nor can foot feel being
shod.’
It is said that animals, particularly in the wild,
and small insects, too, can sense an impending
earthquake because they are close to nature –
much, much closer than we are. From the above,
we find out that man has hurt the earth and has
put a barrier (shoes) between himself and the
earth and has, therefore, lost touch with it.
Despite his efforts, there is something in nature
which remains untouched and which cannot be
used up. So, although things will look bleak and
exhausted, there will always be another day. The
sun sinks in the west, but there will be sunshine
in the morning. Why is this? The speaker
answers when he closes on a positive and
confident note declaring that God, the Holy
Ghost, nurses, nurtures, protects, watches over
the world.
Please read the poem again, this time
examining the writer’s style. Have a good week
and God bless!
Beryl Clarke is an independent contributor. Send
questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
19
 yl:information technology
processor can access directly from cache memory, the faster the

Memory storage computer runs as a whole.

BUFFERS
A buffer is an internal memory area used for temporary storage
of data records during input or output operations. For example,
most modern printers are equipped with buffers that store
NATALEE A. JOHNSON data from the ROM chip, but its content cannot be changed.
Contributor information or data to be printed.
Whenever you turn on your computer and your computer is
OOD DAY, students. This is lesson five of our series of booting up, messages are made possible by the information in

G lessons. In this week’s lesson, we will be looking at

memory storage media and unit of storage. At the end of
this lesson, you should be able to distinguish between at least
ROM.
Now that you are familiar with the different memory chips, let
us now look at the different units of storage available and key
terms associated with units of storage.
two types of memory and the unit of storage relating to a
particular storage device. UNITS OF STORAGE
KEY DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
The purpose of memory is to provide storage for data,
instruction and the result of processing. There are four main  Bit – This is the smallest unit of storage in a computer; it is
categories of memory storage chips: . usually 0 or 1.
1. Random access memory (RAM) m  Byte – This comprises eight bits.
2. Read-only memory (ROM)  Word – This is the amount of bits the computer can process
3. Cache in one operation.
4. Buffer  Word size/length – this is the number of bits in a word.
 Bi-stable device – this is a device which exists in two
A memory chip is a chip that holds programs and data, either possible states. This device is similar to a light switch which can
temporarily or permanently. Let us now look at each of these There are several variations to ROM: either be on or off.
categories. Once you are considering purchasing a RAM chip (memory),
PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY MEMORY (PROM)
hard drive or a flash drive, you will first likely consider the size or
The PROM chip is left blank by the manufacturers the number of bytes the storage medium has. Let us now examine
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY and written to by the customer. Once written to the larger units of storage by the byte table shown below.
RAM, or primary storage, is the chip chip, it becomes read-only memory.
that is located nearest to the CPU and is
NUMBER OF BYTES
referred to as being volatile. RAM is ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY
considered to be volatile in that its content MEMORY (EPROM)
is erased whenever the flow of electricity to
NAME Symbol Approximately Binary Decimal Actual
the processor is terminated. This is why EPROM is a reusable PROM chip that can be erased Measurement Measurement
your teacher will often remind you to save by a special ultraviolet light. EPROM holds its content
your work frequently. Even if you have until erased and new instructions can be written on it. Kilobyte KB 1000 210 103 1024
auto-save recovery, the computer To reprogram an EPROM chip, it has to be removed
from the computer.
will only recover up to a particular (1 thousand)
point.
ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE Megabyte MB 1,000,000 220 106 1048576
RAM PERFORMS THREE PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY MEMORY ( 1 million)
MAIN FUNCTIONS: (EEPROM)
 Stores data for processing. EEPROM chip is similar to an EPROM chip, Gigabyte GB 1,000,000,000 230 109 1073741824
 Stores instructions for except that it is erased by applying electrical pulses
to the chip, making it possible to reprogram the
(1 billion)
processing the data.
 Stores processed data chip without removing it from the computer.
Terabyte TB 1,000,000,000,000 240 1012 1099511627776
(information) that is waiting to be
sent to an output or secondary storage device. CACHE MEMORY (1 trillion)
Cache memory is a special high-speed memory designed to
READ-ONLY MEMORY supply the processor with the most frequently requested We have come to the end of this lesson. See you next week.
A ROM chip stores data permanently and is oftentimes referred instructions and data. Instructions and data located in cache Remember, if you fail to prepare, you prepare to fail.
to as being non-volatile. The information on a ROM chip is stored memory can be accessed many times faster than instructions and
on it by the manufacturers and cannot be modified or erased by data located in main memory. The more instructions and data the Natalee A. Johnson teaches at Ardenne High School. Send questions and
comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
the user. The processor can read and retrieve the instructions and

20 YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017

 yl:mathematics

Consumer arithmetic SOLUTION

30/80 x100 = 37.5%

The answer is (b).

This is the basis of finding values such as
CLEMENT RADCLIFFE Dividing: = 15/6 ÷ 20/3 = 15/6 x 3/20 = 3/8 It should be noted that a percentage may be percentage loss or gain, percentage tax,
Contributor expressed as a decimal fraction or as a vulgar discount, etc.
NB: The line in the question represents fraction, for example,
AVING REVIEWED the application of 60% = 60/100 = 3/5 = .60

H
arithmetic operations to fractions, let us
complete it by checking the answers to
last week’s practice exercise. If you are having
difficulty, you may check the information
presented previously. Let us now review a few
problems presented in last week’s assignment.
1. Calculate the value of 4 1/2 x 7/3 +1/4.
SOLUTION
4 1/2 x 7/3+1/4.
The first step, of course, is to evaluate within
the brackets according to BOMDAS.
7/3 +1/4
As the LCM of the denominators 3 and 4 is
12, the two fractions are converted to:
7 x 4 + 1 x 3 /12
= 28 + 3 /12 = 31/12
Completing, 4 1/2 x 31/12 = 9/2 x 31/12
=93/8
Answer : 93/8
2. Find the value of: (1.5)3 - (0.7) 2
SOLUTION
Using the calculator:
(1.5)3 - (0.7) 2 = 3.375 - 0.49 = 2.885
= 2.885
3. Calculate the value of: 4 1/3 - 1 5/6 / 2 1/2
x 2 2/3
SOLUTION
The line represents brackets and so the
numerator may be evaluated first.
4 1/3 - 1 5/6 = 13/3 - 11/6
The LCM of 3 and 6 is 6
= ( 2 x 13) - (1 x 11) /6
= 26 - 11/6 =15/6
Evaluating the denominator, we first convert
to fractions:
5/2 x 8/3 = 40/6 = 20/3
brackets and so the denominator could have
been first evaluated.
5. Find the value of:
(4.27)2 - 7.6
√3.6 ÷ 0.08
SOLUTION
Using the calculator to evaluate the
numerator,
(4.27)2 - 7.6 =18.233 - 7.6
= 10.633
Evaluating the denominator:
√3.6 ÷ 0.08 = 1.897 ÷ 0.08 = 23.713
Dividing:
10.633 ÷ 23.713 = 0.448
Practice
Calculate the values of:
i) 3.122 - 1.053
ii) 3 2/3 + 5 1/2 x1/4 / 4 1/2 - 2 1/5
The lesson, this week will continue with a
review of selected areas of CONSUMER
ARITHMETIC. Some popular topics are cost
price, selling price, discount, sales tax, hire
purchase, simple and compound interest.
The concept of percentage is fundamental to
these topics, as our review will illustrate.
The following extract was taken from the
syllabus:
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
 Calculate: discount, sales tax, profit and
loss. Also, percentage profit and loss.
 Express a profit, loss, discount markup
and purchase tax as a percentage of some value.
DEFINITION
Percentage is a fraction with its denominator
being 100, a % = a/100
EXAMPLE 2
I will illustrate by looking at three situations A television set, which costs $1,064 is sold
in which the problems may be presented: for $1,399. If the television set is purchased in
(A) Finding the value representing a certain cash, there is a 5% discount. Find a) the selling
percentage. price on a cash sale, b) the profit or loss as a
percentage of cost price.
EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION
Find 75% of $ 9,600.
a) The marked price is $1,399. Since there is
a 5% discount on cash sale.
SOLUTION Then 5% of $1399 = 5/100 x $ 1,399 = $
75/100 x $ 9,600 = $7,200. 69.95
This is the basis of finding values such as The amount paid = $1,399 - $69.95 = $
profit and loss, sales tax, General Consumption 1,329.05
Tax, discount, etc.
ALTERNATIVELY
EXAMPLE 2 The marked price is $1,399. A 5% discount
Jamaica charges 15% tax on the purchase of represents 95%.
football gear. If a complete set is valued at The amount paid = $1,399 x 95/100 = $
$250,000. How much was paid? 1,329.05
SOLUTION b) The Profit = Selling Price - Cost Price
= $ 1,329.05 - $ 1,064 = $ 265.05
15% of $250,000 The percentage profit = Profit /Cost Price x 100
= 15/100 x $ 250,000 = $37,500. = $265 .05/1,064 x 100 = 24.9%
The school paid $37,500 more, therefore, the The third situation is:
amount paid is $ 250,000 + $ 37,500 = $ 287, (C) Problems involving percentages.
500
Answer : $ 287,500 EXAMPLE 1
Milk is sold in three containers as follows:
NB: The amount the school paid may also be Container size Selling price
found as follows: a) 350ml $4.20
Since there is a 15% tax payable, then the b) 450ml $5.35
amount paid represents 115%. c) 500ml $5.80
115/100 x $250,000 = $287,500.00 Which size of milk is the most cost effective?
The next situation is:
SOLUTION
(B) Finding percentages, given the values.
The cost per ml for each is as follows:
EXAMPLE 1 a) $4.20 ÷ 350 = 1.2 cents
Express 30cm as a percentage of 80cm. b) $5.35 ÷ 450 = 1.19 cents
(a) 30% (b) 37.5% (c) 62.5% (d)130% CONTINUED ON PAGE 24

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017 21


Non-verbal communication – Part 2
TRUDI MORRISON REID
Contributor
AST WEEK, we looked at the various
L categories of non-verbal communication.
We looked at body language and
movement, space (proxemics), vocalics
(paralanguage), artifacts, chronemics (time),
graphs, charts, tables and pictures and how they
communicate messages non-verbally. This
week, we will look at the functions of non-verbal
communication, some general rules that should
guide our interpretation of non-verbal
messages, as well as some questions relating to
non-verbal communication.
Non-verbal communicative behaviours
significantly affect the overall meanings of
messages, but how do they do this? Let us look
at the functions of non-verbal communication.
FUNCTIONS OF NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
There are six main functions of non-verbal
communicative behaviours:
1. SUBSTITUTING
A non-verbal action can replace a word.
Replacement can be an easy action, such as a
wink, or a complete set of actions, such as sign
language. Imagine that your mother asks
whether you like the new shoes she has bought
for you to wear to the upcoming Christmas link-
up at your school. Her bright smile and dancing
eyes tell you that she is proud of her purchase
as she presents the shoebox to you with a
flourish. The shrug of your shoulders is not
quite the response she is looking for, as it
suggests that the shoes do not impress you and,
perhaps, that you do not care for them at all. She
hangs her head in disappointment and returns to
the store to exchange that pair for one she can
wear to her New Year’s party!
2. REINFORCING
Non-verbal communication can reinforce or
complement verbal sounds. So, as you scream,
clap your hands frantically, leap into the air and
exclaim, ‘I am so excited!”, one can easily tell
that the message you have just received via
email from that overseas college is a pleasant
22
Juliet Cuthbert-Flynn taking participants through a series of workouts at boot
camp at the Life Fit Training Centre, Red Hills Road, St Andrew, on Saturday. It
was held in association with The Gleaner’s Fit4Life.
one. College, here I come!
3. REGULATING
Very often, non-verbal signals are used to
regulate the flow of interactions in a
conversation or other verbal communicative
process. In class, you may raise your hand to
get the teacher’s attention so you can give your
input; and a toddler may tug at your skirt or pant
leg until he/she has your attention.
4. CONTRADICTING
Sometimes non-verbal messages actually
contradict a verbal message. This can be
intentional or unintentional. Let’s say you are in
a conversation with a fellow at the bus stop and
you are becoming bored and need your friends
to help you get out of it. They see you using
your head to ‘point’ at the fellow in a rapid, short
burst. They ask aloud whether you are OK. You
tell them that you are (because you don’t want to
hurt his feelings), but the unusually high pitch
of your voice indicates that something is wrong.
They cook up a plan and rescue you before he
bores you to death with the conversation.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017
yl:communication studies
LIONEL ROOKWOOD/PHOTOGRAPHER
Unfortunately, we are not always aware of the
non-verbal messages we may be sending. So,
as your mother asks you where is the new
iPhone that your godmother has sent you from
foreign, you tell her it’s in the room as you
scratch your neck and avoid eye contact with
her. She knows you better than you know
yourself, so she sends you for it. You’ve been
#BUSTED!!!!! Your own body language betrayed
you.
Hint, hint. Lack of eye contact, hand-to-face
gestures and tone of voice are usual cues to
deception.
5. MANAGING IMPRESSIONS
We are each responsible, to some extent, for
creating and controlling the way other people
perceive us. We can attempt to create that
message about ourselves based on the
impression that our non-verbal behaviours and
artifacts form in the minds of the intended
audience.
Remember the guy from last week’s article
who turned up for a job interview in a button-
down shirt, black joggers (pants) and brand new
Air Force One sneakers? What impression would
he create in the mind of a board chairman who
was scouting for a high-school vice-principal?
6. ESTABLISHING RELATIONSHIPS
Relationships can be established or revealed
by our non-verbal behaviours. How, when and
where you touch someone, stand in relation to
someone and speak to someone send messages
about the relationship. Watch out for where you
throw that ‘innocent’ flirtatious smile or to whom
you send that kissing emoji with the wink, that
person may think it’s more than a playful peck
on the cheek! (Check out http://emojipedia.org/
for emojis and their meanings.)
Remember that you are constantly
communicating because everything about you
can be interpreted. Even when you are alone,
you communicate with yourself through your
thoughts. You cannot ‘not communicate’. Non-
verbal communication is often ambiguous, so
pay attention to the context and the
accompanying verbal messages as you evaluate.
Culture plays an important part in understanding
non-verbal communication. Be sure to keep the
big picture in mind and not jump to conclusions
based on part of the whole message.
SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT
 Evaluate the recent prompt from Minister
of Education, Youth and Information Ruel Reid
for principals to ‘look at the way potential
teachers dress and whether they have tattoos
before hiring them’.
 Your group of friends is having a
conversation at lunchtime and you wish to
participate. How would you indicate this, non-
verbally, to your friends?
 You have a new science teacher at school.
What two signs tell you that he is nervous? What
non-verbal communicative behaviours do you
and your friends use to encourage him?
I want to hear from you!!!
Next week, we will look at verbal
communication – part I!!!!
Trudi Morrison Reid teaches at The Queen’s School. Send
questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

Characteristics of culture
JASON MCINTOSH
Contributor
OBJECTIVES
At the end of today’s lesson, you should be
able to:
(1) Define culture, material culture, non-
material culture and norms.
(2) Describe the elements that determine the
characteristics of a culture.
(3) Evaluate the norms, customs and
institutions which prescribe behaviour
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Culture speaks to the ideas, beliefs, practices
and values that form the basis on which the
society is built. Hence the culture of a society is
learned and shared by the members of the
society. Culture is transmitted from one
generation to another through verbal and non-
verbal interactions. Cultures are passed down
through institutions such as the family and
religion, which has prescribed behaviours for its
members to follow. Culture also has gendered
practices, in term of how males and females
are expected to respond in situations that are
unique to them. Culture is a
dynamic, creative,
continuous process. The
culture of the Caribbean is
diverse, oftentimes referred to as a
melting pot of
cultures
because of the
contribution of
various groups,
such as the East
Indians, Chinese, Europeans,
Africans, and Amerindians.
This legacy of
diversity can be
readily seen in the
languages spoken in
the Caribbean: English,
Spanish, French, Dutch, Creole,
Mandarin (Chinese immigrants).
Culture therefore provides individuals
with a set of common understandings that they
employ in fashioning their actions, and makes
society possible by providing a common
framework of meaning.
The process by which people learn their
society’s culture is called enculturation.
Enculturation unifies people of a society by
providing them with common experiences.
Social scientists identify certain aspects of
culture as pop culture, or popular culture. Pop
culture includes such elements of a society’s
arts and entertainment as television, radio,
recordings, advertising, sports, hobbies, fads
and fashions.
THE MAIN ONES ARE A CULTURE:
 Satisfies human needs in a particular way.
 Is acquired through learning.
 Is based on the use of symbols.
 Consists of individual traits and groups of
traits called patterns.
TYPES OF CULTURE
Sociologists describe two interrelated aspects
of human culture: the physical
objects of the
culture and
the ideas
associated
with these
objects.
YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16 2017
Material culture refers to the physical objects,
resources, and spaces that people use to define
their culture. These include homes,
neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches,
synagogues, temples, mosques, offices,
factories and plants, tools, means of production,
goods and products, stores, and so forth. All of
these physical aspects of a culture help to define
its members’ behaviours and perceptions.
Non-material culture refers to the non-
physical ideas that people have about their
culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms,
morals, language, organisations, and
institutions. For instance, the non-material
cultural concept of religion consists of a set of
ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals,
and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how
the culture responds to its religious topics,
issues, and events.
When considering non-material culture,
sociologists refer to several processes that a
culture uses to shape its members’ thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours. Four of the most
important of these are symbols, language,
values, and norms.
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
 Norms – Norms are social rules that
specify appropriate and inappropriate behaviour
in given situations. They afford a means by
which we orient ourselves to other people.
Folkways, mores, and laws are types of norms.
 Values – Values are broad ideas regarding
what is desirable, correct, and good that most
members of a society share. Values are so
general and abstract that they do not explicitly
specify which behaviours are acceptable and
which are not.
 Symbols and language – Symbols are acts
or objects that have come to be socially
accepted as standing for something else.
Symbols assume many different forms, but
language is the most important of these.
Language is the chief vehicle by which people
communicate ideas, information, attitudes, and
emotions, and it serves as the principal means
yl:caribbean studies
by which human beings create culture and
transmit it from generation to generation.
CULTURAL UNITY AND DIVERSITY
CULTURAL UNIVERSALS
Cultural universals are patterned and
recurrent aspects of life that appear in all known
societies. All people confront many of the same
problems; culture represents an accumulation of
solutions to the problems posed by human
biology and the human situation.
CULTURAL INTEGRATION
The items that form a culture tend to
constitute a consistent and integrated whole. For
example, societies that value universal
education also usually have norms and laws
about schools, organise education into a
collective activity, and create symbols and share
meanings about the value of education and
educational organisations.
ETHNOCENTRISM
The cultural ways of our own society become
so deeply ingrained that we have difficulty
conceiving of alternative ways of life. We judge
the behaviour of other groups by the standards
of our own culture, a phenomenon sociologists
term ethnocentrism.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
In studying other cultures, we must examine
behaviour in the light of the values, beliefs, and
motives of each culture, an approach termed
cultural relativism.
SUBCULTURES AND
COUNTERCULTURES
Cultural diversity may be found within a society
in the form of subcultures. When the norms, values,
and lifestyles of a subculture are at odds with those
of the larger society, it is a counterculture.
Jason McIntosh teaches at The Queen’s School. Send
questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
23

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 16
them out.
 As your children change, you’ll gradually have to change
your parenting style. What works with your children now won’t
work as well in a year or two. Teens tend to look less to their
parents and more to their peers for role models. However,
continue to provide guidance, encouragement and appropriate
discipline while allowing your teen to earn more independence.
Also, seize every available moment to make a connection!
yl:social studies
SOURCES 1. Suggest THREE reasons why preparations for parenthood is
http://kidshealth.org/parent/positive/family/nine_steps.html# very important in the Caribbean society, then describe two ways
http://us.reachout.com/facts/factsheet/preparing-for- in which this may be accomplished in your community.
2. Suggest to a group of mothers THREE ways in which they
parenthood
can become effective parents. Explain why you think these ideas
would help parents to be more effective.
Please read the following:
https://childdevelopmentinfo.com/how-to-be-a- Maureen Campbell is an independent contributor. Send questions and
parent/parenting/#.WZB32JVK3IU comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

yl: english
language
CONTINUED FROM PAGE 18
mechanics of writing is quite
significant in determining how well
you perform in the expression
component of the profile
dimensions.
Remember the incorrectly
punctuated paragraph I shared
above? Here is how it should have
been written.
Sarah’s mother was very happy
to hear that her daughter had done
well in her CSEC examination. She
felt such pride that she wanted to
cry. How was she going to show
her how proud she felt? She
decided that she was going to
surprise her with a gift.
Next week, I will give you some
punctuation, capitalization and
vocabulary development activities.
CONTINUED FROM PAGE 21
c) $5.80 ÷ 500 = 1.16 cents
The 500ml container is the most cost effective
as it is the lowest cost per ml.
EXAMPLE 2:
The cash price of a radio is $1,299. It can be
bought on hire purchase by making a deposit of
$350 and 10 monthly payments of $120 each.
1.What is the total hire purchase price of the
radio?
2.How much is saved by buying the radio for
cash?
SOLUTION
1. Total hire purchase is : deposit + total
monthly payments
= $350 + 10 x $120 = $350 + $1,200
= $1,550
2. Savings by paying cost price = $1,550 -
$1,299 = $251
Answer : $251
In summarizing, the following points should
be noted:
 Percentage is a fraction of 100.
 The whole is represented by 100%.
 If the whole is increased by x%, then the
value becomes (100 + x )%.
 If the whole is reduced by x%, then the
value becomes (100 - x )%.
HOMEWORK
1. Mr James bought and sold a cellular phone.
The cost price is $1,064 and the marked price is
$1,399. If a discount of 5% is applied, calculate
the:
 The selling price.
 The profit or loss as a percentage of the
cost price.
2. In a certain country, electricity charges are
calculated based on the following table:
Fixed charge Charge per kwH used
$3,500 $2.30
(i) Calculate the electricity charges for a
customer who used 1,200kwH.
There is a government tax of 17.5% on the
electricity charges.
(ii) Calculate the tax on the customer’s
electricity charges, giving your answer to the
nearest cent.
(iii) Calculate the total amount paid by the
yl: mathematics
customer.
3. How much simple interest is due on a loan
of $1,200 for two years if the annual rate of
interest is 5 1/2 per cent.?
a) $120 b) $132 c) $264 d) $330.
4. A tourist exchanged US $ 300 for Jamaican
currency at the rate of
US $1 = Ja $115.
Government tax of 15% of the amount
exchanged is payable. Calculate in Jamaican
currency:
i) The tax paid.
ii) The amount the tourist received.
5. A sum of $1,498 is invested at 6% simple
interest per annum. Calculate:
i) The interest earned after six months.
ii) The total amount of money in his account
after three years.
iii) How long it will be before his investment
earns $449.40.
Have a productive week.
Clement Radcliffe is an independent contributor. Send
questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.comm

VOCABULARY TOP-UP: yl: geography

Eccentric – (describing a
person) odd, unconventional
Eminent – well-known and well-
respected
Engross – to occupy the
attention of someone completely
Enunciate – to pronounce words
clearly
Melissa McKenzie teaches at Old Harbour
High School. Send questions and
comments to kerry-
ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com
CONTINUED FROM PAGE 15
used for energy and building material by bacteria
and fungi.
These decomposers release simple molecules
back into the soil and atmosphere, where they can
be taken up anew in the next round of the cycle.
Energy cannot be recycled in ecosystems.
 It flows through an ecosystem in one way –
from light to heat.
 It usually enters ecosystems as sunlight and
is captured in chemical form by photosynthesizers
like plants and algae.
 It is then passed through the ecosystem, dissipated as heat and radiated back into space.
changing forms as organisms
 Metabolise
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION IN AN
 Produces waste.
 Eat one another. ECOSYSTEM
 Die and decompose. Ecosystems with higher biodiversity tend to be
more stable, with greater resistance and resilience
Each time energy changes forms, some of it is in the face of disturbances, disruptive events.
converted to heat. the next lesson will focus on other components
of an ecosystem (human, climate, vegetation, soil).
Heat still counts as energy, but can’t be used as
an energy source by living organisms. Judith Henry teaches at Ardenne High School. Send
questions and comments to
Energy that entered the ecosystem as sunlight is kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

24 YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | OCTOBER 10-16, 2017