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THERMOELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Principle of Operation

A description of how Thermoelectric Generators TEG’s (Seebeck effect)

work is outlined below to explain to people who are not familiar with the
technology. We have been manufacturing TEG Power Generators for the last 18
years. To describe thermoelectric generation in a single page is difficult so, if
further advice is needed you can fill out the below TEG form with your design
request and we will respond via email.

Thermoelectric modules work on two different thermoelectric principals :

Peltier Effect: This effect introduce power to the module with a resultant
cooling of one side and heating of the other these type of modules are low
amp typically in the 6 amp range and are designed for low temperature
exposure of NO MORE THAN 100°C to 110°C hot side. Higher temperature
exposure will cause the module to either break apart or the soldered couples to
melt from high heat making them poor choices for power generation!

Seebeck Effect: This effect is created by a temperature differential across

the TEG module from heating one side (hot side) and cooling the other side
((cold side) heat removal side) by moving the heat flux away from the modules
face cold side as fast as it moves through the module you will produce the most
power. LIQUID IS THE ONLY TRUE method to do this all other forms of heat
removal will lower overall TEG power generation.

Thermoelectric Generators using the Seebeck Effect work on a temperature

differentials. The greater the differential (DT) of the hot side less the cold side, the
greater the amount of power (Watts) will be produced. Two critical factors
dictate power output :

The amount of heat flux(FLOW) that can successfully move through each TEG
module.

The temperature of the hot side less the temperature of the cold side Delta
Temperature (DT).

Thermoelectric Seebeck Generators using liquid on the cold side perform

significantly better then any other method of cooling and produce significantly
more net additional power than the pump consumes. As the system size
increases so does the ability to produce a more efficient Thermoelectric
Generator (TEG).

For any thermoelectric power generator (TEG), the voltage(V) generated

by the TEG is directly proportional to the number of couples (N) and the
temperature difference (Delta T) between the top and bottom sides of the TE
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generator and the Seebeck coefficients of the n and p- type materials. When
you look at our TEG modules you will see a 126 or 70, 32, 25 in the part number.
This is a reference to the amount of couples is series. The greater the couple
count the greater the resultant voltage produced given everything else being
equal.

The standard universal material we work with is BiTe. The best efficiency
that can be achieved with this material is approximately 5%. But once the
material is placed into a constructed module the efficiency drops to 3 to 4%
depending on DT because of thermal and electrical impedance! Other material
for different temperatures zone are also available. Such as CMO modules with
temperatures up to 800°C . The standard BiTe hot side up to 320°C, Hybrid BiTe-
PbTe up to 360°C, SnSe – PbSnTe up to 600°C, Calcium Manganese (CMO) up to
800°C, and CMO cascade with BiTe stacked up to 600°C . Soon we will be
adding a new Cascade that works up to 750°C.

No other semiconductor material can perform as well as BiTe as far as

efficiency is concerned at temperatures below 250°C.

Other material like PbTe are used but are far less efficient at lower
temperatures, and must be used at significantly higher temperatures in the
400°C-600°C hot side range and CMO Calcium Manganese in the 450°C to
800°C to be efficient but are expensive to make and volume is low so cost is
high!

Power output based on (DT) is very predictable and well documented,

but access to this information is difficult to find. With power generation the
thinner the length or thickness of the module the greater the amp output or
rating.

You can have a 25 amp * module the same size typically 40 mm x 40 mm

as a 3 amp module * in module size, but length or height of the pellet or element
determines how much heat can pass thru the module. The ratio of the length
compared the actual width x depth determines the overall amperage of the
module. As the height of the pellet is shortened ability of heat flux to pass more
quickly thru the module allows for greater power generation as long as DT can
be maintained. That same 25 amp modules will produce over 8 times the
amount of power as the 3 amp module. But 8 times the watts will need to pass
thru that 25 amp module in order to produce that power. It is imperative that a
DT be maintained. The module simply acts as a bridge. The larger the bridge
area to length the greater the flow of heat and resulting power output.
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Our low temperature modules (TEG2) are high amp modules with contacts that
are soldered using AgTn solder on both sides. Although, the temperature of the
solder has a 240°C melting point the solder begins to degrade at about 190-
200°C . Therefore we recommend the hot side stay below 190C to allow for small
temperature variations.

Our High Temperature Modules (TEG1 up to 320°C) use flame spraying

high temperature metal Aluminum on the hot side and can withstand much
higher temperatures in the range of 300°C hot side and have considerably
larger tolerances when it comes to incidental higher temperature over shoots.
So, much so that you can expose the hot side to 320°C intermittently with very
little module degradation. This technique is much more expensive to implement
and therefore the cost is reflected in the price of the modules.

Application

Thermoelectric generators have a variety of applications. Frequently,

thermoelectric generators are used for low power remote applications or
where bulkier but more efficient heat engines such as Stirling engines would
not be possible. Unlike heat engines, the solid state electrical components
typically used to perform thermal to electric energy conversion have no
moving parts. The thermal to electric energy conversion can be performed
using components that require no maintenance, have inherently high
reliability, and can be used to construct generators with long service free
lifetimes. This makes thermoelectric generators well suited for equipment with
low to modest power needs in remote uninhabited or inaccessible locations
such as mountaintops, the vacuum of space, or the deep ocean.

 Common application is the use of thermoelectric generators on gas

pipelines. For example, for cathodic protection, radio communication, and
other telemetry. On gas pipelines for power consumption of up to 5 kW
thermal generators are preferable to other power sources. The
manufacturers of generators for gas pipelines are Gentherm Global Power
Technologies (Formerly Global Thermoelectric), (Calgary, Canada) and
TELGEN (Russia).
 Thermoelectric Generators are primarily used as remote and off-grid power
generators for unmanned sites. They are the most reliable power generator in
such situations as they do not have moving parts (thus virtually maintenance
free), work day and night, perform under all weather conditions, and can
work without battery backup. Although Solar Photovoltaic systems are also
implemented in remote sites, Solar PV may not be a suitable solution where
solar radiation is low, i.e. areas at higher latitudes with snow or no sunshine,
areas with lots of cloud or tree canopy cover, dusty deserts, forests, etc.
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 Gentherm Global Power Technologies (GPT) formerly known as Global

Thermoelectric (Canada) has Hybrid Solar-TEG solutions where the
Thermoelectric Generator backs up the Solar-PV, such that if the Solar panel
is down and the backup battery backup goes into deep discharge then a
sensor starts the TEG as a backup power source until the Solar is up again.
The TEG heat can be produced by a low pressure flame fueled by Propane
or Natural Gas.
 Many space probes, including the Mars Curiosity rover, generate electricity
using a radioisotope thermoelectric generator whose heat source is a
radioactive element.
 Cars and other automobiles produce waste heat (in the exhaust and in the
cooling agents). Harvesting that heat energy, using a thermoelectric
generator, can increase the fuel efficiency of the car. For more details, see
the article: Automotive Thermoelectric Generators.
 In addition to automobiles, waste heat is also generated in many other
places, such as in industrial processes and in heating (wood stoves, outdoor
boilers, cooking, oil and gas fields, pipelines, and remote communication
towers).
 Microprocessors generate waste heat. Researchers have considered
whether some of that energy could be recycled. (However, see below for
problems that can arise.)
 Solar cells use only the high frequency part of the radiation, while the low
frequency heat energy is wasted. Several patents about the use of
thermoelectric devices in tandem with solar cells have been filed. The idea is
to increase the efficiency of the combined solar/thermoelectric system to
convert the solar radiation into useful electricity.
 The Maritime Applied Physics Corporation in Baltimore, Maryland is
developing a thermoelectric generator to produce electric power on the
deep-ocean offshore seabed using the temperature difference between
cold seawater and hot fluids released by hydrothermal vents, hot seeps, or
from drilled geothermal wells. A high reliability source of seafloor electric
power is needed for ocean observatories and sensors used in the geological,
environmental, and ocean sciences, by seafloor mineral and energy
resource developers, and by the military.

Ann Makosinski from British Columbia, Canada has developed several

devices using Peltier tiles to harvest heat (from a human hand, the forehead,
and hot beverage) that claims to generate enough electricity to power
an LED light or charge a mobile device, although the inventor admits that the
brightness of the LED light is not competitive with those on the market.
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OCEAN CURRENT POWER

Principle of Operation of Ocean Energy (Ocean Current)

An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater

generated by forces acting upon this mean flow, such as breaking waves, wind,
the Coriolis effect, cabbeling, temperature and salinity differences, while tides
are caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon. Depth contours,
shoreline configurations, and interactions with other currents influence a
current's direction and strength.

Ocean currents flow for great distances, and together, create the global
conveyor belt which plays a dominant role in determining the climate of many
of the Earth’s regions. More specifically, ocean currents influence the
temperature of the regions through which they travel. For example, warm
currents traveling along more temperate coasts increase the temperature of the
area by warming the sea breezes that blow over them. Perhaps the most striking
example is the Gulf Stream, which makes northwest Europe much more
temperate than any other region at the same latitude. Another example is Lima,
Peru where the climate is cooler (sub-tropical) than the tropical latitudes in
which the area is located, due to the effect of the Humboldt Current.

World has come to the point where it needs more energy than ever
before as energy demand grows rapidly on global scale. But not only does the
world need energy, but it also needs energy gained from renewable and
ecologically acceptable fuels that doesn’t cause major ecological problems
such as global warming and air pollution. Ocean energy could well be one of
these new renewable energy sources and should really play more significant
role in upcoming years.

Oceans cover more than 70% of Earth’s surface and they therefore
present interesting energy source that may with time provide us with energy to
power our households and industrial facilities. At this moment ocean energy is
renewable energy source very rarely used as there are only few ocean energy
power plants and most of these power plants are also very small so energy
gained form oceans is literally negligible on global scale. But future should put
more attention to this renewable energy source and there should be significant
increase in produced energy, especially with more attention to renewable
energy sector. There are three basic types that allow us to use ocean for its
energy. We can use the waves (wave energy, wave power), ocean tidal power
(ocean high and low tides), and we can even use temperature differences in
the water to create an energy (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion, OTEC).

Ocean energy is renewable energy sector that surely needs more

research to satisfy condition of cost-effectiveness which is at this point it biggest
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flaw. Since oceans cover almost two thirds of earth’s surface, they truly present
renewable energy source with extreme potential and one worth of further
exploration. However current technologies aren’t at required level to capture
this potential but as world looks for alternatives to dominant fossil fuels sector
many researches have been done in different renewable energy sectors
including the ocean energy sector. Problems resulting in size of these power
plants and cost effectiveness that go with the size do stand out, but there are
also some ecological demands that also need to be fulfilled in order to keep
environment intact as possible. And though this renewable energy sector hasn’t
had rapid growth like some other renewable energy sectors(wind energy), its
couple of projects such as cycle OTEC plant at Keahole Point, Hawaii showed
good signs of its great potential so ocean energy sector could be having more
significance in years to come. Potential is there, all what ocean energy needs
now is technology capable of exploiting this high potential.

Advantages of Ocean Power

Renewable and sustainable technology,! the oceans are an endless power

source

 Once the capital investment is made, the electricity is cheaper than other
sources because the source of the energy is free
 There are less carbon dioxide emissions because no fossil fuel is burned to
generate the electricity
 Power can be generated in the United States, resulting in less imports from
politically unstable regions

Disadvantages of Ocean Power

 The capital investment on a wave or tidal system takes a long time to earn
back, depending on the size of the system and method used
 Some ecosystems, especially in estuarine environments, may suffer because
tidal flats retain more water than is natural when they are dammed
 There in no current infracstructure to move electricity generated far out at sea
back inland, so current usage is near to the shore where equipment can be an
eyesore.
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Ocean Power Usage

Current Usage
Currently, power from the ocean account for zero percentage of the
total usage in the United States as well as the world. Only four tidal plants in the
world are operational. About a dozen other sites are in planning stages for tidal
power plants. In addition to tidal power, less than ten wave farms are active
throughout the world.

Future Usage
The oceans have a huge amount of potential to generate
electricity. Due to efficiency and cost constraints, only certain geographic
areas are considered viable for this energy. For wave power, the best locations
are between 30 and 60 degrees of latitude, where strong storms occur. Wave
power is estimated to have enough energy available to produce energy at an
annual production rate of 5 terawatts. Tidal power is only considered viable in
about 30 locations where the difference between low and high tides is greater
than 7 meters. Still, in those few locations tidal power is estimated to have a
capacity of 2.5 terawatts.
In 2007, about 500 exajoules of energy were consumed worldwide,
resulting in an average energy consumption rate of 17.2 terawatts. If the
potential of ocean power was reached, together tidal and wave electricity
could account for 45% of global consumption. Once the efficiencies of these
methods increase, they have the ability to produce even more energy.

Application

Surface oceanic currents are sometimes wind driven and develop their
typical clockwise spirals in the northern hemisphere and counter-clockwise
rotation in the southern hemisphere because of imposed wind stresses. In wind
driven currents, the Ekman spiral effect results in the currents flowing at an angle
to the driving winds. The areas of surface ocean currents move somewhat with
the seasons; this is most notable in equatorial currents.

Deep ocean basins generally have a non-symmetric surface current, in that the
eastern equatorward-flowing branch is broad and diffuse whereas the western
poleward flowing branch is very narrow. These western boundary currents (of
which the Gulf Stream is an example) are a consequence of the rotation of the
Earth.
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Deep ocean currents are driven by density and temperature gradients.

Thermohaline circulation is also known as the ocean's conveyor belt (which
refers to deep ocean density driven ocean basin currents). These currents,
called submarine rivers, flow under the surface of the ocean and are hidden
from immediate detection. Where significant vertical movement of ocean
currents is observed, this is known as upwelling and downwelling. Deep ocean
currents are currently being researched using a fleet of underwater robots
called Argo.

The South Equatorial Currents of the Atlantic and Pacific straddle the
equator. Though the Coriolis effect is weak near the equator (and absent at the
equator), water moving in the currents on either side of the equator is deflected
slightly poleward and replaced by deeper water. Thus, equatorial upwelling
occurs in these westward flowing equatorial surface currents. Upwelling is an
important process because this water from within and below the pycnocline is
often rich in the nutrients needed by marine organisms for growth. By contrast,
generally poor conditions for growth prevail in most of the open tropical ocean
because strong layering isolates deep, nutrient rich water from the sunlit ocean
surface.

Surface currents make up only 8% of all water in the ocean, are generally
restricted to the upper 400 m (1,300 ft) of ocean water, and are separated from
lower regions by varying temperatures and salinity which affect the density of
the water, which in turn, defines each oceanic region. Because the movement
of deep water in ocean basins is caused by density driven forces and gravity,
deep waters sink into deep ocean basins at high latitudes where the
temperatures are cold enough to cause the density to increase.

Ocean currents are measured in sverdrup (sv), where 1 sv is equivalent to

a volume flow rate of 1,000,000 m3 (35,000,000 cu ft) per second.

Surface currents are found on the surface of an ocean, and are driven by
large scale wind currents. They are directly affected by the wind—the Coriolis
effect plays a role in their behaviors.

Importance

Knowledge of surface ocean currents is essential in reducing costs of

shipping, since traveling with them reduces fuel costs. In the wind powered
sailing-ship era, knowledge was even more essential. A good example of this is
the Agulhas Current, which long prevented Portuguese sailors from reaching
India. In recent times, around-the-world sailing competitors make good use of
surface currents to build and maintain speed. Ocean currents are also very
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important in the dispersal of many life forms. An example is the life-cycle of the
European Eel.

Ocean currents are important in the study of marine debris, and vice
versa. These currents also affect temperatures throughout the world. For
example, the ocean current that brings warm water up the north Atlantic to
northwest Europe also cumulatively and slowly blocks ice from forming along the
seashores, which would also block ships from entering and exiting inland
waterways and seaports, hence ocean currents play a decisive role in
influencing the climates of regions through which they flow. Cold ocean water
currents flowing from polar and sub-polar regions bring in a lot of plankton that
are crucial to the continued survival of several key sea creature species in
marine ecosystems. Since plankton are the food of fish, abundant fish
populations often live where these currents prevail.

Ocean currents can also be used for marine power generation, with areas
off of Japan, Florida and Hawaii being considered for test projects.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

Principle of Operation

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a clean, zero-emission and

renewable energy technology. OTEC takes the heat from tropical oceans and
converts it to electricity. OTEC is capable of generating electricity day and
night, throughout the year, providing a reliable source of electricity. Although still
largely untapped, OTEC is one of the world’s largest renewable energy
resources and is available to around 100 countries within their nautical
economical zone.

The ocean comprises an enormous energy source. Covering almost two-

third of the surface of the earth, the ocean captures 70% of the solar energy
that irradiates on earth. It is estimated that the solar energy that is absorbed by
the ocean per year, exceeds the human energy consumption more than 4000
times. Recent research concludes that there is between 7 and 30 terawatt of
electric potential energy available without having an adverse impact on
natural thermal currents and ocean temperatures,[3] this equals three to ten
times the global electricity demand. This vast resource has been recognized
worldwide in recent reports from the International Institute for Applied Systems
Analysis (IIASA) and the International Panel on Climate Change.

An advantage of OTEC compared to other renewable energy sources is

the reliable and predictable energy production. Since tropical oceans hardly
encounter fluctuations in their surface temperature (neither per day, nor per
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season), the temperature difference between the various oceanic layers

remains nearly constant. This enables OTEC to provide a base-load electricity
supply with a capacity factor of 80% - 100%.

Working principle[edit]

The OTEC system is based on an organic Rankine cycle; a working fluid

with a lower boiling point and a higher vapour pressure than water is used to
power a turbine that generates electricity. First, warm water from the ocean
surface is pumped through a heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger, the heat
that is exchanged from the seawater to the working fluid causes the working
fluid to vaporize. This vaporized working fluid is compressed in a turbine that is
connected to a generator that generates electricity. Thereafter, cold seawater,
pumped through a second heat exchanger, condenses the vapour into a liquid,
so it can be reused. An electricity-generating cycle is therefore created.

OTEC working principle

Working fluids

Effective electricity generation with OTEC requires a working fluid with a

lower boiling point and a higher vapour pressure than water. A typical choice of
working fluid is ammonia, which has superior transport properties and is easily
available at low cost. Also, the extensive operational experience with ammonia
in refrigeration systems and its proven safety record make it the preferred choice
of various working fluids, such as propane and other refrigerants. The working
fluid is contained in a closed system, at relative low operating pressures and
temperatures. Much lower than in for instance fossil fuel or nuclear power plants.
Nonetheless, sealing of the components that contain the working fluid needs to
be taken care of, but reliable solutions are readily available.

Efficiency

In line with the Carnot efficiency, a heat engine gives greater efficiency
when run with a large temperature difference. The temperature difference
between the surface and deep water of the ocean is greatest in the tropics,
although still a modest 20 to 25 °C.[9] It is therefore in the tropics that OTEC offers
the greatest possibilities. The energy consumption of an OTEC cycle is
dominated by the seawater pumps. These pumps and other auxiliary equipment
consume roughly 20% of the total electricity produced. The remaining 80% is net
power and can then be supplied to the grid.

Evironmental impact

The energy produced by OTEC is clean, zero-emission and renewable. It

will drastically reduce emissions and make energy available from an
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inexhaustible natural resource. A life cycle analysis of a OTEC plant, assuming

currently available technology, resulted in a global warming potential of OTEC
that is at most 3% of diesel generated electricity and its energy payback is within
1 to 2 years.[ It is anticipated that this figure will be further improved by
improving technology.

OTEC requires seawater flow rates of several cubic meters per second per
net megawatt of electricity produced. Though substantial, these flow rates are
negligible compared to normal ocean currents with flow rates of many million
cubic meters per second. By selecting the right location for the seawater intakes
and the size of mesh for the intake filters, the possible entrainment of organisms is
minimized. Generally speaking, the problem can often be reduced by placing
the seawater intake further from the shore while avoiding submarine canyons,
coral reefs or areas with fast ocean currents.

The seawater coming out of the OTEC plant is returned to a level in the
ocean with approximately the same temperature and below the photic zone.
The latter ensures that the discharge plume with nutrient-rich deep seawater
doesn’t trigger biological growth. The exact siting of the discharge pipe will vary
according to currents and temperatures at the specific location. It is typically
around several tens to two hundred meter deep.

Most recently, NOAA held an OTEC Workshop in 2010 and 2012, seeking to
assess the physical, chemical, and biological impacts and risks of OTEC, and to
identify information gaps or needs. Today’s available environmental modeling
tools, sensors and monitoring techniques greatly help in analyzing and
monitoring impact at specific locations. The Tethys database provides access to
scientific literature and general information on the potential environmental
effects of OTEC.

Application

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a marine renewable energy

technology that harnesses the solar energy absorbed by the oceans to
generate electric power. The sun’s heat warms the surface water a lot more
than the deep ocean water, which creates the ocean’s naturally available
temperature gradient, or thermal energy.

OTEC uses the ocean’s warm surface water with a temperature of around
25°C (77°F) to vaporize a working fluid, which has a low-boiling point, such as
ammonia. The vapor expands and spins a turbine coupled to a generator to
produce electricity. The vapor is then cooled by seawater that has been
pumped from the deeper ocean layer, where the temperature is about 5°C
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(41°F). That condenses the working fluid back into a liquid, so it can be reused.
This is a continuous electricity generating cycle.

The efficiency of the cycle is strongly determined by the temperature

differential. The bigger the temperature difference, the higher the efficiency.
The technology is therefore viable primarily in equatorial areas where the year-
round temperature differential is at least 20 degrees Celsius or 36 degrees
Fahrenheit.

Resource

The oceans cover more than 70% of Earth’s surface and capture a large
part of the sun’s heat in the upper layers, making them the world’s largest solar
collectors and energy storage system. Utilizing just a small portion of this energy,
can cover the global energy need.

The energy source of OTEC is free, available abundantly and is continually

being replenished as long as the sun shines and the natural ocean currents exist.
Various renowned parties estimate the amount of energy that can be
practically harvested to be in the order of 3 to 5 terawatts (1 terawatt is 1012
watts) of baseload power generation, without affecting the temperature of the
ocean or the world’s environment. That’s about twice the global electricity
demand. The oceans are thus a vast renewable resource, with the potential to
contribute to the future energy mix offering a sustainable electricity production
method.

The technology is viable primarily in equatorial areas where the year-

round temperature differential is at least 20°C (36°F).

Benefits

The distinctive feature of OTEC is the potential to provide baseload

electricity, which means day and night (24/7) and year-round. This is a big
advantage for for instance tropical islands that typically has a small electricity
network, not capable of handling a lot of intermittent power.

OTEC benefits

Next to producing electricity, OTEC also offers the possibility of co-

generating other synergistic products, like fresh water, nutrients for enhanced
fish farming and seawater cooled greenhouses enabling food production in arid
regions. Last but not least, the cold water can be used in building air-
conditioning systems. Energy savings of up to 90% can be realized.
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The vast baseload OTEC resource could help many tropical and
subtropical (remote) regions to become more energy self-sufficient.

List of Existing Facility/ Technology

OTEC plants in operation

 Saga, Japan - Xenesys & Saga University - 30 kW - operational since 1980 with
the purpose of research and development
 Gosung, Korea - KRISO - 20 kW - operational since 2012 with the purpose of
research and development
 Réunion Island, France - DCNS - 15 kW - operational since 2012 with the
purpose of research and development
 Kumejima, Japan - Xenesys & Saga University - 100 KW - grid connected -
operational since 2013 with the purpose of research and development and
for electricity production.

TIDAL POWER PLANT

Principle of Tidal Power Generation:

Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tides occur
due to the attraction of sea water by the moon. Tides contain large amount of
potential energy which is used for power generation. When the water is above
the mean sea level, it is called flood tide. When water level is below the mean
level it is called ebb tide.

Working of Tidal Power Generation:

The arrangement of this system is shown in image. The ocean tides rise
and fall and water can be stored during the rise period and it can be
discharged during fall. A dam is constructed separating the tidal basin from the
sea and a difference in water level is obtained between the basin and sea.

During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin
through the water turbine. The height of tide is above the tidal basin. Hence the
turbine unit operates and generates power, as it is directly coupled to a
generator.

During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water
level in the basin is more than that of the tide in the sea. During this period also,
the flowing water rotates the turbine and generates power.
The generation of power stops only when sea level and the tidal basin level are
equal. For the generation of power economically using this source of energy
requires some minimum tide height and suitable site. Kislaya power plants in
France are the only examples of this type of power plant.
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Advantages of tidal power plants

1. It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.

2. It is superior to hydro-power plant as it is totally independent of rain.
3. It improves the possibility of fish farming in the tidal basins and it can provide
recreational facilities to visitors and holiday makers.

Disadvantages of tidal power plants:

1. Tidal power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available on the
bay.
2. As the sites are available on the bays which are always far away from load
centers, the power generated has to be transmitted to long distances. This
increases the transmission cost and transmission losses.
3. The supply of power is not continuous as it depends upon the timing of tides.
4. The navigation is obstructed.
5. Utilization of tidal energy on small scale is not economical.

Application
Tidal energy is derived from the motion of the Earth-Moon system. Due to
the rotation of earth, the bulges of tides are always ahead of the position on
earth right under the moon. The gravitational force between this portion of
water and moon generates a torque that decelerates the rotation of earth. On
the other hand, this force helps to accelerate the orbital movement of moon
around earth. As a consequence, without other interference, the rotational
period of earth will finally be equal to the orbital period of moon. The utilization
of tidal energy, which will inevitably reduce the tidal currents, takes advantage
of the angular dynamic energy of earth in the similar way. However, the process
of tidal acceleration is extremely slow, and the phenomena of tide can be
expected to last until the vaporization of the ocean on earth billions of yeas
later. Therefore, the tidal energy can be classified as renewable energy.
Tidal energy has two forms: the dynamic energy of the sea currents and
the potential energy due to the change of water levels. The dynamic energy
can be made used by turbines in the tidal stream system analogous to wind
turbines. Due to the high density of water compared to air, the density of
dynamics energy of water flow is much higher than air flow. Therefore, the tidal
turbine is usually smaller than wind turbine and can work at a lower flow
velocity. Like wind turbines, tidal turbines can be divided into two major types.
The first one, axial turbines, have rotary blades with axis parallel to the flow
direction. Fig. 3 demonstrates the currently most powerful tidal generator
SeaGen. Developed by Marine Current Turbines, it has the capacity of 1.2 MW
and was installed in the sea near Stranford, Northern Ireland. The second type is
termed cross-turbines. It consists of foils. The axis of the turbine is usually vertical
and the turbine can be driven by horizontal flow in all directions. This design is
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derived from the famous Darrieus wind turbines. An award-winning design of

cross-flow turbine has been proposed by Prof. Gorlov in 2001. Similar design can
be found in the wind turbine "Turby" shown in Fig. 4. The cross-flow turbines have
the advantage over axial turbines that they can efficiently make use of flow in
all directions without adjustment of the axis of the turbine and have been
gaining popularity. Pilot and practical projects have been launched around the
world.
In order to utilize the potential energy of tides, dams are generally
required. These are called barrages. A barrage is usually built at the estuary to
separate the fresh water from the sea with sluices and turbines installed. Though
varied, the basic principle of barrage tidal generation systems are similar. The
basin formed by the barrage is filled during high tides. The water head
difference between the basin and lower water table is used to drive the turbines
to generate. This barrage method is probably the oldest attempt to make use of
tidal energy, which can be dated back to Roman times. However, it suffers from
high construction cost to build the dam and potential damage to the estuarine
ecosystem. Nowadays, the only large-scale barrage power plant is the Rance
Tidal Energy Plant in France.
In 1997, two Dutch engineers proposed a new method to utilize tidal
energy, called Tidal Dynamic Power (TDP).The method involves building a large
dam extended to the ocean and a long perpendicular barrier at its far end,
forming a T-shape. Since the tidal current is parallel to the coastlines near the
coast, this system can accumulate large difference in water head on both sides
of the dam twice per day. The difference of water head can be used to
generate, as in the barrage system. The estimated installed capacity of the dam
can reach over 8 GW with less influence on the ecosystem than barrage.
Another benefit of this method is that it does not require a high natural tidal
range, and can be applied in more sites than other methods.

List of Existing Facility/ Technology

Capacity
Station Country Location Comm
(MW)

Annapolis Royal
20 Canada 44°45′07″N65°30′40″W 1984
Generating Station

Jiangxia Tidal Power

3.2 China 28°20′34″N121°14′25″E 1980
Station
 Page 16 of 53

Capacity
Station Country Location Comm
(MW)

Kislaya Guba Tidal Power

1.7 Russia 69°22′37″N33°04′33″E 1968
Station

Rance Tidal Power Station 240 France 48°37′05″N02°01′24″W 1966

Sihwa Lake Tidal Power

254 South Korea 37°18′47″N126°36′46″E 2011
Station

United
Strangford LoughSeaGen 1.2 54°22′04″N05°32′40″W 2008
Kingdom

Uldolmok Tidal Power

1.5 South Korea 34°32′07″N126°14′06″E 2009
Station

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Working Principle of Hydroelectric Power Plant

So just how do we get electricity from water? Actually, hydroelectric and

coal-fired power plants produce electricity in a similar way. In both cases a
power source is used to turn a propeller-like piece called a turbine, which then
turns a metal shaft in an electric generator, which is the motor that produces
electricity. A coal-fired power plant uses steam to turn the turbine blades;
whereas a hydroelectric plant uses falling water to turn the turbine. The results
are the same.

As to how this generator works, the Corps of Engineers explains it this way:

"A hydraulic turbine converts the energy of flowing water into mechanical
energy. A hydroelectric generator converts this mechanical energy into
electricity. The operation of a generator is based on the principles discovered
by Faraday. He found that when a magnet is moved past a conductor, it
causes electricity to flow. In a large generator, electromagnets are made by
circulating direct current through loops of wire wound around stacks of
magnetic steel laminations. These are called field poles, and are mounted on
 Page 17 of 53

the perimeter of the rotor. The rotor is attached to the turbine shaft, and rotates
at a fixed speed. When the rotor turns, it causes the field poles (the
electromagnets) to move past the conductors mounted in the stator. This, in
turn, causes electricity to flow and a voltage to develop at the generator output
terminals."

Pumped storage is a method of keeping water in reserve for peak period

power demands by pumping water that has already flowed through the
turbines back up a storage pool above the powerplant at a time when
customer demand for energy is low, such as during the middle of the night. The
water is then allowed to flow back through the turbine-generators at times when
demand is high and a heavy load is placed on the system.

The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing power in the form of water
when demands are low and producing maximum power during daily and
seasonal peak periods. An advantage of pumped storage is that hydroelectric
generating units are able to start up quickly and make rapid adjustments in
output. They operate efficiently when used for one hour or several hours.
Because pumped storage reservoirs are relatively small, construction costs are
generally low compared with conventional hydropower facilities.

Advantages

1. Hydroelectricity is a renewable energy source.

Hydroelectricity uses the energy of running water, without reducing its quantity,
to produce electricity. Therefore, all hydroelectric developments, of small or
large size, whether run of the river or of accumulated storage, fit the concept of
renewable energy.

2. Hydroelectricity makes it feasible to utilize other renewable sources.

Hydroelectric power plants with accumulation reservoirs offer incomparable

operational flexibility, since they can immediately respond to fluctuations in the
demand for electricity. The flexibility and storage capacity of hydroelectric
power plants make them more efficient and economical in supporting the use
of intermittent sources of renewable energy, such as solar energy or Aeolian
energy.

3. Hydroelectricity promotes guaranteed energy and price stability.

River water is a domestic resource which, contrary to fuel or natural gas, is not
subject to market fluctuations. In addition to this, it is the only large renewable
source of electricity and its cost-benefit ratio, efficiency, flexibility and reliability
assist in optimizing the use of thermal power plants.
 Page 18 of 53

4. Hydroelectricity contributes to the storage of drinking water.

Hydroelectric power plant reservoirs collect rainwater, which can then be used
for consumption or for irrigation. In storing water, they protect the water tables
against depletion and reduce our vulnerability to floods and droughts.

5. Hydroelectricity increases the stability and reliability of electricity systems.

The operation of electricity systems depends on rapid and flexible generation

sources to meet peak demands, maintain the system voltage levels, and quickly
re-establish supply after a blackout. Energy generated by hydroelectric
installations can be injected into the electricity system faster than that of any
other energy source. The capacity of hydroelectric systems to reach maximum
production from zero in a rapid and foreseeable manner makes them
exceptionally appropriate for addressing alterations in the consumption and
providing ancillary services to the electricity system, thus maintaining the
balance between the electricity supply and demand.

6. Hydroelectricity helps fight climate changes.

The hydroelectric life cycle produces very small amounts of greenhouse gases
(GHG). In emitting less GHG than power plants driven by gas, coal or oil,
hydroelectricity can help retard global warming. Although only 33% of the
available hydroelectric potential has been developed, today hydroelectricity
prevents the emission of GHG corresponding to the burning of 4.4 million barrels
of petroleum per day worldwide.

7. Hydroelectricity improves the air we breathe.

Hydroelectric power plants don't release pollutants into the air. They very
frequently substitute the generation from fossil fuels, thus reducing acid rain and
smog. In addition to this, hydroelectric developments don't generate toxic by-
products.

8. Hydroelectricity offers a significant contribution to development.

Hydroelectric installations bring electricity, highways, industry and commerce to

communities, thus developing the economy, expanding access to health and
education, and improving the quality of life. Hydroelectricity is a technology
that has been known and proven for more than a century. Its impacts are well
understood and manageable through measures for mitigating and
compensating the damages. It offers a vast potential and is available where
development is most necessary.

9. Hydroelectricity means clean and cheap energy for today and for tomorrow.
 Page 19 of 53

With an average lifetime of 50 to 100 years, hydroelectric developments are

long-term investments that can benefit various generations. They can be easily
upgraded to incorporate more recent technologies and have very low
operating and maintenance costs.

10. Hydroelectricity is a fundamental instrument for sustainable development.

Hydroelectric enterprises that are developed and operated in a manner that is

economically viable, environmentally sensible and socially responsible represent
the best concept of sustainable development. That means, "development that
today addresses people's needs without compromising the capacity of future
generations for addressing their own needs" (World Commission on the
Environment and Development, 1987).

APPLICATION

There are various types of hydropower plants:

Run-of-the-river power plants/river power plants

Run-of-the-river/river power plants are the most common type worldwide.

They use the flow energy of a river, and are normally used to cover the base
load. Their capacity is determined mostly by the gradient and the water level.
Some run-of-the-river power plants can also dam water at times of low energy
demand in order to use it as a reserve when demand is higher.

The so-called diversion hydropower plant is a special type of run-of-the-

river plant. The water is dammed in a weir and redirected onto the turbines by
means of a separate feeder channel. In the case of a standard run-of-the-river
power plant, there is only a slight difference in the height between the upper
and lower water levels, but a diversion hydropower plant exploits the greater
height difference created by the diversion.

Storage power plants

Storage power plants store the water in a natural or artificial lake and
feed it via pipelines into a lower-lying power plant. Such plants can operate
independently of natural water inflow, and are particularly suited to balancing
fluctuations in regional and national electricity generation and consumption.
They are used both to cover the electrical base load and for peak load
operation.

Pumped storage power plants

 Page 20 of 53

A pumped storage power plant uses two reservoirs to store water, with the
greatest possible height difference between the upper and lower reservoirs.
During off-peak periods, e.g. at night or when there is a large amount of solar or
wind energy in the grid, water is pumped from the lower to the upper reservoir.
There, it is once again available for electricity generation at peak load times.
Pelton turbines are used to drive the generator.

Types of power plants for exploiting marine energy

The kinetic energy of waves, tidal range and tidal flow can also be used
to generate electricity. One advantage of using marine energy is the uniform
energy supply and the ensuing balancing effect on the renewable energy mix.
While tidal range power plants are already technically mature, other
technologies such as the so-called wave power plants are still at the
development stage.

LIST OF EXISTING FACILITY/ TECHNOLOGY

Station Capac Operat Commissio Location Status

ity or ned
(MW)
Community Coordinates

Agus 1 80.00 1994 Marawi Operation

Hydroel City, Lanao al
ectric del Sur
Power
Plant

Agus 6 200.00 1953, 1977 Iligan City, Operation

Hydroel Lanao del al
ectric Norte
Power
Plant

Ambukl 105.00 2011 Bokod, Operation

ao Benguet al
Hydroel
ectric
Power
Plant
 Page 21 of 53

Angat 256.00 1968, 1978, Norzagaray Operation

Dam 1992 , Bulacan al

Binga 140.00 2013 Itogon, Ben Operation

Hydroel guet al
ectric
Power
Plant

Kalaya 685.00 1983 Kalayaan, 14°19′2″N 121°28′27″E Operation

an Laguna al
Pumpe
d-
Storage
Hydroel
ectric
Project

Magat 360.00 1984 Ramon, 16°49′03″N 121°27′11″ Operation

Dam Isabela E al

Pulangi 255.00 1986 Maramag, Operation

Hydroel Bukidnon al
ectric
Power
Plant

San 345.00 2003 San 14°43′00″N 121°05′00″ Operation

Roque Manuel an E al
Dam d San
NicolasPan
gasinan

Agusan 1.60 First 1957 Manolo 8°21′9″N 124°46′8″E Operation

2 Gen Fortich, al
Hydroel Corpor Damilag,
ectric ation Bukidnon
Power
Plant

Pantab 132.00 First 1977, 1980, Pantabang 15°48′40.7268″N121°0 Operation

angan - Gen 2010 an, Nueva 6′29.7396″E al
Masiwa Corpor Ecija
 Page 22 of 53

y ation
Hydroel
ectric
Power
Plant
Bubuna 32.00 First 2021 Agusan Del Under
wan Gen Norte constructio
Run of Corpor n
River ation
Hydroel
ectric
Power
plant
Ampoh 8.00 1991,1997 Sablan, Operation
aw Benguet al
Hydro
Bakun 70.00 2001 Alilem, Operation
AC Ilocos Sur al
Hydro
Bineng 3.20 1991,1994 La Trinidad, Operation
Hydro 1 Benguet al
Bineng 2.00 1991, 1996 La Trinidad, Operation
Hydro 2 Benguet al
Bineng 0.75 1992 La Trinidad, Operation
Hydro Benguet al
2b
Bineng 4.50 1992, 1994, La Trinidad, Operation
Hydro 3 1996 Benguet al
Ferdina 5.90 1993 Bakun, Operation
nd L Benguet al
Singit
Hydro
Irisan 3.80 2011 Tuba, Operation
Hydro 1 Benguet al
Irisan 1.20 1991 Tuba, Operation
Hydro 3 Benguet al
Linao 3.00 2014 Oriental Operation
Caway Mindoro al
an Mini-
Hydro
Power
Plant
Lon-oy 3.60 1993 Lon-oy, San Operation
Hydro Gabriel, La al
Union
Lower 2.40 1993 Bakun, Operation
Labay Benguet al
Hydro
Sabang 14.00 2015 Sabangan, Under-
 Page 23 of 53

an Mt. Constructio
Hydro Province n
Sal- 2.40 1991 Itogon, Operation
Angan Benguet al
Hydro
Sibulan 16.50 2010 Santa Cruz, Operation
Hydro A Davao del al
Sur
Sibulan 26.00 2010 Santa Cruz, Operation
Hydro B Davao del al
Sur
Talomo 1.00 1992 Brgy. Operation
Hydro 1 Malagos, al
Davao City
Talomo 0.60 2005 Brgy. Operation
Hydro 2 Mintal, al
Davao City
Talomo 0.65 2005 Brgy. Operation
Hydro Mintal, al
2A Davao City
Talomo 0.30 2005 Brgy. Operation
Hydro Mintal, al
2B Davao City
Talomo 1.92 2005 Brgy. Operation
Hydro 3 Catalunan al
Pequeño,
Davao City

WIND POWER PLANT

Working Principle of Wind Energy

Wind is simply defined as moving air. When the earth heats up from
sunrays it releases wind, this is a balanced reaction meant to cool the earth. The
sun heat is felt more on dry land than on the sea. The air expands and easily
reaches maximum high altitudes, then cool air drops down and moves as wind.

Wind energy is generated by converting kinetic energy through friction

process into useful forms such as electricity and mechanical energy. These two
energy sources are put in to use by humans to achieve various purposes. In the
past, people constructed wind mills to generate energy meant for grinding rains.
They also constructed mechanical wind pumps to be uses to pump large
amounts of water into the farms.
 Page 24 of 53

Electricity Generation

Wind turbines use wind energy to produce electricity. The wind turbines
are machines that have a rotor with three propeller blades. These blades are
specifically arranged in a horizontal manner to propel wind for generating
electricity. Wind turbines are placed in areas that have high speeds of wind, to
spin the blades much quicker for the rotor to transmit the electricity produced to
a generator.

Thereafter the electricity produced is supplied to different stations through

the grid. One wind turbine can generate enough electricity to be used by a
single household. A wind energy plant normally consists of many wind turbines
that are 30 to 50m long each. According to the rule, the higher you go, the
cooler it becomes and more air is circulated. This rule is applied by constructing
turbines at high altitudes, to use the increased air circulation at high altitudes to
propel the turbines much faster.

Environmental Benefits

Unlike other ways of producing energy, wind is by far one of the cleanest
methods of generating energy. The good thing about wind energy is it does not
pollute the environment. Research has shown that global warming is caused by
excess use of non-renewable fossil fuels. These fossil fuels emit gases that pollute
the world’s atmosphere. The reliance on oil and other non-renewable sources of
energy is not feasible in the long run. These fossil fuels will get depleted in the
near future and countries that will have not embraced clean energy will find it
hard to cope.

Wind Turbine Working Principle

The wind turbine working principle is followed by engineers when

generating power through the forces of nature. For it to work most efficiently
and increase the uptime made during high velocity windy conditions, it is
essential to install a strong framework that not only covers the essentials of
power generation, but can also reduce the effect of damage in case of strong
currents. Thus, there are certain guidelines that should be followed that are
actually a formula of both the mechanics of the revolution process and the
automatic reactions that are achieved through mechanical friction.

The Revolution Stage Mechanics

The first wind turbine working principle relates to the revolution process. For
this, there are the blades. These are some of the most important part that aid to
harness the oncoming forces by revolving in different degrees depending on
the force applied and the direction they are facing. In order to increase their
utility, they can have dimensions of more than 40 meters in length so that they
 Page 25 of 53

can achieve a large spinning expanse when being revolved. They can also be
able to achieve a great acceleration of more than 200km/h in their spin
whenever they are down the path of the current.

The Blades and the Mechanical Stage

Blades play a part in the wind turbine principle by combining with the
pillar that goes down to the generator. Every time they are revolved, they impart
some mechanical energy on the middle part of the structure, which is shaped
like a rod with coils upon it. These turn anticlockwise to the spin of the wing-like
devices above in order to impart this energy through friction to the generator
below. The latter is able to convert the sent waves into power that can be
stored in terms of volts.

Wind Turbine Working

The wind turbine principle also places special importance to the

mechanical friction in order to automate the whole process and stem any
undue revolution during drastic changes in climate. The central rods usually
revolve anticlockwise to the spin of the blades to pass on their generated force
to the next rod beyond the gear kit.

The latter, which is large and connects directly to the generator, begins
faster revolution. While this is beneficial in increasing the potential power
generated, in certain cases if left unchecked, especially in stormy conditions, it
can break down. To check on this, the machine comes with a set of braking
installations in both stages of the rods, to break on any adverse speed.The
central pillar also can revolve on itself to face the whole structure towards the
current instead of down its direction in order to stem on the velocity. It can also
stop the mechanism through the same automatic means if need be.

Strength of the Turbine

The wind turbine principle would be incomplete without touching on the

strengthening significance of the whole structure in enabling the whole process.
The structure or turbine is usually laid on firm ground with a strong foundation to
prop it against uprooting. In this way, it is barricaded with metal against any
strong force that can cause its anticlockwise mechanism to crumble.

You must concur that wind energy is gaining immense popularity among
majority of people as well as governments. One of the main reasons for this
growth in popularity is the current energy status of our planet. Since one can
remember, the world has solely been relying on fossil based fuels such as natural
gas and oil to power economies. Almost everything from the vehicle that you
 Page 26 of 53

are driving, the processed foods that you eat, which has been processed in a
factory that uses fossil based fuels to the lighting and cooking in your house,
there is a great level of dependency on fossil based fuels.

This global warming scenario is as a result of the destruction of the ozone

layer by the carbon emissions produced when we use the fossil based fuels. In
addition to the global warming, we now have changes in weather patterns,
where you hear of some places experiencing unusual and extreme climatic
conditions such as high temperatures, which lead to severe droughts or famine
and regular floods.

Wind Energy and Sun

In the last ten years or so, many people have lost their lives as a result of
global warming related changes. The other reason for the rapid growth in
popularity and need for wind energy is the high prices of the fossil based fuels, a
good example being crude oil which some few months back, the international
price of crude oil had hit a record high of about $ 140 per barrel. If you can
remember the period of high crude oil prices, economies slowed down, the
living standards became very high due to the increase in the price of
commodities. The third reason is as a result of the dwindling amounts of fuels
such as oil in the earth's crust. In other words, we are about to drain the
remaining reserves of oil in the world.

As an alternative form of energy, wind energy has several advantages

and disadvantages, this is very normal since nothing is perfect. But for most
people it is about choosing an alternative form of energy that best serves the
energy needs of the world with little or no adverse effects.

Advantages of Wind Energy

To begin with, you can attest to the fact that wind energy has the
advantage of being in plenty of supply. Unlike most sources of energy such as
the fossil based fuels e.g. oil wells or wells for natural gas, wind energy never runs
out and is enough to meet the energy needs of every body. In addition to the
fact that wind energy is in plenty supply, it is easily renewable and is widely
distributed.
 Page 27 of 53

Therefore, unless you are not on planet earth you cannot hear of a place
that does not have wind energy. Moreover, as a result of its ample availability
and distributive nature, it reduces dependence among countries as in the case
of fossil based fuels such as oil. For environmentalists, it is the best source of
energy and one that promotes a clean environment. Wind is not known to have
any substance that is toxic to the environment such as emissions of harmful
gases.

Wind Energy Farm

Advantage of wind energy is the production cost, unlike oil and natural
gas, the cost of producing wind power from wind energy is at an all time low.
This low cost can be as a result of the few equipments that are required such as
turbines ad their maintenance cost is also low compared to a power generating
station. Sometime in the future, wind energy might become the cheapest form
of energy to produce.

Disadvantages of Wind Energy

When you come to the disadvantages, wind energy, which comes from
wind, is predictable. Therefore, as much as it is a very reliable form of energy
when it comes to quantity, it is not reliable when it comes to availability. You
cannot easily predict when it will or will not be there.

Although it is cheap when it comes to production, it can be very

expensive when it comes to large-scale production of power. In addition to the
high cost of large scale production, most wind farms are far away from where
consumption of the wind power can take place, therefore it can be
uneconomical to produce it. For environmentalists, the turbines can be a great
source of noise pollution. Finally, the amount of wind energy produced at a
particular point is variable as it depends on several factors affecting the wind
such as the speed of wind, wind availability and the features of the turbines.

APPLICATION

Technologies and applications

Wind energy accounts for around 2.5 per cent of the world’s energy
demand. The world’s entire installed capacity stood at approximately 318 GW
at the end of 2013. The largest markets are in China (91.4 GW), USA (61 GW) and
Germany (34.2 GW). In Germany, wind energy accounted for 7.9 per cent of
the total electricity generation market in 2013.
 Page 28 of 53

The following details the three technologies for utilising wind energy:

Onshore wind turbines

Onshore wind farms are often set up alongside or close to the coast these
days. To achieve high yields, turbines were developed with high towers and
blades with a large sweep. Sites on the top of mountains or elevated positions
are particularly suitable for generating wind energy.

Onshore wind energy has seen rapid growth over the past few years. This
trend is likely to continue in international markets over the coming years, in
particular thanks to the increasing competitiveness of wind energy plants.
Further advances in technology have resulted in an continued rise in plant
efficiency over the past few years. The performance and reliability of the plants
have increased significantly, for example.

Two technologies have been developed further for efficiently converting

wind energy to electricity:

Systems with gears

Gearless systems.

Systems with gears represent the classic drive concept: with variable
rotation speed, gears and fast-running generator. Gearless systems are also
used as an alternative. In the gearless system, the rotor can be found directly on
the rotor shaft.

The advantage of onshore plants compared with offshore wind energy

(see below) lies primarily in the currently lower investment costs. In onshore
plants, local electricity generation is also carried out closer to the centres of
consumption; a situation that requires less investment in terms of grid expansion
and operation and minimises transmission losses.

Offshore wind turbines

Offshore wind farms may partly replace conventional power stations in

the long term because of the greater capacity utilisation as a result of the
higher wind speeds at sea. The expected energy yields here exceed any of
those on land by up to 100 per cent.

Offshore plants have to be sited, cabled, installed, operated and

maintained in deep water. The installation of an offshore wind farm is far more
technically demanding than that of an onshore wind farm because of the
 Page 29 of 53

foundations and a complicated grid connection. The construction stages are

much more dependent upon the weather and are largely restricted to the
period from April to November. In regular operation exposure to strong wind and
waves, together with the effects of salty air pose particular challenges for the
materials used. As a result, the system costs are significantly higher than those for
onshore plants.

Small wind turbines

Small wind turbines are particularly suitable for self-sufficient power

generation or local electricity production in off-grid areas.

There is, as yet, no precise definition for a small wind turbine. The most
common definitions are outlined briefly here:

According to IEC standard 61400-2:2006, small wind turbines have a

maximum rotor area of 200 m², which equates to a nominal power of a
maximum of 50 kW for an electrical voltage of below 1000 V AC or 1500 V DC.

Germany’s Wind Energy Association (BWE) distinguishes between three

types of small wind turbines:

- Micro wind turbines (up to 5 kW nominal output)

- Mini wind turbines (from 5 kW to 30 kW) and

- Medium wind turbines (over 30 kW).

The tower is not normally higher than 20 m, and the -average capacity of
a small wind turbine is between 5 and 10 kW.

Small wind turbines combined with other renewable energy technologies,

such as photovoltaics, are especially suited to basic electricity supply in off-grid
regions.

LIST OF EXISTING FACILITY/ TECHNOLOGY

Capacity
Station Commissioned Community Coordinates Status
(MW)

Burgos Wind 150 2014 Operational

Burgos, Ilocos 18°30′58″N120°3
Farm (Energy
 Page 30 of 53

Development Norte 8′46″E

Corporation)

Bangui Wind Bangui, Ilocos 18°31′40″N120°4

33 2005 Operational
Farm Norte 2′50″E

Caparispisan Pagudpud, Ilocos 18°36′17″N120°4

81 2014 Operational
Wind Farm Norte 7′54″E

San Lorenzo San

54 2014 Operational
Wind Farm Lorenzo, Guimaras

Pililla Wind Under-

54 2015 Pililla, Rizal
Farm Construction

Sembrano Under-
72 Pililla, Rizal
Wind Farm Construction

THERMIONIC POWER

Principle of Operation

A thermionic converter consists of a hot electrode which thermionically

emits electrons over a potential energy barrier to a cooler electrode, producing
a useful electric power output. Caesium vapor is used to optimize the electrode
work functions and provide an ion supply (by surface ionization or electron
impact ionization in a plasma) to neutralize the electron space charge.

From a physical electronic viewpoint, thermionic energy conversion is the

direct production of electric power from heat by thermionic electron emission.
From a thermodynamic viewpoint, it is the use of electron vapor as the working
fluid in a power-producing cycle. A thermionic converter consists of a hot
emitter electrode from which electrons are vaporized by thermionic emission
and a colder collector electrode into which they are condensed after
conduction through the interelectrode plasma. The resulting current, typically
several amperes per square centimetre of emitter surface, delivers electrical
 Page 31 of 53

power to a load at a typical potential difference of 0.5–1 volt and thermal

efficiency of 5–20%, depending on the emitter temperature (1500–2000 K) and
mode of operation.

After the first demonstration of the practical arc-mode caesium vapor

thermionic converter by V. Wilson in 1957, several applications of it were
demonstrated in the following decade, including its use with solar, combustion,
radioisotope and nuclear reactor heat sources. The application most seriously
pursued, however, was the integration of thermionic nuclear fuel elements
directly into the core of nuclear reactors for production of electrical power in
space. The exceptionally high operating temperature of thermionic converters,
which makes their practical use difficult in other applications, gives the
thermionic converter decisive advantages over competing energy conversion
technologies in the space power application where radiant heat rejection is
required. Substantial thermionic space reactor development programs were
conducted in the U.S., France and Germany in the period 1963–1973, and the US
resumed a significant thermionic nuclear fuel element development program in
the period 1983–1993.

A massive thermionic reactor development program was conducted

continuously in the USSR throughout the period 1960–1989, during which a full-
scale thermionic reactor system was developed and first tested in 1972. Two
thermionic reactor power systems (TOPAZ) were orbited and operated in space
in 1988–1989.

Although the priority for thermionic reactor use diminished as the US and
Russian space programs were curtailed, research and technology development
in thermionic energy conversion have continued. In recent years technology
development programs for solar-heated thermionic space power systems were
conducted. Prototype combustion-heated thermionic systems for domestic heat
and electric power cogeneration, and for rectification, have been developed.

The scientific aspects of thermionic energy conversion primarily concern

the fields of surface physics and plasma physics. The electrode surface
properties determine the magnitude of electron emission current and electric
potential at the electrode surfaces, and the plasma properties determine the
transport of electron current from the emitter to the collector. All practical
thermionic converters to date employ caesium vapor between the electrodes,
which determines both the surface and plasma properties. Caesium is
employed because it is the most easily ionized of all stable elements.

The surface property of primary interest is the work function, which is the
barrier that limits electron emission current from the surface and essentially is the
heat of vaporization of electrons from the surface. The work function is
determined primarily by a layer of caesium atoms adsorbed on the electrode
 Page 32 of 53

surfaces. The properties of the interelectrode plasma are determined by the

mode of operation of the thermionic converter. In the ignited (or “arc”) mode
the plasma is maintained via ionization internally by hot plasma electrons (~
3300 K); in the unignited mode the plasma is maintained via injection of
externally produced positive ions into a cold plasma; in the hybrid mode the
plasma is maintained by ions from a hot-plasma interelectrode region
transferred into a cold-plasma interelectrode region.

All the applications cited above have employed technology in which the
basic physical understanding and performance of the thermionic converter
were essentially the same as those achieved before 1970. During the period
from 1973 to 1983, however, significant research on advanced low-temperature
thermionic converter technology for fossil-fueled industrial and commercial
electric power production was conducted in the US, and continued until 1995
for possible space reactor and naval reactor applications. That research has
shown that substantial improvements in converter performance can be
obtained now at lower operating temperatures by addition of oxygen to the
caesium vapor, by suppression of electron reflection at the electrode surfaces,
and by hybrid mode operation. Similarly, improvements via use of oxygen-
containing electrodes have been demonstrated in Russia along with design
studies of systems employing the advanced thermionic converter performance.
Recent studies have shown that excited Cs-atoms in thermionic converters form
clusters of Cs-Rydberg matter which yield a decrease of collector emitting work
function from 1.5 eV to 1.0 – 0.7 eV. Due to long-lived nature of Rydberg matter
this low work function remains low for a long time which essentially increases the
low-temperature converter’s efficiency.

Principle, Construction and working of Thermionic power generator (TPG)

Principle

 Thermionic power generator is based on the principles of

Thermionic effect that the electrons are emitted from a hot metal
surface and responsible for the production of electricity.

Construction

 The TPG consist of tungsten metal, which is negatively charged

cathode acts as an emitter.
 There is positively charged electrode is called collector. It is
collecting the ejected electrons. The emitter and collector are
kept in a vacuum quartz tube.

Emitter
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Quartz tube

Collector

Thermal energy

Electrical energy

VL

RL

Thermionic Power generator

Working

 The electrons within a metal can be treated as "electron gas" in

which individual outer most electrons are capable of moving
freely under the influence of a field.
 This movement of electrons is responsible for the function of
electric circuits.

At the surface of a metal, a potential barrier exists which prevents the

electrons from escaping unless certain conditions are met. This concept can be
explained as follows.

 It is known from the free electron theory, at 0K, all the energy
levels up to EF (fermi energy) are completely filled and all the
energy level above the EF are completely empty.
 The energy level from the surface of metallic cathode to the level
of EF (BC in figure) is the potential energy barrier called work
function (. ).
 If any electron wants to escape from the surface of the metallic
cathode, they should cross this potential barrier.
 At 0K, all the electrons are bound within fermi energy level and
cannot escape from the surface of cathode (emitter).
 When the thermal energy is supplied on the emitter side, some of
the electrons are promoted to above the fermi level.
 These activated electrons can cross the potential energy barrier
and escape from the surface of cathode and responsible for the
current production.
 As long as the temperature increased, the number of electrons
escapes from the surface of emitter increases. Collector collects
the emitted electrons and there is an external circuit through
which the current flows
 Page 34 of 53

 The thermionic emission current density is determined by the 'work

function' of the material, which is basically the magnitude of the
potential energy barrier.
 Good emitters should have low work functions.
 It is generally accepted that the thoriated tungsten is the best
cathode metal because of its lower value of work function
 The metal can be heated in two different ways.
 One is direct heating and second is the indirect heating.
 In the direct heating where the filament itself is the cathode and
the indirect heating where the cathode is heated by a separate
filament.
 Pure tungsten is used as main metal in the case of direct heating
method
 Nickel (or) Nickel alloys are used as main metal in the case of
indirect heating.

Applications

 They are used in space power application for spacecraft

 They are used to power submarines and boats.
 They used in water pump for irrigation,
 They used in power plant for industry and domestic purpose

Advantages

 Higher efficiency and high power density

 Compact to use

Disadvantages

 There is a possibility of vaporization of emitter surface

 Thermal breaking is possible during operation
 The sealing is often gets failure


Nuclear Fusion

Principle of Operation

Fusion power is energy generated by nuclear fusion. Fusion reactions fuse

two lighter atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. It is a major area of plasma
physics research that attempts to harness such reactions as a source of large
scale sustainable energy. Fusion reactions are how stars transmute matter into
energy.
 Page 35 of 53

In most large scale commercial programs, heat from neutron scattering in

a controlled reaction is used to operate a steam turbine that drives electric
generators. Many fusion concepts are under investigation. The current leading
designs are the tokamak and inertial confinement by laser. As of January 2016,
these technologies were not viable, as they cannot produce more energy than
is required to initiate and sustain a fusion reaction.

Alternative approaches rely on other means of energy transfer, mostly

that capture energy without relying on neutron capture.

Mechanism

Fusion reactions occur when two (or more) atomic nuclei come close
enough for long enough that the strong nuclear force pulling them together
exceeds the electrostatic force pushing them apart, fusing them into heavier
nuclei. For nuclei lighter than iron-56, the reaction is exothermic, releasing
energy. For nuclei heavier than iron-56, the reaction is endothermic, requiring an
external source of energy. Hence, nuclei smaller than iron-56 are more likely to
fuse while those heavier than iron-56 are more likely to break apart.

The strong force acts only over short distances. The repulsive electrostatic
force acts over longer distances, so kinetic energy is needed to overcome this
"Coulomb barrier" before the reaction can take place. Way of doing this include
speeding up atoms in a particle accelerator, or heating them to high
temperatures.

Once an atom is heated above its ionization energy, its electrons are
stripped away (it is ionized), leaving just the bare nucleus (the ion). The result is a
hot cloud of ions and the electrons formerly attached to them. This cloud is
known as a plasma. Because the charges are separated, plasmas are
electrically conductive and magnetically controllable. Many fusion devices take
advantage of this to control the particles as they are heated.

Plasma behavior

Plasma is an ionized gas that conducts electricity. In bulk, it is modeled

using hydrodynamics, which is a combination of the Navier-Stokes equations
governing fluids and Maxwell's equations governing how magnetic and electric
fields behave. Fusion exploits several plasma properties, including:

Self-organizing plasma conducts electric and magnetic fields. Its motions

can generate fields that can in turn contain it.
 Page 36 of 53

Diamagnetic plasma can generate its own internal magnetic field. This
can reject an externally applied magnetic field, making it diamagnetic.

Magnetic mirrors can reflect plasma when it moves from a low to high
density field.

Energy capture

Multiple approaches have been proposed for energy capture. The

simplest is to heat a fluid. The neutrons generated by fusion can re-generate a
spent fission fuel. Direct energy conversion was developed (at LLNL in the 1980s)
as a method to maintain a voltage using the fusion reaction products. This has
demonstrated energy capture efficiency of 48 percent.

Common tools

Heating

Gas must be first heated to form a plasma. This then needs to be hot
enough to start fusion reactions. A number of heating schemes have been
explored:

Radiofrequency Heating A radio wave is applied to the plasma, causing it

to oscillate. This is basically the same concept as a microwave oven. This is also
known as electron cyclotron resonance heating or Dielectric heating.

Electrostatic Heating An electric field can do work on charged ions or

electrons, heating them.

Neutral Beam Injection An external source of hydrogen is ionized and

accelerated by an electric field to form a charged beam which is shone
through a source of neutral hydrogen gas towards the plasma which itself is
ionized and contained in the reactor by a magnetic field. Some of the
intermediate hydrogen gas is accelerated towards the plasma by collisions with
the charged beam while remaining neutral: this neutral beam is thus unaffected
by the magnetic field and so shines through it into the plasma. Once inside the
plasma the neutral beam transmits energy to the plasma by collisions as a result
of which it becomes ionized and thus contained by the magnetic field thereby
both heating and refuelling the reactor in one operation. The remainder of the
charged beam is diverted by magnetic fields onto cooled beam dumps.

Power production

Steam turbines It has been proposed that steam turbines be used to

convert the heat from the fusion chamber into electricity. The heat is transferred
into a working fluid that turns into steam, driving electric generators.
 Page 37 of 53

Neutron blankets Deuterium and tritium fusion generates neutrons. This

varies by technique (NIF has a record of 3E14 neutrons per second while a
typical fusor produces 1E5–1E9 neutrons per second). It has been proposed to
use these neutrons as a way to regenerate spent fission fuel or as a way to
breed tritium from a liquid lithium blanket.

Direct conversion This is a method where the kinetic energy of a particle is

converted into voltage. It was first suggested by Richard F. Post in conjunction
with magnetic mirrors, in the late sixties. It has also been suggested for Field-
Reversed Configurations. The process takes the plasma, expands it, and
converts a large fraction of the random energy of the fusion products into
directed motion. The particles are then collected on electrodes at various large
electrical potentials. This method has demonstrated an experimental efficiency
of 48 percent

Fuels

By firing particle beams at targets, many fusion reactions have been

tested, while the fuels considered for power have all been light elements like the
isotopes of hydrogen—deuterium and tritium.[3] Other reactions like the
deuterium and Helium3 reaction or the Helium3 and Helium3 reactions, would
require a supply of Helium3. This can either come from other nuclear reactions or
from extraterrestrial sources. Finally, researchers hope to do the p-11B reaction,
because it does not directly produce neutrons, though side reactions can.

Deuterium.
This is the second easiest fusion reaction, fusing deuterium with itself. The
reaction has two branches that occur with nearly equal probability:
D+D→T + 1H
D + D → 3He + n
This reaction is also common in research. The optimum energy to initiate
this reaction is 15 keV, only slightly higher than the optimum for the D-T reaction.
The first branch does not produce neutrons, but it does produce tritium, so that a
D-D reactor will not be completely tritium-free, even though it does not require
an input of tritium or lithium. Unless the tritons can be quickly removed, most of
the tritium produced would be burned before leaving the reactor, which would
reduce the handling of tritium, but would produce more neutrons, some of
which are very energetic. The neutron from the second branch has an energy of
only 2.45 MeV (0.393 pJ), whereas the neutron from the D-T reaction has an
energy of 14.1 MeV (2.26 pJ), resulting in a wider range of isotope production
 Page 38 of 53

and material damage. When the tritons are removed quickly while allowing
the 3He to react, the fuel cycle is called "tritium suppressed fusion"[163] The
removed tritium decays to 3He with a 12.5 year half life. By recycling the 3He
produced from the decay of tritium back into the fusion reactor, the fusion
reactor does not require materials resistant to fast 14.1 MeV (2.26 pJ) neutrons.
Assuming complete tritium burn-up, the reduction in the fraction of fusion
energy carried by neutrons would be only about 18%, so that the primary
advantage of the D-D fuel cycle is that tritium breeding would not be required.
Other advantages are independence from scarce[dubious – discuss] lithium resources
and a somewhat softer neutron spectrum. The disadvantage of D-D compared
to D-T is that the energy confinement time (at a given pressure) must be 30 times
longer and the power produced (at a given pressure and volume) would be 68
times less[citation needed] .
Assuming complete removal of tritium and recycling of 3He, only 6% of the
fusion energy is carried by neutrons. The tritium-suppressed D-D fusion requires an
energy confinement that is 10 times longer compared to D-T and a plasma
temperature that is twice as high.

Application
Fusion power offers the prospect of an almost inexhaustible source of
energy for future generations, but it also presents so far insurmountable scientific
and engineering challenges.
The main hope is centered on tokamak reactors and stellarators which
confine a deuterium-tritium plasma magnetically.
Today, many countries take part in fusion research to some extent, led by
the European Union, the USA, Russia and Japan, with vigorous programs also
underway in China, Brazil, Canada, and Korea. Initially, fusion research in the
USA and USSR was linked to atomic weapons development, and it remained
classified until the 1958 Atoms for Peace conference in Geneva. Following a
breakthrough at the Soviet tokamak, fusion research became 'big science' in
the 1970s. But the cost and complexity of the devices involved increased to the
point where international co-operation was the only way forward.Fusion powers
the Sun and stars as hydrogen atoms fuse together to form helium, and matter is
converted into energy. Hydrogen, heated to very high temperatures changes
from a gas to a plasma in which the negatively-charged electrons are
separated from the positively-charged atomic nuclei (ions). Normally, fusion is
not possible because the strongly repulsive electrostatic forces between the
positively charged nuclei prevent them from getting close enough together to
collide and for fusion to occur. However, if the conditions are such that the
nuclei can overcome the electrostatic forces to the extent that they can come
within a very close range of each other, then the attractive nuclear force
 Page 39 of 53

(which binds protons and neutrons together in atomic nuclei) between the
nuclei will outweigh the repulsive (electrostatic) force, allowing the nuclei to fuse
together. Such conditions can occur when the temperature increases, causing
the ions to move faster and eventually reach speeds high enough to bring the
ions close enough together. The nuclei can then fuse, causing a release of
energy.Fusion technologyIn the Sun, massive gravitational forces create the
right conditions for fusion, but on Earth they are much harder to achieve. Fusion
fuel – different isotopes of hydrogen – must be heated to extreme temperatures
of the order of 50 million degrees Celsius, and must be kept stable under intense
pressure, hence dense enough and confined for long enough to allow the
nuclei to fuse. The aim of the controlled fusion research program is to achieve
'ignition', which occurs when enough fusion reactions take place for the process
to become self-sustaining, with fresh fuel then being added to continue it. Once
ignition is achieved, there is net energy yield – about four times as much as with
nuclear fission. According to MIT, the amount of power produced increases with
the square of the pressure, so doubling the pressure leads to a fourfold increase
in energy production.With current technology, the reaction most readily feasible
is between the nuclei of the two heavy forms (isotopes) of hydrogen – deuterium
(D) and tritium (T). Each D-T fusion event releases 17.6 MeV (2.8 x 10-12 joule,
compared with 200 MeV for a U-235 fission and 3-4 MeV for D-D fusion).a On a
mass basis, the D-T fusion reaction releases over four times as much energy as
uranium fission. Deuterium occurs naturally in seawater (30 grams per cubic
metre), which makes it very abundant relative to other energy resources. Tritium
occurs naturally only in trace quantities (produced by cosmic rays) and is
radioactive, with a half-life of around 12 years. Usable quantities can be made
in a conventional nuclear reactor, or in the present context, bred in a fusion
system from lithium.b Lithium is found in large quantities (30 parts per million) in
the Earth's crust and in weaker concentrations in the sea.In a fusion reactor, the
concept is that neutrons generated from the D-T fusion reaction will be
absorbed in a blanket containing lithium which surrounds the core. The lithium is
then transformed into tritium (which is used to fuel the reactor) and helium. The
blanket must be thick enough (about 1 metre) to slow down the high-energy (14
MeV) neutrons. The kinetic energy of the neutrons is absorbed by the blanket,
causing it to heat up.

Advantages of Nuclear Fusion

1. Barely Any Waste
The only byproduct of nuclear fusion is helium, which is safe and non toxic.
This is one of the biggest benefits of using nuclear fusion, rather than nuclear
fission. Nuclear waste can be very harmful to the environment and to people,
and nuclear fusion doesn’t cause this.
2. Unlimited Fuel
 Page 40 of 53

All of the components needed to create energy using nuclear fusion can
be found or made. This means that you can supply a truly unlimited and
sustainable energy supply using no other energy sources in the process.
Deuterium is the main ingredient needed, which is distilled from sea water.
3. Simple To Control
Since you are fusing, rather than splitting, atoms there is a much lower
chance of a chain reaction occurring. This makes nuclear fusion very simply to
control and much safer than other forms of nuclear energy.
4. Low Cost Power
By far, the biggest advantage of this form of power is that it is cheap. Only
costing around 3 cents per kilowatt hour, nuclear fusion energy is one of the
cheapest that we have discovered.
5. No Green House Gases
The only byproduct that is created during the nuclear fusion process is
helium, which is not a green house gas. This is great for the environment and our
atmosphere because it doesn’t contribute anything to the global warming
problem.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Fusion

1. Energy Input VS Energy Output

Extremely high levels of heat are necessary in order to fuse the two nuclei
of the atoms together. This requires a large amount of energy, nearly as much
energy as will be produced. For this reason, nuclear fusion energy is truly not
plausible.
2. Expensive Construction Costs
The facilities, experts, and scientists that are needed to successfully run a
nuclear fusion plant are immensely expensive. Along with these high costs, it also
costs quite a pretty penny to harness the energy that is created.
3. Little Understood
Nuclear fusion is a very new form of energy, and the only way it would be
truly usable on a large scale production is if cold fusion was perfected, which is
a long ways off. The full scope of dangers and effects of nuclear fusion energy
isn’t understood yet, because it simply has not been around long enough.
4. No Materials For The Job
One of the other big problems with nuclear fusion is the fact that there is no
known material that can handle the extremely high heat that is necessary for
 Page 41 of 53

nuclear fusion. Until there is something that can sustain the high temperatures,
no future for the energy source is for seeable.

SOLAR POWER

Principle of Operation
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using
a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar
thermal energy, solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial
photosynthesis.
It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are
broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how
they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power. Active
solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar
power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques
include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with
favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces
that naturally circulate air.
The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly
appealing source of electricity. The United Nations Development Programme in
its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy
was 1,575–49,837 exajoules (EJ). This is several times larger than the total world
energy consumption, which was 559.8 EJ in 2012.

Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since 1985 the
eventually 354 MW SEGS CSP installation, in the Mojave Desert of California, is
the largest solar power plant in the world. Other large CSP plants include the 150
MW Solnova Solar Power Station and the 100 MW Andasol solar power station,
both in Spain. The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the United States, and
the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are the world’s largest photovoltaic
plants. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed, but most of the
deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5 kW, which are
connected to the grid using net metering and/or a feed-in tariff. In 2013 solar
generated less than 1% of the world's total grid electricity.

In the last two decades, photovoltaics (PV), also known as solar PV, has
evolved from a pure niche market of small scale applications towards
becoming a mainstream electricity source. A solar cell is a device that converts
light directly into electricity using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was
constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. In 1931 a German engineer, Dr Bruno
Lange, developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide.
Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light
 Page 42 of 53

into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell
recognized the importance of this discovery. Following the work of Russell Ohl in
the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created
the crystalline silicon solar cell in 1954. These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt
and reached efficiencies of 4.5–6%. By 2012 available efficiencies exceeded
20%, and the maximum efficiency of research photovoltaics was in excess of
40%.

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and

tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The
concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power
plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed
are the parabolic trough, the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling
dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun
and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the
concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.

Application

Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating,
space cooling and process heat generation.

Early commercial adaptation

In 1897, Frank Shuman, a U.S. inventor, engineer and solar energy pioneer
built a small demonstration solar engine that worked by reflecting solar energy
onto square boxes filled with ether, which has a lower boiling point than water,
and were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered a steam
engine. In 1908 Shuman formed the Sun Power Company with the intent of
building larger solar power plants. He, along with his technical advisor A.S.E.
Ackermann and British physicist Sir Charles Vernon Boys, developed an
improved system using mirrors to reflect solar energy upon collector boxes,
increasing heating capacity to the extent that water could now be used
instead of ether. Shuman then constructed a full-scale steam engine powered
by low-pressure water, enabling him to patent the entire solar engine system by
1912.

Shuman built the world’s first solar thermal power station in Maadi, Egypt,
between 1912 and 1913. His plant used parabolic troughs to power a 45–52
kilowatts (60–70 hp) engine that pumped more than 22,000 litres (4,800 imp gal;
5,800 US gal) of water per minute from the Nile River to adjacent cotton fields.
 Page 43 of 53

Although the outbreak of World War I and the discovery of cheap oil in the
1930s discouraged the advancement of solar energy, Shuman’s vision and basic
design were resurrected in the 1970s with a new wave of interest in solar thermal
energy. In 1916 Shuman was quoted in the media advocating solar energy's
utilization, saying:

“We have proved the commercial profit of sun power in the tropics and
have more particularly proved that after our stores of oil and coal are
exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the
sun.”

Water heating

Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical
latitudes (below 40 degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with
temperatures up to 60 °C can be provided by solar heating systems. The most
common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors (44%) and
glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used for domestic hot water; and
unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat swimming pools.

As of 2007, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems was
approximately 154 thermal gigawatt (GWth). China is the world leader in their
deployment with 70 GWth installed as of 2006 and a long-term goal of 210 GWth
by 2020. Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot
water systems with over 90% of homes using them. In the United States, Canada,
and Australia, heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot
water with an installed capacity of 18 GWth as of 2005.

Heating, cooling and ventilation

In the United States, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)

systems account for 30% (4.65 EJ/yr) of the energy used in commercial buildings
and nearly 50% (10.1 EJ/yr) of the energy used in residential buildings. Solar
heating, cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of
this energy.

Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from
the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include
stone, cement and water. Historically they have been used in arid climates or
warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy
 Page 44 of 53

during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night.
However, they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as
well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as
climate, daylighting and shading conditions. When properly incorporated,
thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and
reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment.

A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar

ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and
exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an
updraft that pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by
using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses.

Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of

controlling solar heating and cooling. When planted on the southern side of a
building in the northern hemisphere or the northern side in the southern
hemisphere, their leaves provide shade during the summer, while the bare limbs
allow light to pass during the winter. Since bare, leafless trees shade 1/3 to 1/2 of
incident solar radiation, there is a balance between the benefits of summer
shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating. In climates with significant
heating loads, deciduous trees should not be planted on the Equator-facing
side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability. They
can, however, be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of
summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain.

Cooking

Parabolic dish produces steam for cooking, in Auroville, India

Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. They can
be grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers and
reflector cookers.[36] The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by
Horace de Saussure in 1767. A basic box cooker consists of an insulated
container with a transparent lid. It can be used effectively with partially overcast
skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90–150 °C (194–302 °F). Panel
cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and
reach temperatures comparable to box cookers. Reflector cookers use various
concentrating geometries (dish, trough, Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on a
cooking container. These cookers reach temperatures of 315 °C (599 °F) and
above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to
track the Sun.
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Process heat

Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and

Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial
applications. The first commercial system was the Solar Total Energy Project
(STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, USA where a field of 114 parabolic dishes
provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical
requirements for a clothing factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system
provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam
and 468 kW chilled water, and had a one-hour peak load thermal storage.
Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through
evaporation. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from seawater is one
of the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating
brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste
streams. Clothes lines, clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through
evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some
states of the United States legislation protects the "right to dry" clothes. Unglazed
transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating
ventilation air. UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 °C (40 °F)
and deliver outlet temperatures of 45–60 °C (113–140 °F). The short payback
period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years) makes them a more cost-effective
alternative than glazed collection systems. As of 2003, over 80 systems with a
combined collector area of 35,000 square metres (380,000 sq ft) had been
installed worldwide, including an 860 m2 (9,300 sq ft) collector in Costa Rica
used for drying coffee beans and a 1,300 m2 (14,000 sq ft) collector in
Coimbatore, India, used for drying marigolds.

Water treatment

Solar water disinfection in Indonesia

Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable.

The first recorded instance of this was by 16th-century Arab alchemists. A large-
scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining
town of Las Salinas. The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700 m2
(51,000 sq ft), could produce up to 22,700 L (5,000 imp gal; 6,000 US gal) per day
and operate for 40 years. Individual still designs include single-slope, double-
slope (or greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and
multiple effect. These stills can operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes.
Double-slope stills are the most economical for decentralized domestic
purposes, while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large-scale
applications.
 Page 46 of 53

Solar water disinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plastic

polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours. Exposure
times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to
two days during fully overcast conditions. It is recommended by the World
Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and
safe storage. Over two million people in developing countries use this method
for their daily drinking water.

Solar energy may be used in a water stabilization pond to treat waste

water without chemicals or electricity. A further environmental advantage is
that algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis,
although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable.

Molten salt technology

Molten salt can be employed as a thermal energy storage method to

retain thermal energy collected by a solar tower or solar trough of a
concentrated solar power plant, so that it can be used to generate electricity in
bad weather or at night. It was demonstrated in the Solar Two project from
1995–1999. The system is predicted to have an annual efficiency of 99%, a
reference to the energy retained by storing heat before turning it into electricity,
versus converting heat directly into electricity. The molten salt mixtures vary. The
most extended mixture contains sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate and calcium
nitrate. It is non-flammable and nontoxic, and has already been used in the
chemical and metals industries as a heat-transport fluid, so experience with such
systems exists in non-solar applications.

The salt melts at 131 °C (268 °F). It is kept liquid at 288 °C (550 °F) in an
insulated "cold" storage tank. The liquid salt is pumped through panels in a solar
collector where the focused sun heats it to 566 °C (1,051 °F). It is then sent to a
hot storage tank. This is so well insulated that the thermal energy can be usefully
stored for up to a week.

When electricity is needed, the hot salt is pumped to a conventional

steam-generator to produce superheated steam for a turbine/generator as
used in any conventional coal, oil, or nuclear power plant. A 100-megawatt
turbine would need a tank about 9.1 metres (30 ft) tall and 24 metres (79 ft) in
diameter to drive it for four hours by this design.

Several parabolic trough power plants in Spain and solar power tower
developer SolarReserve use this thermal energy storage concept. The Solana
Generating Station in the U.S. has six hours of storage by molten salt.
 Page 47 of 53

List of Existing Facility/ Technology

Capacity Commissio
Station Community Status
(MW) ned

March 25,
ADI 2 Batangas Operational
2015

Badoc-
Vintar Badoc and Vintar, Ilocos
20 Approved
Photovoltaic Norte
Power Plant

Burgos Solar
Power
Plant (Energ
y 4.1 2015 Burgos, Ilocos Norte Operational
Developme
nt
Corporation)

Cadiz Solar
132.5 2016 Cadiz, Negros Occidental Operational
Power Plant
CEPALCO
Cagayan
Cagayan de Oro, Misamis
de Oro 1.1 2004 Operational
Oriental
Photovoltaic
Power Plant
Citycor Silay City, Negros
25 2016 Operational
Power's Occidental
ECOGLOBAL ZamboEcozone , Zamboa
100 - 300 2015 Under-construction
INC. nga City
Enfinity S.A. 28.6 2016 Digos, Davao Del Sur Operational
La Carlota, Negros
islaSol I 32 Operational
Occidental
Manapla, Negros
islaSol II 48 Operational
Occidental
MIRAE Asia
Energy 20 Feb.10,2016 Curimao, Ilocos Norte Operational
Corp.
 Page 48 of 53

Capacity Commissio
Station Community Status
(MW) ned

Philippine
Solar Farm
30 March 2015 Ormoc City, Leyte Operational
Leyte Inc.
(PSFLI)
Raslag 10 January, 2015 Mexico, Pampanga Operational
San Carlos City, Negros
SaCaSol I 45 2014 Operational
Occidental
Sindicatum
Mabalacat
Renewable 22 2016 Operational
City,Pampanga
Energy
Solar
63.3 2016 Calatagan Batangas Operational
Philippines
Solar
1.5 Sept. 20,2014 SM Mall North Edsa Operational
Philippines
Solar
0.7 Nov. 24,2015 Central Mall Binan Laguna Operational
Philippines
Surallah
Photovoltaic 5 Surallah, South Cotabato Under-construction
Power Plant
Valenzuela
Solar Energy, 8.6 Nov.28,2015 Valenzuela, Metro Manila Operational
Inc

.WAVE POWER PLANT

Principle of Operation

Wave power is the transport of energy by wind waves, and the capture of
that energy to do useful work – for example, electricity generation, water
desalination, or the pumping of water (into reservoirs). A machine able to exploit
wave power is generally known as a wave energy converter (WEC).

Wave power is distinct from the diurnal flux of tidal power and the steady
gyre of ocean currents. Wave-power generation is not currently a widely
employed commercial technology, although there have been attempts to use
it since at least 1890. In 2008, the first experimental wave farm was opened in
Portugal, at the Aguçadoura Wave Park.
 Page 49 of 53

Physical Concepts

Waves are generated by wind passing over the surface of the sea. As
long as the waves propagate slower than the wind speed just above the waves,
there is an energy transfer from the wind to the waves. Both air pressure
differences between the upwind and the lee side of a wave crest, as well as
friction on the water surface by the wind, making the water to go into the shear
stress causes the growth of the waves.

Wave height is determined by wind speed, the duration of time the wind
has been blowing, fetch (the distance over which the wind excites the waves)
and by the depth and topography of the seafloor (which can focus or disperse
the energy of the waves). A given wind speed has a matching practical limit
over which time or distance will not produce larger waves. When this limit has
been reached the sea is said to be "fully developed".

In general, larger waves are more powerful but wave power is also
determined by wave speed, wavelength, and water density.

Oscillatory motion is highest at the surface and diminishes exponentially

with depth. However, for standing waves (clapotis) near a reflecting coast,
wave energy is also present as pressure oscillations at great depth, producing
microseisms. These pressure fluctuations at greater depth are too small to be
interesting from the point of view of wave power.

The waves propagate on the ocean surface, and the wave energy is also
transported horizontally with the group velocity. The mean transport rate of the
wave energy through a vertical plane of unit width, parallel to a wave crest, is
called the wave energy flux (or wave power, which must not be confused with
the actual power generated by a wave power device.

Deep-water characteristics and opportunities

Deep water corresponds with a water depth larger than half the
wavelength, which is the common situation in the sea and ocean. In deep
water, longer-period waves propagate faster and transport their energy faster.
The deep-water group velocity is half the phase velocity. In shallow water, for
wavelengths larger than about twenty times the water depth, as found quite
often near the coast, the group velocity is equal to the phase velocity.
 Page 50 of 53

Modern technology

Wave power devices are generally categorized by the method used to

capture the energy of the waves, by location and by the power take-off system.
Locations are shoreline, nearshore and offshore. Types of power take-off
include: hydraulic ram, elastomeric hose pump, pump-to-shore, hydroelectric
turbine, air turbine, and linear electrical generator. When evaluating wave
energy as a technology type, it is important to distinguish between the four most
common approaches: point absorber buoys, surface attenuators, oscillating
water columns, and overtopping devices.

Point absorber buoy

This device floats on the surface of the water, held in place by cables
connected to the seabed. Buoys use the rise and fall of swells to drive hydraulic
pumps and generate electricity. EMF generated by electrical transmission
cables and acoustics of these devices may be a concern for marine organisms.
The presence of the buoys may affect fish, marine mammals, and birds as
potential minor collision risk and roosting sites. Potential also exists for
entanglement in mooring lines. Energy removed from the waves may also affect
the shoreline, resulting in a recommendation that sites remain a considerable
distance from the shore.

Surface attenuator

These devices act similarly to point absorber buoys, with multiple floating
segments connected to one another and are oriented perpendicular to
incoming waves. A flexing motion is created by swells that drive hydraulic
pumps to generate electricity. Environmental effects are similar to those of point
absorber buoys, with an additional concern that organisms could be pinched in
the joints.

Oscillating wave surge converter

devices typically have one end fixed to a structure or the seabed while
the other end is free to move. Energy is collected from the relative motion of the
body compared to the fixed point. Oscillating wave surge converters often
come in the form of floats, flaps, or membranes. Environmental concerns include
minor risk of collision, artificial reefing near the fixed point, EMF effects from
subsea cables, and energy removal effecting sediment transport. Some of these
designs incorporate parabolic reflectors as a means of increasing the wave
energy at the point of capture. These capture systems use the rise and fall
motion of waves to capture energy. Once the wave energy is captured at a
 Page 51 of 53

wave source, power must be carried to the point of use or to a connection to

the electrical grid by transmission power cables.

Oscillating water column

Oscillating Water Column devices can be located on shore or in deeper

waters offshore. With an air chamber integrated into the device, swells compress
air in the chambers forcing air through an air turbine to create electricity.
Significant noise is produced as air is pushed through the turbines, potentially
affecting birds and other marine organisms within the vicinity of the device.
There is also concern about marine organisms getting trapped or entangled
within the air chambers.

Overtopping device

Overtopping devices are long structures that use wave velocity to fill a
reservoir to a greater water level than the surrounding ocean. The potential
energy in the reservoir height is then captured with low-head turbines. Devices
can be either on shore or floating offshore. Floating devices will have
environmental concerns about the mooring system affecting benthic organisms,
organisms becoming entangled, or EMF effects produced from subsea cables.
There is also some concern regarding low levels of turbine noise and wave
energy removal affecting the nearfield habitat.

Application

Wave energy is produced when electricity generators are placed on the

surface of the ocean. The energy provided is most often used in desalination
plants, power plants and water pumps. Energy output is determined by wave
height, wave speed, wavelength, and water density. To date there are only a
handful of experimental wave generator plants in operation around the world.
The articles on this page explore the world of wave energy and its possible
applications.

List of Existing Facility/ Technology

Wave Farms

Portugal

The Aguçadoura Wave Farm was the world's first wave farm. It was
located 5 km (3 mi) offshore near Póvoa de Varzim, north of Porto, Portugal. The
farm was designed to use three Pelamis wave energy converters to convert the
 Page 52 of 53

motion of the ocean surface waves into electricity, totalling to 2.25 MW in total
installed capacity. The farm first generated electricity in July 2008and was
officially opened on September 23, 2008, by the Portuguese Minister of
Economy. The wave farm was shut down two months after the official opening
in November 2008 as a result of the financial collapse of Babcock & Brown due
to the global economic crisis. The machines were off-site at this time due to
technical problems, and although resolved have not returned to site and were
subsequently scrapped in 2011 as the technology had moved on to the P2
variant as supplied to Eon and Scottish Power Renewables. A second phase of
the project planned to increase the installed capacity to 21 MW using a further
25 Pelamis machinesis in doubt following Babcock's financial collapse.

United Kingdom

Funding for a 3 MW wave farm in Scotland was announced on February

20, 2007, by the Scottish Executive, at a cost of over 4 million pounds, as part of
a £13 million funding package for marine power in Scotland. The first machine
was launched in May 2010.

A facility known as Wave hub has been constructed off the north coast of
Cornwall, England, to facilitate wave energy development. The Wave hub will
act as giant extension cable, allowing arrays of wave energy generating
devices to be connected to the electricity grid. The Wave hub will initially allow
20 MW of capacity to be connected, with potential expansion to 40 MW. Four
device manufacturers have so far expressed interest in connecting to the Wave
hub.The scientists have calculated that wave energy gathered at Wave Hub will
be enough to power up to 7,500 households. The site has the potential to save
greenhouse gas emissions of about 300,000 tons of carbon dioxide in the next 25
years

Australia CETO wave farm off the coast of Western Australia has been
operating to prove commercial viability and, after preliminary environmental
approval, underwent further development. In early 2015 a $100 million, multi
megawatt system was connected to the grid, with all the electricity being
bought to power HMAS Stirling naval base. Two fully submerged buoys which
are anchored to the seabed, transmit the energy from the ocean swell through
hydraulic pressure onshore; to drive a generator for electricity, and also to
produce fresh water. As of 2015 a third buoy is planned for installation.

Ocean Power Technologies (OPT Australasia Pty Ltd) is developing a wave

farm connected to the grid near Portland, Victoria through a 19 MW wave
power station. The project has received an AU $66.46 million grant from the
Federal Government of Australia.
 Page 53 of 53

Oceanlinx will deploy a commercial scale demonstrator off the coast of

South Australia at Port MacDonnell before the end of 2013. This device, the
greenWAVE, has a rated electrical capacity of 1MW. This project has been
supported by ARENA through the Emerging Renewables Program. The
greenWAVE device is a bottom standing gravity structure, that does not require
anchoring or seabed preparation and with no moving parts below the surface
of the water.

United States

Reedsport, Oregon – a commercial wave park on the west coast of the

United States located 2.5 miles offshore near Reedsport, Oregon. The first phase
of this project is for ten PB150 PowerBuoys, or 1.5 megawatts. The Reedsport
wave farm was scheduled for installation spring 2013. In 2013, the project has
ground to a halt because of legal and technical problems.

Kaneohe Bay Oahu, Hawai - Navy’s Wave Energy Test Site (WETS) currently
testing the Azura wave power device. The Azura wave power device is 45-ton
wave energy converter located at a depth of 30 meters in Kaneohe Bay.