Theories of Learning

I. (Egan, 2005), it is a transfer meaning from one another on the basis

perceived similarities. A specific type of metaphor is
called synectics which can be an effective means of Response
Strengthening(reinforcement theory concentrates on consequences)

 Reinforcement is commonly viewed as reward. Positive

reinforcement occurs when the behaviour produces
another new stimulus. On the other hand, if the
disappearance or removal of a stimulus occurs, we call
negative reinforcement.
 Punishment is another consequence that often confused
with reinforcement, used to decrease the performance of
a behaviour

Thorndike formulated a number of laws that govern important aspects

of behaviour. They are as follows:
1. The Law of Effect
2. The Law of Exercise
3. The Law of Readiness

II. Information Acquisition

This theory is popularized by Herman Ebbinghaus, he
pointed out a quantitative relation between the amount of
practice and the amount learned.

III. Knowledge Construction

This theory is popularized by Frederic Barlett, he proposed that

meaningful learning involves assimilating new information to existing
schemata. According to this theory, mental construction of
meaning is influenced by perception, understanding and memory.
 IV. Semantic Networks

Based on this network model, knowledge is organized according

to it’s meaning.

V. Dual Coding

According to Allan Urho Paivio, who proposed this theory,

representation of specific information accounts for verbal
association and visual imagery.

VI. Magic number 7

George Miller is best known to his magic number (7 plus minus 2)

which focused his attention on to a problem called cognitive
overload. He believed that people can amass a large volume of
information at anytime. He held the idea that 7 plus minus 2 means the
number of elements (letters, objects, words, numbers, or other units) that
the memory can handle.

VII.
Short Term Memory Techniques (Brownell,
2002)

Repetition
Chunking
Identifying logical patterns

VIII. Long Term Memory Techniques (Brownell, 2002)

Association
Categorization
 Mediation
Imagery
Mnemonics

IX. Barriers to effective Memory

 Repression and distortion

 Retroactive inhibition

 Primacy and Recency effects

X. The Seven Sins of Memory (Daniel, 1999)

 Transience
 Absent-mindedness
 Blocking
 Misattribution
 Suggestibility
 Bias
 Persistence

XI. Generative Process

Merlin C. Wittrock was the founder of this theory that hinges on

knowledge about the brain processes and functions. The brain is
responsible for cognitive functions such as comprehension, knowledge
acquisition, attention, motivation, and transfer.

XII. Cognitive Process

Cognitive development popularized by Jean Piaget who is known

for his research on the development of children’s cognition.
Stages of Cognitive Development

 Sensorimotor Stage (from birth to two years)

 Reflex scheme level

 Primary circular level
 Secondary circular level

 Coordination of secondary course round modest circular

level
 Tertiary circular reaction level

 Symbolic representation

Educational Implications: To foster knowledge in this stage, it is

suggested that parents and caretakers allow children to play with
objects or other toys that produce sounds.

 Preoperational stage (two to seven years)

 Preconceptual level

 Intuitive level

Educational Implications: To maximize learning, children may play

by putting on costumes or disguising something and encouraging them
to take on a different character (e.g., paper, play-doh, sand, clay,
water). This activity can help children develop the concept of
conservation.

 Concrete Operational Stage (seven to eleven years)

At this stage, child possesses operative schemes that necessitate

him to think logical terms.

Educational Implications: During this stage, children really enjoy

helping their mother in the kitchen, especially when she cooks
something. Helping mother can be fun especially when such activity
turns into a great learning opportunity.

 Formal Operational Stage ( eleven years and older)

 Composition
 Reversibility
  Associativity
 Identity
 Tautology

 Iteration

Educational Implications: During this stage, students are filled with

opportunities for hypothetical situations. They motivated to work
collaboratively within groups, or they be allowed to work in pairs so that
they develop working on hypothetical topics.

XIII. Behavior Theory

All behaviourists are focused on the analyses of stimuli and

responses. The methodology used in behaviourism is basically scientific
where stimulus variables can be objectively manipulated in response
variables can be reliably measured, many behaviourist conducted
experiments using animal subjects.

XIV. Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt theory was developed by three psychologists: Wolfgang

Kohler, Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka. According to Gestalists,
behaviour cannot be understood in terms of its molecular parts
because the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Gestalt theory generates five laws that govern perception. They as

follows:
 Law of Continuity
 Law of Closure
 Law of Similarity
 Law of Proximity
 Law of Pragnanz

XV. Social Cognitive Theory

 This theory refers to the interface between behavioural behaviour
and cognitive perspectives. Social-cognitive perspective is focused on
both internal and external factors that lead to the idea of reciprocal
determinism-the interaction among person, person’s behaviour, and
the environment.

XVI. Social Constructivism

Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky, stressed the people’s culture has

something to do with their development. For him, cognitive
development is a social process; he maintained the idea that
socio-cultural contexts in which it occurs. Vygotsky viewed, can best
facilitated in the zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to variety
of tasks that are slightly too complex for a child to do alone but can be
accomplished successfully with guidance from an adult or more
experience child (Bee & Boyd 2007).

Components of Constructivism:
 Discovery learning
 Inquiry learning
 Cooperative learning
 Individualized learning
 Learning with technology

XVII. Jerome Bruner’s Theory

Based on the concept of categorization, Bruner believed that as

active learners, student’s continue to structure and restructure their
environment. He further believed that the world they experience is a
product of their mind. He emphasizes discovery learning that is
premised on his belief that the information of coding systems requires
discovery relationships.

Metaphoric assumptions can be helpful in describing learning. To

engage our students in the learning enterprise, we can help them for
better articulate their thoughts and ideas with the aid of metaphors.
Through these theories of learning are offered and these theories differ
for a variety of reasons, but these theories help in order to understand
the nature of learning and how it occurs.