Electromechanical Relay

The electrical and electronics circuits are usually operated over a wide range of voltage,
current, and power ratings. For every circuit or equipment or electrical network or power system
protection system is desired to avoid the breakdown or temporary or permanent damage. Such
that, equipments or circuits used for protecting are called as protecting equipment or circuit. In case
of a small amount of voltage ratings, protection of the circuit depends on the cost of the original
circuit to be protected and cost of the protection system essential to protect the circuit. But, in case
of high cost circuits or equipments,it is desired to adopt a protection system or protection circuit and
controlling device or controlling circuit to avoid economical loss and damage.
Electromechanical Relay

Relay
The relay is an electromechanical switch used as a protecting device and also as a controlling
device for various circuits, equipments, and electrical networks in a power system. The
electromechanical relay can be defined as an electrically operated switch that completes or
interrupts a circuit by physical movement of electrical contacts into contact with each other.
Electromechanical Relay Construction
The flow of current through an electrical conductor causes a magnetic field at right angles to the
current flow direction. If this conductor is wrapped to form a coil, then the magnetic field produced
gets oriented along the length of the coil. If the current flowing through the conductor increases,
then the magnetic field strength also increases (and vice-versa).

Eelctromechanical Relay Coil – Magnetic Field

The magnetic field produced by passing current through coil can be used for various purposes such
as inductors, construction of transformer using two inductor coils with an iron core. But, in
electromechanical relay construction the magnetic field produced in coil is used to exert mechanical
force on magnetic objects. This is similar to permanent magnets used to attract magnetic objects,
but here the magnetic field can be turned on or off by regulating current flow through the coil. Thus,
we can say that the electromechanical relay operation is dependent on the current flowing through
the coil.
Electromechanical Relay Working
The electromechanical relay consists of various parts such as movable armature, movable contact
& stationary contact or fixed contact, spring, electromagnet (coil), the wire wrapped as coil with its
terminals represented as ‘C’ which are connected as shown in the below figure to form
electromechanical relay.

Electromechanical Relay Construction

If there is no supply given to the coil terminals, then the relay remains in the off condition as shown
in the below figure and the load connected to relay also remains turned off as no power supply is
given to load.

Electromechanical Relay Working (OFF condition)

If the relay coil is energized by giving supply to the coil terminals at ‘C’, then the movable contact
of the relay is attracted towards the fixed contact. Thus, the relay turns on and the supply is
connected to the load as shown in the below figure.
 Electromechanical Relay Working (ON condition)
There are various types of relays, the relays which are energized by electrical supply and performs
a mechanical action (on or off) to make or break a circuit are called as electromechanical relays.
There are various types of relays such as Buchholz relay, latching relay, polarized relay, mercury
relay, solid state relay, polarized relay, vacuum relay, and so on.
Applications of Electromechanical Relay

There are numerous applications for electromechanical relays. Various types of relays are used in
various applications based on different criteria such as rating of contacts, number & type of
contacts, the voltage rating of contacts, operating lifetime, coil voltage & current, package, and so
on. Relays are frequently being used in power system networks for controlling purpose, automation
purpose, and protection purpose.
The typical applications of electromechanical relays include motor control, automotive applications
such as an electrical fuel pump, industrial applications where control of high voltages and
currents is intended, controlling large power loads, and so on.
Electromechanical Relay Logic

The method of using relays and contacts to control the industrial electronic circuits is called as relay
logic. The inputs and outputs of relay logic circuits are represented by a series of lines in schematic
diagrams and hence relay logic circuits are also called as line diagrams. An electromechanical relay
logic circuit can be represented as an electrical network of lines or rungs where each line or rung
have continuity for enabling the output device.
Application of Electromehanical Relay Logic

The railways routing and signaling are controlled using relay logic and is considered as a
key application of relay logic. This safety critical application is used to reduce the accidents and to
avoid the selection of conflicting routes by using interlocking. The human elevator operator was
replaced by large relay logic circuits in elevators. The relay logic circuits are used in electro-
hydraulics and electro-pneumatics for controlling and automation purpose.
Do you want to know the basic design of relay logic? Are you interested in designing electronics
projects? Then, post your queries, comments, suggestions, ideas in the comments section below.
This chapter covers representative general-purpose relays used in the control circuits of most
industrial, commercial, and consumer products. Relay names and terminology are in accordance
with preferred usage as practiced by the National Association of Relay Manufacturers (NARM).

Relays open and close electrical contacts to operate other devices. They are often used because they
cost less than corresponding electronic switches. But some relay qualities are superior to solid-state
devices. For example, input and output circuits in relays are electrically isolated unlike those of
most solid-state devices. And relays can have numerous contacts electrically isolated one from
another. In addition, electromechanical relays are becoming smaller, now available in PCB-mount
and surface-mount packages that are suitable for automated soldering.

One of the advantages of electromechanical relays over solid-state switches is that relays have much
lower contact resistance. Contact capacitance is also less, which may benefit high-frequency
circuits. Relays are less likely to be turned on by transients than solid-state switches. And relays are
less easily damaged by brief shorts or overloads.

Electromechanical relays differ in three important ways from solid-state switches. First, relay coils
are highly inductive, and the inductance value is not constant. Inductance is low immediately after
energization and increases as current approaches a steady-state level and the relay armature closes.
In contrast, solid-state switches have mainly resistive inputs and a constant input current.

Second, relays have a much longer switching time than solid-state switches. Coil inductance is the
primary cause, but the mass of armature and contact structures are also factors.

Third, relay coil inductance can produce unacceptably high-voltage transients when the device is
deenergized. Protective circuits can reduce the transients to an acceptable level, but they delay relay
drop out as well.

Relays also can be a source of EMI. Arcs at the contacts, for example, are produced when a contact
bounces on energization and when contacts open on deenergization. Transients produced by
deenergizing the coil are another source. EMI can be severe when switching inductive loads at high
current and voltage levels.
Reed relays: A reed relay consists of reed switches within an operating coil. The reeds can be any
type of configuration, but the quantity is limited by the coil size. Most manufacturers limit coil size
to handle 12 standard switches maximum. To obtain additional contacts, relay coils are connected
in parallel. Reed relays are available with contact forms from 1A to 12A, 1B to 8B, 1C to 4C, and
combinations of these up to the maximum coil size. Coils may be wound with each magnet-wire size
to create a large selection of operating parameters.

Reed-relay contacts typically produce 1 to 3 Vpp at 20 to 30 kHz. The voltage, which is produced by
magnetostriction, generally decays about 3 msec after contact closure. Miniature reed relays in six-
lead DIP and surface-mount packages are used for PC-board applications or wherever space is a
constraint. Sensitive relays with coil pickup as low as 1.6 Vdc at 40 mW are available.

Mercury-wetted contact relays: Basically, a mercury-wetted contact relay consists of one or

more glass switch capsules surrounded by a coil. These relays maintain their original resistance to
within 1 mthroughout their life.

When two contacts wetted with mercury are joined, the area of contact between the surfaces is
somewhat large because a fillet of mercury surrounds the mated surfaces. When the two surfaces
are separated, the mercury stretches into a thin filament and then breaks at two points that isolate
a thin rod of mercury in the middle. The thin rod then snaps into a ball and drops to the bottom of
the switch.

Mercury loss from the contacts disturbs the equilibrium of the capillary system, and more mercury
is fed up the armature from the pool. Thus, in effect, the mercury-wetted contact relay provides a
new contact surface for each closure.

Armature relays: Armature relays have pivoting armatures that actuate electrical contacts in
response to small control signals.

Ac relays: Alternating current is widely available but is the least flexible power source for relay
operation. However, most ac relays designed for 120-Vac line operation tolerate line fluctuations
from 102 to 132 Vac.
Most ac applications are for 60-Hz current. Telephone relays operate on 20-Hz current but are
similar in construction. For 400-Hz current, as found in aircraft, a radical departure from the 60-
Hz relay construction is necessary. Reliable performance is attained by rectifying the 400-Hz ac to
dc and using a dc relay motor. Packaged relays containing rectifiers are available.

Dc relays: Relays operated on direct current have inherently greater mechanical life expectancy
than ac relays. The most frequent source of dc is rectified ac. Often ac ripple influences relay
operation. Some dc relays can tolerate ripple, others need filtering.

When the power source is a rechargeable battery, voltage variations of 25% are possible. Relays are
usually designed to operate at 75% of nominal voltage. Coils are designed not to overheat at 125%
of pickup voltage.

PCB-mounted relays are generally armature devices. Typical devices are either spdt or dpdt and
contain contacts rated at 0.5 A to 2 A. Typical operating voltages are 5 to 24 Vdc and 120 Vac. Power
dissipation is in the range of 75 to 400 mW. These units are often available in sealed versions that
can be immersion-cleaned during assembly.

Relays standards: NEMA Class A and B relays are specified in the publication, Industrial
Control, ICS-1970. These relays control and interlock starters, contactors, and other devices. Relay
contacts are also used to open and close circuits to other relays and pilot devices. Relays do not
control power-consuming devices, except motors and solenoids drawing under 2 A.

Many manufacturers use MIL-R-5757 as a standard and as a guide for producing Government-
acceptable relays. This specification covers relays with contacts capable of switching loads up to 10
A. In general, MIL-R-6106 covers and exceeds the requirements of MIL-R-5757. It also covers relays
capable of switching currents in excess of 10 A.

Contacts: Common contact materials are fine silver, coin silver, silver cadmium oxide, and the
noble metals. In addition to these materials, special contact finishes may be required for certain
applications. For example, if a relay is to be used in a mildly corrosive atmosphere, contacts should
have a chromate-conversion coating.
Contactors: Contactors are devices for repeatedly establishing and interrupting electric power
circuits. Two types of contactors are defined by NEMA -- electronic and magnetic. Electromagnetic
contactors are actuated by electromechanical means. They make and break power circuits to such
loads as electric furnaces, lights, transformers, capacitors, heaters, and -- when overload relays or
inherent protectors are used -- motors.

The magnet design of an ac contactor consists of a stationary core and a movable armature as in
NEMA-A and B control relays. Some contactors are of the horizontal design; others have a hinged
or pivoted clapper magnet. Coils are available in voltages up to 600 V, commonly in 110, 220, 240,
380, 440, 480, and 500 V for 25, 50, and 60 Hz.

A dc contactor operates like an ac contactor. However, while an ac magnet is laminated steel, a dc

magnet is made of solid steel.

Because copper contacts are used on some contactors, the current rating for each size is an 8-hr
open rating -- the contactor must be operated at least once every 8 hr to prevent copper oxide from
forming on the tips and causing excessive contact heating. For contactors with silver to silver-alloy
contacts, the 8-hr rating is equivalent to a continuous rating. This rating also applies to contactors
mounted in the open without an enclosure. Contactors installed in an enclosure have a rating equal
to 90% of the open rating because of reduced contactor cooling.

Stepping switches: Stepping switches connect one or more input circuits to one of many output
circuits. The switch responds to current pulses supplied by an external source, or operates by
interruption of its circuits through interrupter springs on the switch.

Stepping switches count, sequence, program, select, and control and are often applied in machine-
tool controls, conveyor systems, test equipment, and communication switching. Rotary stepping
switches are available in many sizes and shapes, primarily dependent on the number of contact
points in the bank assembly.

Meter relays: Meter relays provide an analog or digital panel indication of a measured variable
together with a switching function at a preset level. There are four types of analog meter relays:
magnetic contact, locking coil, optical, and solid state. These meters can be used with the user's
control circuitry, with a control module option, or with control circuitry contained in the meter.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Electro-Mechanical Relays

Electromechanical Relays are the oldest type of relays. Electromechanical, have been
gradually been replaced by Static and then by Numerical Relays.

However, Electromechanical Relays are still being used.

The Advantages of Electromechanical relays are-

1. They are quick acting and can be reset fast.

2. They are simple in construction.
3. They are reliable.
4. The values can be easily set. No special programming device is required.
5. People can be trained on these relays easily

The disadvantages of Electro-mechanical relays are

1. The VA burden of these relays is higher than static and numerical

relays. Hence, the Potential and the Current Transformers should have a higher
capacity.
2. These relays require to be calibrated periodically and tested.
3. These relays suffer from the effects of age. As time passes, the springs and
the linkages inside the relay grow weak. This causes the setting values to drift. This
can result in maloperation and false trips.
4. These relays do not have the directional feature.
5. The speed of operation is limited by the mechanical inertia of the moving
components.
6. Multifunctioning is not possible. One relay can perform only one function.

What is Relay:
Generally we all are knows relay is used to protect the electrical equipment from abnormal
condition. there are different types of relay used in electrical field. some of the relay like over
voltage, over current protection , under voltage protection, earth fault protection. earlier days we
are used mechanical relay and also we used individual relay for each protection of the equipment.
but now a days the advance numerical relays are coming and single relay having multiple
protections. here we will see what are the advantages using numerical relay over mechanical
relay.
Advantages of Numerical relays
There are multiple advantages using numerical relays. we will see one by one here
1. Compact Size
the numerical relay having compact size compared to electro mechanical relays, the electro
mechanical relays having lot of components, including flag systems. whenever the rely is activate
the flag also activated. but numerical relay is having LCD to indicate the alarm and relay
activation. and mechanical relay required more electrical wiring but numerical relay required very
less wiring.
2. Flexibility
the single numerical relay is having multiple protection systems. so what ever the protection
system we want to do activate by simply adding software to the system. but the mechanical
required each relay for each protection and modification also very difficult. A
3. Reliability
the numerical relays are good reliability and chances of failure is very less compared to
mechanical relays.
4. Multi Function Capability
the numerical relay can control multiple functions at a time compared to electro mechanical relay
having maximum one control per relay.
5. Different types of relay characteristics
the numerical relay is having microprocessor control system so it can be easily adjust the required
characteristics needed for the equipments. but mechanical relay is having single characteristics.
6. Digital communication capabilities
the numerical relay is having the microprocessor based control systems so it can be easily
communicate with computer or laptop communication system.
7. Modular frame
the numerical relays are having simple hardware. so it can be easily service.
8. Low burden
the numerical relays are having microprocessor control systems so the heating of equipment is
very less compared to mechanical relays.
9. Sensitivity
it is having great sensitivity and good pickup ratio.
10. Speed
the numerical relay is having very less tripping times compared to mechanical relays.
11. Fast Resetting
Resetting also very less time required.
12. Data History
the numerical relay having system stored each fault records, types of fault, nature of fault, fault
timing, fault present duration, etc..

Module 8 : Numerical Relaying I : Fundamentals

Lecture 27 : An Introduction

Objectives

In this lecture, we will learn the following:

Why Numerical relaying?

Relay hardware.

1) Sample and Hold circuit.

a) Nonsimultaneous Sampling.

b) Simultaneous Sampling.

2) Relay Hardware.

3) Open System relaying.

27.1 Why Numerical Relaying?

The first and foremost driving force for advances in relaying systems is the need to improve reliability. In
turn, this implies increase in dependability as well as security. This need to improve reliability propelled the
development of solid state relays. Solid state relays have inherent self checking facility which was not available
with electromechanical relays. This feature is also available with numerical relays (fig 27.1). For example, when
we boot a computer, it goes through a self checking phase where in it checks RAM, hard disk, etc. Also, with the
reduced cost of computer hardware, and an exponential growth in processing capability, numerical relays can
provide high performance at moderate costs.

Since, numerical relays are based on digital technology, they are more or less immune to variation or drift
in parameters of individual components like OP-AMPS etc. due to changes in temperature, ageing etc.
Numerical relays also help in reducing burden (volt-amperes) of Current Transformer (CT) and
Voltage Transformer (VT). This is desirable because ideally sensors should not consume any power. If a sensor
consumes energy from the measurand, it will automatically distort the signal. This problem is further
 aggravated in CTs due to non-linearity of iron core. Numerical relays offer very low impedance to the
secondary of CT and hence reduce burden on CT.

27.1 Why Numerical Relaying? (contd..)

Numerical relays permit much more flexibility than their electromechanical and solid state counterparts. In
electromechanical relays, the constructional details like magnetic path, air gap etc., are used to design various
operating characteristics. Since, solid state relays mainly use analog circuit, they permit more innovation than
corresponding electromechanical relays which are no doubt robust. However, solid state relays can not have
the kind of flexibility that computer aided relaying can have. For example, providing magnitude scaling and
phase shift to a voltage signal to generate line to line voltage from phase to neutral voltage is much simpler
with computer aided relaying because it can be handled by the program. A computer relay can be programmed.
Further, due to the programming feature, it is possible to have generic hardware for multiple relays, which
reduces the cost of inventory.

Numerical relaying along with developments in fiber optic communication have pioneered development of
automated substations. Once, the analog signals from CTs and VTs are digitized, they can be converted to optical
signals and transmitted on substation LAN using fiber optic network. With high level of EMI immunity offered by
fiber optic cable, it has become the transmission medium by choice in substation environment. Numerical relays
can be nicely interfaced with a substation LAN. This in turn should be contrasted with legacy substations (fig
27.1) where in lead wires have to run from each CT and VT to the control panel (fig 27.2).This not only reduces
wiring complexity in the substation but also reduces burden on the CT as resistances of long lead wires are
 eliminated. Further, a single fiber optic LAN permits multiplexing of multiple analog signals which is not possible
with legacy arrangement.

27.1 Why Numerical Relaying? (contd..)

Numerical relays also permit development of new functions as well as development of adaptive relaying
schemes. Traditionally, relaying systems are designed and set in a conservative manner. They represent
compromise between:

economy and performance

dependability and security

complexity and simplicity

speed and accuracy credible

and conceivable
 Adaptive relaying is meant to minimize such compromises and also allow relays to fine-tune to existingsystem
conditions. Specific adaptive relaying features will be discussed in the later lectures.

Numerical relays also permit storage of pre and post fault data (of the order of few cycles). This data can
also be time stamped, now-a-days by Geographical Positioning System (GPS). GPS systems (a cluster of
24 satellites of pentagon, USA) not only provides positional information but also a time pulse every second
for synchronization of sampling. Thus, in principle, every sample and every event like closing or

opening of breakers can be time stamped. This helps in postmortem analysis which is used to determinewhether
(1) a relay operated correctly (or incorrectly) and (2) any other relaying system or device (like circuit
breaker) has failed to operate. Time stamping of relay operation allows us to capture the sequence of relay
operations. Thus, in a complex situation like catastrophic failure of the power system (brown out or black
out), it is now possible to precisely determine the sequence of relay operations. This helps engineers to
capture and simulate the disturbance using transient stability, (EMTP) programs.
Such simulation studies help in
understanding shortcomings of the
existing systems and thereby
improvising them. In this role, a

numerical relay is analogous to a

fault data recorder (FDR).

Numerical relays also

simplify interfacing with CTs and
VTs. Consider a protective function
which requires zero sequence
voltage. Traditionally, it would be
generated by open delta VT
connection in fig 27.3 If zero
sequence current is also
required, it is obtained by using an
additional CT in the ground wire.
With numerical relays, zero
sequence voltages and currents can
be derived inside the processor from
the phase voltage (Va, Vb, Vc) and
line currents (Ia, Ib and Ic).

In differential protection e.g., three

phase transformer protection,
traditional protection schemes also
require additional care to handle
polarity, scaling and phase shifting
problems. This may even
necessiate use of an auxiliary CT.

Such complications can be resolved with ease when numerical relays are used. This aspect will bediscussed in
more detail in the lectures on transformer protection.

27.2 Relay Hardware

27.2.1Block Diagram

Fig 27.4 shows the functional block diagram of a digital relay. It can be seen that a digital relay consistsof:
 Analog input subsystem

Digital input subsystem

Digital output subsystem

A processor along with RAM (data scratch pad), main memory (historical data file) and power supply.

The 3-Ø voltage and current signals are analog in nature. Since, a computer works with digital data, analog
signals have to be sampled and discretized. Additionally, signal scaling and isolation to protect the low
voltage computer system and scale the voltage and current signals to proportionate voltage signal (e.g.,
within ± 5V ) is necessary. This functionality is provided by the analog input subsystem.

Typically, it consists of sample and hold circuit, Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) and multiplexerinterfaced
to the processor. The digital input data consists of Circuit Breaker (CB) status (open or close).

The digital output is relay's operate / do not operate decision.

Once, the data is acquired within RAM, it is filtered by a digital filter and processed by the relay logic. The
algorithms for extracting phasors and relay logic will be discussed in subsequent lectures.
 27.2 Relay Hardware (contd..)

27.2.2 Analog Input Subsystem

There are two commonly used schemes for configuring the analog input subsystem. One is known asthe
'simultaneous' & other 'non-simultaneous' scheme.

27.2.2.1Non-Simultaneous Sampling Scheme

Fig 27.5 illustrates non-simultaneous sampling scheme. In this scheme, a multiplexer selects the analog
channel sequentially. Typically, power system applications involve more than one analog input.
To reduce the cost of the hardware, multiple channels are multiplexed through analog multiplexer to a single
ADC. An analog multiplexer permits a single output line to mirror the signal at the selected input, say
one of the 3 voltages/ 3 currents.

Thus, multiplexer is a collection of analog switches. Each channel can be selected by supplying appropriate
binary code to the multiplexer e.g. for 8-channel multiplexer, 3 bit address space is required. A chip disable
line permits parallel expansion if external logic is used to select desired

multiplexer. A multiplexer has two inputs (terminals) for a single channel. It provides better noiseimmunity.
Accuracy of the analog multiplexer depends on load impedance at the output terminal.

Typical recommended value is 107 to 108 . As Sample (S) and Hold (H) circuit has impedance in the
8 12
range 10 - 10 , no problem is encountered.

27.2 Relay Hardware (contd..)

27.2.2 Analog Input Subsystem

27.2.2.1Non-Simultaneous Sampling Scheme

There are two commonly used schemes for configuring the analog input subsystem. Fig 27.5 illustrates
one such scheme. In the first scheme, a multiplexer selects the analog channel. Typically, power system
applications involve more than one analog input. To reduce the cost of the hardware, multiple channels are
multiplexed through analog multiplexer to a single ADC. An analog multiplexer permits a single output line to
mirror the signal at the selected input, say one of the 3 voltages/ 3 currents.
 Thus, multiplexer is a collection of analog switches. Each channel can be selected by supplying appropriate
binary code to the multiplexer e.g. for 8-channel multiplexer, 3 bit address space is required. A chip disable
line permits parallel expansion if external logic is used to select desired

multiplexer. A multiplexer has two inputs (terminals) for a single channel. It provides better noiseimmunity.
Accuracy of the analog multiplexer depends on load impedance at the output terminal.

Typical recommended value is 107 to 108 . As S and H circuit has impedance in the range 108 -

1012 , no problem is encountered. The analog information is held by a

Sample and Hold circuit (fig 27.6).
Any A/D converter requires a finite
conversion time. A S & H circuit
which conceptually is a
27.2 Relay Hardware (contd..) shunt capacitor with a switch holds
the information (in terms of
voltage). While the conversion
27.2.3Sample and Hold Circuit takes place, switch is in open
position. This is known as the `hold'
state. When the switch is closed,
the Vout of S and H follows the Vin.

In the scheme illustrated in fig

27.5, it can be observed that the
relative phasor information
between two signals is not
preserved.This is because the
samples from different inputs are
not obtained at same instant of
time. One way to overcome, this
hardware limitation is to interpolate
the value of the sample from
previous values.
 Fig 27.7 illustrates the concept.
Let Va(t) be sampled first and then
Vb(t) be sampled. The first two
samples of 'a' & 'b' phases are given
by points 'A' and 'C'. After one
sampling interval, samples 'B' and
'D' are obtained, for phases 'a' and
'b' respectively. The problem is to
estimate value of Vb(t) at the
sampling instant for 'a' i.e. say at
sample 'B'. This can be obtained by
linear interpolation for samples 'C'
and 'D' and corresponding to point
'E'.

27.2 Relay Hardware

27.2.3Sample and Hold Circuit (contd..)

Simultaneous Sampling Scheme

 Fig 27.8 shows a simultaneous sampling scheme. In this scheme, all S&H amplifiers are set to hold state
simultaneously. This preserves the relative phase information between multiple analog signals.Then, the
multiplexer selects the channel sequentially. Typically, digital relays use successive ADC which have a
conversion time of 15-30 µs. The sampling rate must satisfy Nyquist criteria. This issue will be discussed
in the later lectures.

Finally, an antialiasing filter is used after signal conditioning hardware. Anti aliasing filter is a low pass filter
(LPF) used to cut off the high frequency content (including noise) in the input signal. The cutoff frequency
of LPF and the sampling rate have to be properly matched. This issue is addressed in later lectures.

27.2 Relay Hardware (contd..)

27.2.4Relaying hardware for Metering

In principle, the hardware setup shown in fig 27.8 can be used for both measurement and protection
function. However, considering the order of difference between current magnitudes in case of fault and
load, there can be loss of accuracy during metering applications. Consider a hypothetical case where in
maximum load current is 100A and maximum fault current is 20 times this load current (2000A). Let a 12
bit unipolar ADC be used for sampling current signal. This implies that resolution of ADC is 2000/(2**12-
1)=0.488 A. This resolution may be inadequate for metering purposes. One solution is to increase resolution
i.e. the number of bits in ADC. For example, one may use 16 bit ADC in place of 12 bit ADC.

However, increasing the number of bits of ADC also affects the selection of processor. A good design
guideline is to choose a processor with double the number of bits of ADC. This ensures that truncation and
numerical precision problems associated with finite precsion arithematic do not cause significant loss of
accuracy. For example, with 16 bit ADC, 32 bit processor is the natural choice. Alternatively, a variable
gain amplifier can be used along with the ADC. At low currents, high gain setting is used and at high
currents low gain setting is preferred. However, during the change from one setting to another, loss of
information can take place. Therefore, a simple solution would be to keep metering and protection
functionality separate.

27.2.5Open System Relaying

Open system relaying motivated by experiences from energy management field where in a plethora of
manufacturers specific equipment has led to difficulty in expanding the system without changing the entire
existing SCADA (system control and data aquisition) system. Open system movement encourages standard
based development, thereby permitting incremental or evolutionary growth. This has to be contrasted with
proprietary solutions that required either a complete changeover or force the utility to a vendor.

Consider a case of two vendors (A and B) supplying a Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) to a utility C. Let us
consider that initially, the utility had procured the SCADA system from the manufacturer A. At a later date, the
utility wants to add RTUs from the vendor B because it has cost and performance benefits. If the initial solution
provided by vendor A was proprietory, it will not be possible for RTUs of vendor B to be interfaced with SCADA
system supplied by vendor A. This restricts cross migration and hence it is unfair. On the otherhand, if the initial
SCADA system was based on open standards, then the device of another vendor using the same standard could
be interfaced with ease. This is the basic idea behind any open systems movement. An open relay conceptually
consists of two separate 'boxes'. The first box is the well known standard computer. The second box encloses
the scalable analog input subsystem. The processing board which may have multiple DSPs is plugged onto PC
motherboard and once programmed can run independently of the PC. Such a relay may be interfaced with
substaion LAN using standard protocol.

Recap
In this lecture, following important reasons for advocating numerical relays were identified:
Cost: The processing power measured in Floating Point Operations Per Seconds (FLOPS) has been
 steadily increasing. This is because of the technological advances in VLSI. Today, general purpose as well
as high speed Digital Signal Processors (DSP) are available at reasonable cost. As such, cost of numerical relays
is competitive with traditional electromechanical and solid state relays.

Self Checking and Reliability: A numerical relay just like a PC can check the health of its components
periodically. In

case of a failure, it can raise an alarm. No amount of periodic maintenance can provide this facility, which
goes a long way in improving the reliability of digital relay.

System Integration and Digital Environment: There is a trend towards automation in power systems.
Transmission

systems were automated first to improve the reliability of the overall transmission system by use of SCADA
and setting up of energy control centers. Today digital electronics has permitted automation at substation
level. Substation automation and distribution system automation have brought the digital technology of
computation and communication at the lower voltage levels. Numerical relays fit appropriately in such an
environment.

Functional Flexibility and Adaptive Relaying: Numerical relays are programmable. A multi-purpose hardware
can be

programmed with many relaying schemes. The complexity of the relaying logic is limited by the imagination of
the relay engineer and the processing capability of the processor. With the emergence of the DSP based
numerical relays, it is possible to incorporate a number of features in a relay. Further, such relays can be
equipped with communication facilities thereby, opening the possibility of adaptive relaying.

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