Mechanics of Materials

Chapter 2

ANALYSIS OF STRESS:
CONCEPTS & DEFINITIONS
By Prof. Dr.-Ing. A.-B. Wang
Institute of Applied Mechanics
National Taiwan University
1

Contents
ANALYSIS OF STRESS: CONCEPTS & DEFINITIONS

 2-1 Introduction (Self read)

 2-2 Normal Stress Under Axial Loading
 2-3 Shearing Stress in Connections
 2-4 Bearing Stress
 2-5 Units of Stress
 2-6 Stresses on an Inclined Plane in an Axially Loaded Member
 2-7 Stress at a General Point in an Arbitrarily Loaded Member
 2-8 Two-Dimensional or Plane Stress
 2-9 The Stress Transformation Equations for Plane Stress
 2-10 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shearing Stress – Plane Stress
 2-11 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress
 2-12 General State of Stress at a Point

1
 2-2 Normal Stress Under Axial Loading
Force
Definition: Stress 
Area
intensity of force
F
 avg 
A

F
  lim
A0 A

: “+”: tensile stress

“”: compressive stress
3

2-3 Shearing Stress in Connections

 Connections: rivets, bolts, pins, nails, welds

Single shear & double shear

V V
 avg    lim
A0 A
A
(Note: The shear stress  cannot be uniformly distributed over A. )
4

2
 2-3 Shearing Stress in Connections
 Punching Shear periphery area = dt

http://thcarmor.theshoppe.com/images/rivet.jpg

www.mrs.org/microworld/ titanic.html

2-4 Bearing Stress

 Bearing stress: compressive normal stress

F
b 
A
6

3
 2-5 Units of Stress

 USCS: United State Customary System (British units)

 SI: International System of Units
 Unit of stress: force per unit area (intensity of force)
 psi: pound per square inch
 ksi: kilo pound per square inch
 pound (lbf): 1 slug  1 ft/s2
 kip: kilo pound
 Pa: Pascal, Newton per square meter
 N: Newton, 1 kg  1 m/s2 = 0.2248 lbf
 MPa: mega (106) Newton per square meter
(1 bar = 0.1 MPa)
7

Example Problem 2-1(a)

A = 3.00 in2

Determine normal stress at

a b c cross-section a, b, and c=?

 F  FAB  81  0 FAB  81 kip (T)

 F  FBC  54  81  0 FBC  27 kip (T)

FCD  ?

4
 Which one is correct?
 1. FCD = - 45 kip
 2. FCD = 45 kip
 3. FCD = - 18 kip
 4. FCD = 18 kip
 5. No correct answer

Example Problem 2-1(b)

A = 3.00 in2
 CD  ?
1. - 45 ksi
2. + 45 ksi
F 45
3. - 15 ksi  CD  CD   15.00 ksi  15.00 ksi (T)
A 3.00
4. + 15 ksi
5. No correct answer
 Can you draw the axial-force Diagram?

Points where concentrated forces act

10

5
 Example Problem 2-3 (a)
P = 10 kips

d si  2.00 in d bo  2.00 in

ts  0.250 in tb  0.275 in
d p  0.750 in
 Determine shearing stress in the pin = ?

2V  10 V  5 kips
V 5
   11.317 ksi  11.32 ksi
A 4 (0.750) 2

11

Example Problem 2-3 (b)

 Replace the pin by a glued joint.

Length of glued joint = ?

A  dL  (2.00) L  2.00L in 2

V 10,000
   250 psi
A 2.00L

L  6.366 in  6.37 in

12

6
 Example Problem 2-4 (a)
d so  150 mm
ts  15 mm
axial load = 150 kN
 Determine average bearing stress
between column and bearing plate = ?

A
4

 2
 
 
d o  d i2  1502  1202  6362 mm2  6362(10 6 ) m2
4
F 150(103 )
b   6
 23.58(106 ) N/m2  23.6 MPa
A 6362(10 )
13

Example Problem 2-4 (b)

 Assuming average bearing stress of bearing plate  3.25MPa
Determine diameter of bearing plate d = ?
d=?

 2
A d
4
F 150(103 )
b    3.25(106 )
A (  4) d 2
d  242.4(103 ) m  242 mm

14

7
p. 65
2-6 Stresses on an Inclined Plane in
an Axially Loaded Member

A distributed

equivalent resolve into

2 components
P P cos 
Average total stress savg  
|N | = P cos 
A cos  A
Not useful |V | = P sin 
for design!
15

p. 66
2-6 Stresses on an Inclined Plane in
an Axially Loaded Member
Assumption: stress uniformly distributed
P cos  P
n 
N
  cos 2  
P
1  cos 2
An A cos  A 2A
(2-7)

V P sin  P P
n     sin  cos    sin 2
An A cos  A 2A
(2-8)
 max  P A  max  P 2 A

q CCW: +
N = P cos 
V = - P sin   min  0  min   P 2 A

Axially loaded only!  and τ vanish at 90º

16

8
 τ & τ
Remarks for xy yx
 The equality of n on orthogonal planes can be obtained as
follows: If only shear stresses are acting on the surfaces,

M z  0 :  yx dx dz dy   xy dy dz dx

stress direction

 xy  yx   xy
outward normal
Shear stresses tend to “skew”
the element diagonally.

  yx   xy is true even when there are normal stresses.

17

p. 67

τ & τ
Remarks for xy yx
 Failure plane under axial tension loading:
 brittle material:  ~ 0º
 ductile material:  ~ 45º
     90

P
n  sin 2
2A

Equal
magnitude
Change sense
(sign)

18

9
p. 68

Example Problem 2-6

Given: d = 1.25 in.  Find: n, n
N P (2-7)
n   (1  cos 2 )
An 2 A
1000
d  {1  cos[2  (33)]}
2   1.252 4
 573 psi

P (2-8)
 nt  sin 2
2A
1000
 sin[2  (33)]
2   1.252 4
 372 psi
19

p. 68

Example Problem 2-6

For d = 1.25 in. Alternatively,
P
n  (1  cos 2 ) (2-7)
2A
1000
 [1  cos(2  327)]
d 2   1.252 4
 573 psi

 P
 nt  sin 2 (2-8)
2A
1000
  sin(2  327)
2   1.252 4
 372 psi
20

10
p. 68

Example Problem 2-7

 Given: rectangular block with
cross section: 200  100 mm,
f = 36o,
n = 12.00 MPa (C) at section a-a
 Find:

 P=?
 On plane a-a, n = ?
 Maximum normal and shearing
stresses in the block = ?

Greek
Symbols

21

p. 69
f = 36o,
n = 12.00 MPa (C) at
Example Problem 2-7 section a-a

A  200(100)  20,000 mm 2  0.0200 m 2

An  A cos   0.020 cos 54  0.03403 m 2

N  n An  12(106 )(0.03403)  408.4 kN (C) 


 Fn -408.4  P cos 54°  0
P  694.8 kN  695 kN (C)

P 694.8( 103 )
n  sin 2  sin108  16.520( 106 ) N/m 2  16.52 MPa (eq.2-8)
2A 2( 0.0200 )

 max  ?
 max  ?
22

11
p. 69

Example Problem 2-7

 max  ? max  ?

1. max = 24.3 MPa; max = 18.25 Mpa 

2. max = -24.3 MPa; max = 18.25 Mpa 

3. max = 34.7 MPa; max = 17.35 Mpa

4. max = -34.7 MPa; max = 17.35 Mpa
5. None is correct

P 694.8(103 )
 max    34.74(106 ) N/m 2  34.7 MPa (C) (eq.2-9) at  = 0
A 0.0200
P 694.8(103 )
 max    17.35(106 ) N/m 2  17.35 MPa (eq.2-10) at  = 45
2 A 2(0.0200)
23

p. 72
2-7 Stress at a General Point in an
Arbitrarily Loaded Member
Stress distribution should not necessarily be uniform in a cross-section.
Section As A → 0, F → uniform,
Fn, Mn: resultants
through and Mn → 0
of distributed force
point O
on small area A

normal direction

M n  0 as A  0
Fnn
 n  lim normal stress
A0 A
Fn
S n  lim stress vector
A0 A Fnt
 n  lim shear stress
A0 A

24

12
p. 73
2-7 Stress at a General Point in an
Arbitrarily Loaded Member

Resolve x into
components
xy and xz

Sn  ne n  net
  x e x   xy e y   xz e z

Co-plane stress components are

vectors.

25

p. 73

Remarks
 Resolve Sn on three mutually perpendicular planes
 the state of stress at a point is completely described.
 Sign convention
 6 independent components outward normal

xy

stress direction

x: normal stress

26

13
p. 74

2-8 Two-Dimensional or Plane Stress

All forces are confined on a
plane, for example, x-y plane
 z   zx   zy  0
which implies
 xz   yz  0

Plane stress occurs at

points on the outside surface of a body
points within thin plates where the z-components
of force are zero.

27

p. 75
2-9 The Stress Transformation
Equations for Plane Stress
 z  0,  zx   zy  0
t

dA

28

14
p. 76
2-9 The Stress Transformation
Equations for Plane Stress
t
+ F n   n dA   x dA cos  cos    y dA sin  sin 
n
  yx dA sin  cos    xy dA cos  sin   0

  yx   xy

 n   x cos 2    y sin 2   2 xy sin  cos  (2-12a)

1  cos 2 1  cos 2 sin 2

 x  y  2 xy
2 2 2

x   y x   y
  cos 2   xy sin 2 (2-12b)
2 2

29

p. 76
2-9 The Stress Transformation
Equations for Plane Stress
t
+ F  
t nt dA   x dA cos sin    y dA sin  cos 
  xy dA cos  cos    yx dA sin sin   0
n

  yx   xy


 nt   x   y sin  cos    xy cos 2   sin 2  
x   y
 nt   sin 2   xy cos 2 (2-13b)
2

x   y x   y
n   cos 2   xy sin 2 (2-12b)
2 2

For Plane stress

30

15
p. 76

Comparison
2-6 Stresses on an Inclined Plane in 2-8 Plane Stresses
an Axially Loaded Member
x   y x   y
n 
P
1  cos 2  (2-7) n   cos 2   xy sin 2
2A 2 2
P
  x ;  y  0;  xy  0
x x
n   cos 2
A 2 2
P  x  y
n  sin 2 (2-8)  nt   sin 2   xy cos 2
2A 2
x
 nt   sin 2
2
y

31

p. 76

Remarks
Positive in the positive direction of the j-axis
Sign conventions:
 positive stresses ij or (i)(j), and + CCW from +x-axis

Positive in the negative direction of the j-axis

 n, t, z) axes have the same order as the (x,y,z) axes.

Both are right-hand coordinate system.

32

16
p. 77

Example Problem 2-8 (I)

Given:  x  80 M Pa
 y  100 M Pa
 xy  60 M Pa

Find: n and nt on plane AB = ?

n and nt on plane CD = ?

33

Example Problem 2-8 (II)

 x  80 M Pa

 y  100 M Pa

 xy  60 M Pa

On plane
AB
 n   x cos 2    y sin 2   2 xy sin  cos 

 80 cos 2  42   100 sin 2  42  2 60 sin 42 cos 42

 60.26 MPa  60.3 MPa (C)

 nt   x   y sin  cos    xy cos 2   sin 2 

 80   100sin 42 cos 42   60cos 2  42  sin 2  42

 95.78 MPa  95.8 MPa

34

17
 Example Problem 2-8 (III)
 x  80 M Pa

 y  100 M Pa

 xy  60 M Pa

  48
On plane CD
 n   x cos 2    y sin 2   2 xy sin  cos 

 80 cos 2  48   100 sin 2  48  2 60 sin 48 cos 48

 40.26 MPa  40.3 MPa (T)

 nt   x   y sin  cos    xy cos 2   sin 2 

 80   100sin 48 cos 48   60cos 2  48  sin 2  48

 95.78 MPa  95.8 MPa

35

p. 79

Example Problem 2-9

thin-walled pressure vessel

Given: x = 4000 psi,

y = 8000 psi

Find : stresses on plane b-b

36

18
p. 79

Example Problem 2-9

From Eqs. (2-12a) and (2-13a),
 n   x cos 2    y sin 2   2 xy sin  cos 

 4000  cos 2 (53.13)  8000  sin 2 (53.13)  0

 3680 psi (T)

nt  ( x   y ) sin  cos    xy (cos 2   sin 2 )

 (4000  800)  sin(53.13)  cos(53.13)  0

 5760 psi (C)

37

p. 85
2-10 Principal Stresses and Maximum
Shearing Stress – Plane Stress

 Max. n and nt (magnitude)

can be obtained by plotting
curves.
It’s time consuming and
inefficient
max. n

max. nt

38

19
p. 86

Principal Stresses (I)

x   y x   y
n   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
maximize n
d n
  x   y sin 2  2 xy cos 2  0
d
2 xy
tan 2 p   p1 ,  p 2 (p1 = p2 +90o)
x   y
principal directions
(principal planes)

39

p. 87
2 xy
tan 2 p 
x   y
Principal Stresses (II)
x   y
 xy
sin 2 p   cos 2 p   2
 x   y
2
  x   y 
2
    2xy     2xy
 2   2 
 x  y
substitute into  nt   sin 2   xy cos 2
2

nt (p) = 0 !!
(Principal planes: Planes free of shear stress )
x  y  x  y
substitute into  n   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2 Two principal stresses
x  y   x  y 
2

 p1, p 2       xy
2
p1 + p2 = x + y
2  2 
40

20
p. 88

Maximum Shearing Stress (I)

x   y
 nt   sin 2   xy cos 2
2
maximize  nt

d nt
  x   y cos 2  2 xy sin 2  0
d
tan 2  tan 2 p
x   y
tan 2     x  y 2 xy
2 xy  
2 xy  x  y
1 ,  2  1
t1 and 2 are 90o apart) p and  are 45o apart)
41

p. 88

Maximum Shearing Stress (II)

 x  y
 xy
sin 2   2 , cos 2   
 x   y
2
  x  y  
2

    xy
2
    2xy
 2   2 

 x  y t1 and 2 are 90o apart)

 nt  
2
sin 2   xy cos 2     90
  x  y 
2 Two maximum shearing
 max      xy
2
stresses with opposite sign.
 2 
x  y   x  y 
2

(  p1, p 2       xy ) max (or p ): maximum in-plane

2

2  2 
shearing stress
 p1   p 2
 max  ( p ) 
42
2

21
p. 88
d n
   x   y  sin 2  2 xy cos 2 ( 0 for  max )
d   y
Remarks (I)  nt   x
2
sin 2   xy cos 2

d n
    x   y  sin 2  2 xy cos 2  2 nt
d
On principal planes, nt = 0
(or nt (p) = 0 !!)
2 xy 2 p 2
 tan 2 p  2 p1
x   y
 p 2   p1  90

Principal planes are orthogonal.

 For plane stress problems, p3 = z = 0
x  y   x  y 
2

(  p1, p 2       xy )
p1 + p2 = x + y
2
 2  2 
The sum of two normal stresses on two orthogonal planes are invariant.
43

pp. 88

Remarks (II)
 tan 2 p  0 0   p  45 p along zaxis

tan 2 p  0  45   p  0 p along zaxis

 Numerically greater p will act on the plane that makes an

angle of 45 or less with the plane of the numerically larger
of x and y
2 xy x   y
 tan 2 p  tan 2   (Reciprocal relationship)
x   y 2 xy
x  y   x  y 
2

   p  45 (  p1, p 2       xy )
2

2  2 
 p1   p 2  x   y  p1   p 2
 On  ,  max  , n  
2 2 2
44

22
p. 89

Remarks (III)

 3D case:
 There are 3 orthogonal planes on which nt = 0

principal planes

 max   min
  max 
2

acts on planes that bisect the angles between the planes

of max and min (see next page)

45

p. 89

Remarks (IV)
 For plane stress:
p3
max. n : p1 , p2 , 0

max. nt :  p1   p 2 ,  p1  0 ,  p 2  0
2 2 2

46

23
p. 90

Example Problem 2-11

Given: Find:
 p , max =?

 p ,  = ?

 Show the stresses on a sketch.

x = + 10,000 psi
y =  8000 psi
xy =  4000 psi

47

p. 90

Example Problem 2-11

x   y    y 
2

 p1, p 2    x   2xy (2-15)

2  2 

10000   8000  10000   8000 

2

      4000
2

2  2 
 1000  9849

 p1  1000  9849  10,849 psi  10,850 psi (T)

＃

 p 2  1000  9849  8849 psi  8850 psi (C) ＃

 p3   z  0 ＃
max  min 10,849   8849
max    9849 psi  9850 psi ＃
2 2
48

24
p. 91

Example Problem 2-11

2 xy 2  4000 
tan 2 p    0.4444
 x  y 10000   8000 
2 p  23.96,  156.04
 p  11.98,  78.02 ＃

  p  11.98
 n   x cos 2    y sin 2   2 xy sin  cos 
 10000 cos 2  11.98   8000  sin 2  11.98
 2 4000  sin 11.98 cos  11.98
  p1  10 ,849 psi  10,850 psi (T)
  p  78.02
n  10000 cos 2 78.02   8000sin 2 78.02
 2 4000sin 78.02cos78.02
  p 2  8849 psi  8850 psi (C)
49

p. 92

Example Problem 2-11

the max. in-plane shear stress

   11.98  45  33.02

.
 n   x cos 2    y sin 2   2 xy sin cos 

 n  999.6 psi  1000 psi (T)


nt   x   y sin  cos    xy cos 2   sin 2  
 10000   8000sin 33.02 cos 33.02

  4000 cos 2 33.02  sin 2 33.02 
 9849 psi  9850 psi

x  y  
( On  ,  n  ; max  max min )
2 2
50

25
p. 93

Example Problem 2-11

51

p. 93

Example Problem 2-12

Given: Find:
 p , max =?

 p ,  = ?

 Show the stresses on a sketch.

x = +100 MPa
y = 80 MPa
xy = 40 MPa

52

26
p. 93

Example Problem 2-12

x   y    y 
2

 p1, p 2    x   2xy (2-15)

2  2 

100  80  100  80 
2

      40
2

2  2 
 90  41.23

 p1  90  41.23  131.23 M Pa  131.2 M Pa (T)  p1   p 2  0

 p 2  90  41.23  48.77 M Pa  48.8 M Pa (T)

 p3   z  0

max  min 131.23  0

max    65.61 MPa  65.6 MPa (2-19)
2 2

53

p. 94

Example Problem 2-12

2 xy 2  40 
tan 2 p    0.4000 (2-14)
 x  y 100  80
2 p  75.96,  104.04
 p  37.98,  52.02

  p  37.98

n   x cos 2    y sin 2   2 xy sin  cos  (2-12a)

 100 cos 2  37.98  80 sin 2  37.98  2 40sin  37.98cos 37.98

  p1  131.23 MPa  131.2 MPa (T)
  p  52.02

n  100 cos 2  52.02  80 sin 2  52.02  2 40sin  52.02cos 52.02

  p 2  48.77 MPa  48.8 MPa (T)
54

27
p. 94

Example Problem 2-12

p3= 0 Note:
In xy-plane,
p = (p1  p2/2
= (131.2-48.8)/2
= 41.2 MPa
acting on = 38+45 

p < max= 65.6 MPa

55

p. 98

2-11 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

Otto Mohr (German engineer, 1835-1918) A = 2p
cos(A-B) = cos(A) cos(B) + sin(A) sin(B) B = 2
x   y x   y
n 
2

2

cos 2   xy sin 2   a v g  R c o s 2  p  2  
   x   y
 nt   sinx 2 y sin 2  xy
2 2
2  cos
xy cos 2  R sin 2  p  2   
square sum sin(-B+A)
sin(A+B) = sin(A)cos(B)
sin(-B)cos(A)++cos(A)sin(B)
cos(-B)sin(A)
x   y    
2 2
  
 n    2nt   x y
  2xy
 2   2  R=
   y 
Circle : center  n ,  nt    x , 0    av g , 0 
 2  2 p2
2 p1
radius    y 
2

R   x    2xy
 2 
56

28
p. 99

2-11 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

Shear stress tends to rotate the element clockwise
a ssu m e  x   y  0

C :  a v g , 0 

   y
2

R   x    2xy
 2 

Shear stress tends to rotate the element counterclockwise

57

p. 100

2-11 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

OF '  OC  CF cos2 p  2
  x   y  2  avg  VV '   xy
OF '  OC  CV cos 2 p cos 2  CV sin 2 p sin 2
 CV '   x   y  2

x  y  x  y
OF '   cos 2   xy sin 2   n
2 2

F ' F  CF sin  2 p  2 
 CV sin 2 p cos 2  CV cos 2 p sin 2
 V 'V cos 2  CV 'sin 2
 x  y
  xy cos 2  sin 2   nt
2
58

29
p. 100

2-11 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

 n   avg  R cos  2 p  2 
Point F
 nt  R sin  2 p  2 

  = 0°
 n   av g  R cos 2  p   x Point V
 nt  R sin 2  p   xy

  = 90°
 n   av g  R cos 2  p   y
Point H
 nt   R sin 2  p    xy

59

p. 100

2-11 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

max. normal stress:
 p1  avg  R cos(2 p  2 p )
 avg  R
nt   R sin(2 p  2 p )  0

 p 2  avg  R cos(2 p  2 p  180)

 avg  R
nt   R sin(2 p  2 p  180)  0

max. in-plane shearing stress

 p  R sin(2 p  2 p  90)   R

60

30
p. 101

Procedure for Drawing Mohr’s Circle

 Choose a set of x-y axes.
 Identify x, y , and xy with proper
sign. 
Draw a set of  axes.
Shear stress tends to rotate the element clockwise



H(y , yx)
 Plot points V(x , xy) and H(y , yx).
(n , nt)
 Draw line VH and determine the
center C and radius R. C

2
 Draw the circle. R
 Use CV as the x-axis ( = 0º) or the
V(x , xy)
reference line for angle measurement. 
Shear stress tends to rotate the element counterclockwise
61

p. 102

Example Problem 2-13

 p  ? max  ?  p  ?
 aa  ? aa  ?

H(6, 4)

E(7.06, 0) D(9.06, 0)
C(1,0)
OC  ( x   y ) 2  (8  6) 2  1
V(8,4)

 x  y
2

CV      2xy  7 2  4 2  8.062 ksi
 2 
 p1  OD  OC  CV  1  8.062  9.06 ksi

 p 2  OE  CE  CV  1188.062
.062 =97.06
.06 ksiksi
 p3   z  0
62

31
p. 103

Example Problem 2-13

 p   max  CA  CB  8.06 ksi

 n  OC  1.000 psi

2 p  tan 1 4 7   29.74 E(7.06, 0) D(9.06, 0)

 p  14.87

63

p. 104

Example Problem 2-13

At plane a-a, 45º from V(8, 4),

90º CCW from CV, i.e., F(5, 7)

64

32
p. 104

Example Problem 2-14

 p1  OD  54  30  84.0 MPa (T) 

 p 2  OE  54  30  24.0 MPa (T)
 p3   z  0
tan 2 p  -24 / 18  -1.3333
 p  -26.57?  26.57 


65

p. 105

Example Problem 2-14

Note: p1 > p2 > p3 = 0


 p1  0
 max   42 MPa
2
 p1   p 2
 p 
2

stresses of elements rotating

 p3  p2 about the p2axis
 p1

stresses of elements rotating

about the p3axis (zaxis)

stresses of elements rotating


about the p1axis
66

33
p. 105

Example Problem 2-14



(24, 0)
(84, 0)
(42, 0)


67

p. 76

Remarks for sign of shear stresses

Sign conventions: Positive in the positive direction of the j-axis
 positive stresses ij or (i)(j)
stress direction

 xy Positive in the negative direction of the j-axis

outward normal t

n
 + CCW from +x-axis

 n, t, z) axes have the same order as the (x,y,z) axes.

Both are right-hand coordinate system.

68

34
 Remarks for sign of shear stresses

 yx   xy  yx  xy


       90


H(y , yx)
(n , nt)

C

2
R

 V(x , xy)
Shear stress tends to rotate the element counterclockwise
69

Sign of shear stresses for 131.2

48.8
MPa
Example Problem 2-12 MPa
65.6
MPa 48.8
65.6 MPa
MPa

131.2
 MPa


H(ave , yx) (n , nt)

C 2 
48.8 0 , 0 131.2 , 0
131.2 MPa R
MPa
V(ave , xy)

65.6 
MPa
70

35
p. 108

2-12 General State of Stress at a Point

1
V  dn dA
3
1 1 1
 dx dAx  dy dAy  dz dAz
3 3 3

dn  dx cos x  dy cos  y  dz cos z

dAz
dn dAx  dA cos  x  dA l
dAx
dAy  dA cos  y  dA m
dA
dAy dAz  dA cos  z  dA n

l, m, n: direction cosines

71

p. 109
2-12 General State of Stress at a
Point
Force equilibrium
Fx  S x dA   x dA l   yx dA m   zxdA n
Fy  S y dA   xy dA l   y dA m   zy dA n
Fz  S z dA   xz dA l   yz dA m   z dA n

S x   xl   yx m   zxn
S y   xy l   y m   zy n
S z   xz l   yz m   z n

 n  S xl  S y m  S z n

  x l 2   y m 2   z n 2  2  xy lm  2  yz mn  2  zx nl

 n t   S 2   2n

72

36
 8 Exercises

2-41, 2-54, 2-61, 2-81,

2-84, 2-93, 2-96, 2-119

73

Appendix

Greek alphabet
Upper case Lower case Name Upper case Lower case Name
A a alpha N n nu
B b beta   xi /ksi/ or
/zai/
  gamma O o omicron
 d delta P  pi
E e epsilon R r rho
Z z zeta S  sigma
H h eta T  tau
Q  theta U u upsilon
I i iota F f phi /fai/
K k kappa C c chi /kai/
L l lambda Y y psi /sai/
M m mu W w omega

74

37