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Power Series
Power Series
Anushaya Mohapatra
Department of Mathematics
BITS PILANI K K Birla Goa Campus, Goa
∞
X
Geometric series: xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · .
n=0
∞
X
Geometric series: xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · .
n=0
1
The series converges to 1−x for all −1 < x < 1 and
diverges if |x| > 1. At x = ±1, the series clearly
diverges.
∞
X
Geometric series: xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · .
n=0
1
The series converges to 1−x for all −1 < x < 1 and
diverges if |x| > 1. At x = ±1, the series clearly
diverges.
∞
X 1 1 1
(− )n (x − 2)n = 1 − (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 − · · ·.
n=0
2 2 4
∞
X
Geometric series: xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · .
n=0
1
The series converges to 1−x for all −1 < x < 1 and
diverges if |x| > 1. At x = ±1, the series clearly
diverges.
∞
X 1 1 1
(− )n (x − 2)n = 1 − (x − 2) + (x − 2)2 − · · ·.
n=0
2 2 4
The series converges when |x − 2| < 2. In that case,
1 2
the series converges to f (x) = −1 = .
1 − 2 (x − 2) x
Theorem 0.1.
∞
X
If the power series an x n converges at x = c 6= 0, then
n=0
it converges absolutely for all x with |x| < |c|. If the series
diverges at x = d, then it diverges for all x with |x| > |d|.
Theorem 0.1.
∞
X
If the power series an x n converges at x = c 6= 0, then
n=0
it converges absolutely for all x with |x| < |c|. If the series
diverges at x = d, then it diverges for all x with |x| > |d|.
Proof:
P∞ Suppose that the series converges for x = c that
is n=0 an c n converges.
Theorem 0.1.
∞
X
If the power series an x n converges at x = c 6= 0, then
n=0
it converges absolutely for all x with |x| < |c|. If the series
diverges at x = d, then it diverges for all x with |x| > |d|.
Proof:
P∞ Suppose that the series converges for x = c that
is n=0 an c n converges.
Therefore the ∞ n
P
n=0 an x converges absolutely for
|x| < |c|.
Anushaya Mohapatra (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 22, 2019 8 / 30
Convergence of Power Series
Proof by contradiction:
Proof by contradiction:Suppose
P∞ that for any x with
n
|x| > |d|, the series n=0 an x is convergent. .
Proof by contradiction:Suppose
P∞ that for any x with
n
|x| > |d|, the series n=0 an x is convergent. .
Proof by contradiction:Suppose
P∞ that for any x with
n
|x| > |d|, the series n=0 an x is convergent. .
Remark 0.2.
1 The above theoremPdeals with convergence of power
of the form ∞
seriesP n
n=0 an x . For the series of the
form ∞ n
n=0 an (x − a) , we can replace
P∞(x − na) by t
and apply the results to the series n=0 an t .
Remark 0.2.
1 The above theoremPdeals with convergence of power
seriesPof the form ∞ n
n=0 an x . For the series of the
form ∞ n
n=0 an (x − a) , we can replace
P∞(x − na) by t
and apply the results to the series n=0 an t .
If the power series ∞ n
P
n=0 an (x − a) converges for
2
Remark 0.2.
1 The above theoremPdeals with convergence of power
seriesPof the form ∞ n
n=0 an x . For the series of the
form ∞ n
n=0 an (x − a) , we can replace
P∞(x − na) by t
and apply the results to the series n=0 an t .
If the power series ∞ n
P
n=0 an (x − a) converges for
2
Corollary 0.3.
an (x − a)n is described
P
The convergence of the series
by one of the following three possibilities:
There is a positive number R such that the series
diverges for x with |x − a| > R but converges
absolutely for x with |x − a| < R. The series may or
may not converge at either of the endpoints
x = a − R and x = a + R.
Corollary 0.3.
an (x − a)n is described
P
The convergence of the series
by one of the following three possibilities:
There is a positive number R such that the series
diverges for x with |x − a| > R but converges
absolutely for x with |x − a| < R. The series may or
may not converge at either of the endpoints
x = a − R and x = a + R.
The series converges absolutely for every x (R = ∞).
Corollary 0.3.
an (x − a)n is described
P
The convergence of the series
by one of the following three possibilities:
There is a positive number R such that the series
diverges for x with |x − a| > R but converges
absolutely for x with |x − a| < R. The series may or
may not converge at either of the endpoints
x = a − R and x = a + R.
The series converges absolutely for every x (R = ∞).
The series converges at x = a and diverges elsewhere
(R = 0).
Anushaya Mohapatra (Dept. of Maths) Power Series August 22, 2019 11 / 30
Radious of Convergence
Definition 0.4.
1 The numbe R in the above Corollary is called the
radious of convergence of the power series
an (x − a)n .
P
Definition 0.4.
1 The numbe R in the above Corollary is called the
radious of convergence of the power series
an (x − a)n .
P
Use the Ratio Test (or n-th Root Test) to find the
interval where the series converges absolutely.
Ordinarily, this is an open interval |x − a| < R.
Use the Ratio Test (or n-th Root Test) to find the
interval where the series converges absolutely.
Ordinarily, this is an open interval |x − a| < R.
If R is finite, test for convergence or divergence at
each endpoint (at x = a ± R). Use a Comparison
Test, the Integral Test, or the Alternating Series Test.
Use the Ratio Test (or n-th Root Test) to find the
interval where the series converges absolutely.
Ordinarily, this is an open interval |x − a| < R.
If R is finite, test for convergence or divergence at
each endpoint (at x = a ± R). Use a Comparison
Test, the Integral Test, or the Alternating Series Test.
If the interval of absolute convergence is |x − a| < R,
the series diverges for |x − a| > R (it does not even
converge conditionally), because the n-th term does
not approach zero for those values of x.
Theorem 0.6.
an (x − a)n has radius of convergence R > 0, it defines a function
P
If
∞
X
f (x) = an (x − a)n on the interval a − R < x < a + R.
n=0
This function f has derivatives of all orders inside the interval, and we
obtain the derivatives by differentiating the original series term by
term:
∞
X ∞
X
0 n−1 00
f (x) = nan (x − a) ; f (x) = n(n − 1)an (x − a)n−2 ,
n=1 n=2
Theorem 0.7.
∞
X
Suppose that f (x) = an (x − a)n converges for all
n=0
∞
(x − a)n+1 X
|x − a| < R. Then an converges for all
n=0
n + 1
|x − a| < R and
∞
(x − a)n+1
Z X
f (x) dx = an +C
n=0
n + 1
for |x − a| < R.
X n(n − 1) ∞
1 2
2
3
= 1 + 3x + 6x + · · · = x n−2 for
(1 − x) n=2
2
|x| < 1.
X n(n − 1) ∞
1 2
2
3
= 1 + 3x + 6x + · · · = x n−2 for
(1 − x) n=2
2
|x| < 1.
∞
x2 x3 X1
3 ln(1 − x) = x + + + ··· = x n for |x| < 1.
2 3 n=1
n
1 2 1 3 1
=1+x + x + x + · · · + xn + · · · .
2! 3! n!
2+x
2 f (x) =
1−x