Chichen Itza - Spanish: Chichén Itzá at the mouth of the

well of the Itza"), was a large pre-Columbian city built by

the Maya civilization. The archaeological site is located in
the municipality of Tinum, in the Mexican state of
Yucatán.Chichen Itza was a major focal point in the
northern Maya lowlands from the Late Classic (c.600–900
AD) through the Terminal Classic (c.800–900) and into the
early portion of the Early Postclassic period (c.900–1200).
The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles,
reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the
Puuc and Chenes styles of the northern Maya lowlands.
The presence of central Mexican styles was once thought
to have been representative of direct migration or even
conquest from central Mexico, but most contemporary
interpretations view the presence of these non-Maya styles
more as the result of cultural diffusion.Chichen Itza was
one of the largest Maya cities and it was likely to have
been one of the mythical great cities, or Tollans, referred
to in later Mesoamerican literature. The city may have had
the most diverse population in the Maya world, a factor
that could have contributed to the variety of architectural
styles at the site.The ruins of Chichen Itza are federal
property, and the site’s stewardship is maintained by
Mexico’s Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia
(National Institute of Anthropology and History). The land
under the monuments had been privately-owned until 29
March 2010, when it was purchased by the state of
Yucatán.[nb 1]
Chichen Itza is one of the most visited archaeological sites
in Mexico; an estimated 1.2 million tourists visit the ruins
every year.
The idea of erecting a large statue atop Corcovado was first
suggested in the mid-1850s, when Catholic priest Pedro Maria
Boss requested financing from Princess Isabel to build a large
religious monument. Princess Isabel did not think much of the idea
and it was dismissed in 1889, when Brazil became a republic with
laws mandating the separation of church and state.[5] The second
proposal for a landmark statue on the mountain was made in 1921
by the Catholic Circle of Rio.[6] The group organized an event
called Semana do Monumento("Monument Week") to attract
donations and collect signatures to support the building of the
statue. The donations came mostly from Brazilian Catholics.[2] The
designs considered for the "Statue of the Christ" included a
representation of the Christian cross, a statue of Jesus with
a globe in his hands, and a pedestalsymbolizing the world.[7] The
statue of Christ the Redeemer with open arms, a symbol of peace,
was chosen.Local engineer Heitor da Silva Costa designed the
statue; it was sculpted byPolish-French sculptor Paul Landowski.
[8]
A group of engineers and technicians studied Landowski's
submissions and the decision was made to build the structure out
ofreinforced concrete (designed by Albert Caquot) instead of steel,
more suitable for thecross-shaped statue.[5] The outer layers
are soapstone, chosen for its enduring qualities and ease of use.
[3]
Construction took nine years, from 1922 to 1931 and cost the
equivalent of US$250,000 ($3,257,463 in 2013). The monument
was opened on October 12, 1931.[3][4] The statue was meant to be lit
by a battery of floodlights triggered remotely by shortwave radio
pioneer Guglielmo Marconi, stationed 5,700 miles (9,200 km) away
in Rome,[6] but poor weather affected the signal and it had to be lit
by workers in Rio.[5]In October 2006, on the statue's 75th
anniversary, Archbishop of Rio Cardinal Eusebio Oscar
Scheid consecrated a chapel (named after the patron saint of Brazil
—Nossa Senhora Aparecida, or "Our Lady of the Apparition,")
under the statue. This allows Catholics to hold baptisms and
weddings there.[4]The statue was struck by lightning during a violent
electrical storm on Sunday, February 10, 2008 and suffered some
damage on the fingers, head and eyebrows. A restoration effort was
put in place by the Rio de Janeiro state government and
archdiocese to replace some of the outer soapstone layers and
repair the lightning rods installed on the statue.[9][10][11]On April 15,
2010 graffiti was sprayed on the statue's head and right arm.
MayorEduardo Paes called the act "a crime against the nation" and
vowed to jail the vandals, even offering a reward of R$ 10,000 for
any information that might lead to an arrest.[12][13] The Military
Police eventually identified house painter Paulo Souza dos Santos
as the suspect of the act of vandalism.
Even today, in a world of skyscrapers, the Colosseum is
hugely impressive. It stands as a glorious but troubling
monument to Roman imperial power and cruelty. Inside it,
behind those serried ranks of arches and columns, Romans
for centuries cold-bloodedly killed literally thousands of
people whom they saw as criminals, as well as professional
fighters and animals.Indeed, it was the amphitheatre's
reputation as a sacred spot where Christian martyrs had
met their fate that saved the Colosseum from further
depredations by Roman popes and aristocrats - anxious to
use its once glistening stone for their palaces and
churches. The cathedrals of St Peter and St John Lateran,
the Palazzo Venezia and the Tiber's river defences, for
example, all exploited the Colosseum as a convenient
quarry.As a result of this plunder, and also because of fires
and earthquakes, two thirds of the original have been
destroyed, so that the present Colosseum is only a shadow
of its former self, a noble ruin.The Colosseum was started
in the aftermath of Nero's extravagance and the rebellion
by the Jews in Palestine against Roman rule. Nero, after
the great fire at Rome in AD 64, had built a huge pleasure
palace for himself (the Golden House) right in the centre of
the city. In 68, faced with military uprisings, he committed
suicide, and the empire was engulfed in civil wars.The
eventual winner Vespasian (emperor 69-79) decided to
shore up his shaky regime by building an amphitheatre, or
pleasure palace for the people, out of the booty from the
Jewish War - on the site of the lake in the gardens of
Nero's palace. The Colosseum was a grand political
gesture. Suitably for that great city, it was the largest
amphitheatre in the Roman world, capable of holding some
50,000 spectators.Eventually there were well over 250
amphitheatres in the Roman empire - so it is no surprise
that the amphitheatre and its associated shows are the
quintessential symbols of Roman culture.
The Taj Mahal (/ˈtɑːdʒ məˈhɑːl/ often pron.: /ˈtɑːʒ/;[1] Hindi: तताज
महल, fromPersian/Urdu: ‫" تاج محل‬crown of
palaces", pronounced [ˈt̪aːdʒ mɛˈɦɛl]; also "the Taj"[2]) is a white
marble mausoleum located in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. It was
built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his third
wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal is widely recognized as "the
jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired
masterpieces of the world's heritage".Taj Mahal is regarded by
many as the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that
combines elements from Islamic, Persian, Ottoman
Turkish and Indianarchitectural styles.In 1983, the Taj Mahal
became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. While the
whitedomed marble mausoleum is the most familiar component of
the Taj Mahal, it is actually an integrated complex of structures. The
construction began around 1632 and was completed around 1653,
employing thousands of artisans and craftsmen.[6] The construction
of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under
imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan,
Makramat Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.[7][8] Lahauri[9] is
generally considered to be the principal designer.[10]
The tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal.
This large, white marble structure stands on a square plinth and
consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped
doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal
tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.The base structure
is essentially a large, multi-chambered cube
withchamfered corners, forming an unequal octagon that is
approximately 55 metres (180 ft) on each of the four long sides. On
each of these sides, a huge pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the
iwan with two similarly shaped, arched balconies stacked on either
side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered
corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all
sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each
corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main
chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah
Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.
The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications made of stone,
brick, tamped earth, wood, and other materials, generally built
along an east-to-west line across the historical northern borders
of China in part to protect the Chinese Empire or its prototypical
states against intrusions by various nomadic groups or military
incursions by various warlike peoples or forces. Several walls were
being built as early as the 7th century BC;[3] these, later joined
together and made bigger, stronger, and unified are now collectively
referred to as the Great Wall.[4] Especially famous is the wall built
between 220–206 BC by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang.
Little of that wall remains. Since then, the Great Wall has on and off
been rebuilt, maintained, and enhanced; the majority of the existing
wall was reconstructed during the Ming Dynasty.Other purposes of
the Great Wall have included border controls, allowing the
imposition of duties on goods transported along the Silk Road,
regulation or encouragement of trade and the control of immigration
and emigration. Furthermore, the defensive characteristics of the
Great Wall were enhanced by the construction of watch towers,
troop barracks, garrison stations, signaling capabilities through the
means of smoke or fire, and the fact that the path of the Great Wall
also served as a transportation corridor.A more controversial
question is whether the Wall is visible from low Earth orbit (an
altitude of as little as 100 miles (160 km)). NASAclaims that it is
barely visible, and only under nearly perfect conditions; it is no
more conspicuous than many other man-made objects.[40] Other
authors have argued that due to limitations of the optics of the eye
and the spacing of photoreceptors on the retina, it is impossible to
see the wall with the naked eye, even from low orbit, and would
require visual acuity of 20/3 (7.7 times better than normal).[39]
Astronaut William Pogue thought he had seen it from Skylab but
discovered he was actually looking at the Grand Canal of
China near Beijing. He spotted the Great Wall with binoculars, but
said that "it wasn't visible to the unaided eye." U.S. Senator Jake
Garn claimed to be able to see the Great Wall with the naked eye
from a space shuttle orbit in the early 1980s, but his claim has been
disputed by several U.S. astronauts. Veteran U.S. astronaut Gene
Cernan has stated: "At Earth orbit of 100 miles (160 km) to 200
miles (320 km) high, the Great Wall of China is, indeed, visible to
the naked eye." Ed Lu, Expedition 7 Science Officer aboard
the International Space Station, adds that, "it's less visible than a lot
of other objects. And you have to know where to look."
Petra (Greek πέτρα (petra), meaning 'stone'; Arabic: ‫البتراء‬, Al-
Batrāʾ) is an Arabianhistorical and archaeological city in
the Jordanian governorate of Ma'an, that is famous for its rock-cut
architecture and water conduit system.
Established possibly as early as 312 BC as the capital city of
the Nabataeans,[1] it is a symbol of Jordan, as well as its most
visited tourist attraction.[2] It lies on the slope ofMount Hor[3] in
a basin among the mountains which form the eastern flank
of Arabah(Wadi Araba), the large valley running from the Dead
Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba. Petra has been a UNESCO World
Heritage Site since 1985.
The site remained unknown to the Western world until 1812, when
it was introduced bySwiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt. It
was described as "a rose-red city half as old as time" in
a Newdigate Prize-winning poem by John William Burgon.
UNESCO has described it as "one of the most precious cultural
properties of man's cultural heritage".[4] See: UNESCO Intangible
Cultural Heritage Lists. Petra was chosen by theSmithsonian
Magazine as one of the "28 Places to See Before You Die."[
Evidence suggests that settlements had begun in and around Petra
in the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1550–1292 BC)[citation needed]. It is
listed in Egyptian campaign accounts and the Amarna
letters as Pel, Sela or Seir. Though the city was founded relatively
late, a sanctuary existed there since very ancient times. Stations 19
through 26 of the stations listof Exodus are places associated with
Petra.[8] This part of the country was Biblicallyassigned to
the Horites, the predecessors of the Edomites.[9] The habits of the
original natives may have influenced the Nabataean custom of
burying the dead and offering worship in half-excavated caves.
Although Petra is usually identified with Sela which means
a rock,the Biblical references[10] refer to it as "the cleft in the rock",
referring to its entrance. The second book of Kings xiv. 7 seems to
be more specific. In the parallel passage, however, Sela is
understood to mean simply "the rock" (2 Chronicles xxv. 12, see
LXX).
On the authority of Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews iv. 7, 1~ 4,
7) Eusebius and Jerome (Onom. sacr. 286, 71. 145, 9; 228, 55.
287, 94) assert that Rekem was the native name
and Rekem appears in the Dead Sea Scrolls[11] as a prominent
Edom site most closely describing Petra and associated with Mount
Seir. But in the Aramaic versions Rekem is the name of Kadesh,
implying that Josephus may have confused the two places.
Sometimes the Aramaic versions give the form Rekem-Geya which
recalls the name of the village El-ji, southeast of Petra.[citation
needed]
The Semitic name of the city, if not Sela, remains unknown.
The passage in Diodorus Siculus(xix. 94–97) which describes the
expeditions which Antigonus sent against the Nabataeans in 312
BC is understood to throw some light upon the history of Petra, but
the "petra" referred to as a natural fortress and place of refuge
cannot be a proper name and the description implies that the town
was not yet in existence.In 106 AD, when Cornelius Palma was
governor of Syria, that part of Arabia under the rule of Petra was
absorbed into the Roman Empire as part of Arabia Petraea, and
became its capital. The native dynasty came to an end, but the city
continued to flourish. It was around this time that the Petra Roman
Road was built. A century later, in the time of Alexander Severus,
when the city was at the height of its splendor, the issue of coinage
comes to an end. There is no more building of sumptuous tombs,
owing apparently to some sudden catastrophe, such as an invasion
by the neo-Persian power under the Sassanid Empire. Meanwhile,
as Palmyra (fl. 130–270) grew in importance and attracted the
Arabian trade away from Petra, the latter declined. It seems,
however, to have lingered on as a religious centre. A Roman
road was constructed at the site. Epiphanius of Salamis (c.315–
403) writes that in his time a feast was held there on December 25
in honor of the virgin Khaabou (Chaabou) and her
offspring Dushara (Haer. 51).[citation needed]
Machu Picchu (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈmatʃu
ˈpiktʃu], Quechua: Machu Picchu[ˈmɑtʃu ˈpixtʃu], "Old Peak") is
a pre-Columbian 15th-century Inca site located 2,430 metres
(7,970 ft) above sea level.[1][2] Machu Picchu is located in the Cusco
Region of Peru, South America. It is situated on a mountain ridge
above theUrubamba Valley in Peru, which is 80 kilometres (50 mi)
northwest of Cusco and through which the Urubamba River flows.
Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an
estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti (1438–1472). Often referred
to as the "City of the Incas", it is perhaps the most familiar icon
of Inca civilization.The Incas built the estate around 1450, but
abandoned it as an official site for the Inca rulers a century later at
the time of the Spanish Conquest. Although known locally, it was
unknown to the outside world before being brought to international
attention in 1911 by the American historian Hiram Bingham. Since
then, Machu Picchu has become an important tourist attraction.
Most of the outlying buildings have been reconstructed in order to
give tourists a better idea of what the structures originally looked
like.[3] By 1976, thirty percent of Machu Picchu had been restored.
[3]
The restoration work continues to this day.Since the site was
never known to the Spanish during their conquest, it is highly
significant as a relatively intact cultural site. Machu Picchu was
declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and
a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983.[2] In 2007, Machu Picchu
was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a
worldwide Internet poll.Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca
style, with polished three primary structures are
the Intihuatana (Hitching post of the Sun), the Temple of the Sun,
and the Room of the Three Windows. These are located in what is
known by archaeologists as the Sacred District of Machu Picchu. In
September 2007, Peru and Yale University almost reached an
agreement regarding the return of artifacts which Yale has held
since Hiram Bingham removed them from Machu Picchu in the
early 20th century. In November 2010, a Yale University
representative agreed to return the artifacts to a Peruvian
university.Machu Picchu was built around 1450, at the height of
the Inca Empire.[6] The construction of Machu Picchu appears to
date from the period of the two great Incas, Pachacutec Inca
Yupanqui (1438–71) and Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1472–93).[7]It was
abandoned just over 100 years later, in 1572, as a belated result of
theSpanish Conquest.[6][8] It is possible that most of its inhabitants
died from smallpoxintroduced by travelers before the
Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area.[9] The latter had notes of
a place called Piccho, although there is no record of the Spanish
having visited the remote city. The types of sacred rocks defaced by
the conquistadors in other locations are untouched at Machu
Picchu.[8]Hiram Bingham theorized that the complex was the
traditional birthplace of the Incan "Virgins of the Suns".[10] More
recent research by scholars such as John Howland Rowe and
Richard Burger, has convinced most archaeologists that Machu
Picchu was an estate of the Inca emperor Pachacuti.[8] In
addition, Johan Reinhardpresented evidence that the site was
selected because of its position relative to sacred landscape
features such as its mountains which are purported to be in
alignment with key astronomical events important to the Incas.