Research Article

Transportation Research Record

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Ó National Academy of Sciences:
Assessment of Concrete Pavement Set Transportation Research Board 2019
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DOI: 10.1177/0361198119849900

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Alireza Joshaghani1 and Dan G. Zollinger1

Abstract
This paper discusses how the set gradient in a jointed concrete slab is related to the cracking performance and its effects on
fatigue crack model calibration. The role of curing quality on-set and how curing quality parameters are related to the set gra-
dient is also discussed. To assess the impacts of curing practices on the set gradient of a newly constructed concrete slab, a
field investigation was undertaken at the Florida Department of Transportation State Materials Office in Gainesville, Florida.
This study investigated early age concrete pavement behavior with respect to the development of the set gradient. In this
research, four test slabs were placed and cured under different conditions to create different states of stress and creep beha-
vior during and after hardening of the concrete. Early age concrete temperature and moisture history are key factors that
affect the slab curling and warping behavior as they pertain to the resulting set gradient. This paper elaborates on the details
of the cracking performance data analysis of test data associated with the development of the set gradient.

It has been well known that appropriate curing is the key PavementME software. The prospect of considering the
to the success of pavement performance, and the curing expected ambient conditions relative to the selection of
practice should be associated with the curing perfor- an application rate for a given compound to facilitate the
mance (1–3). To assess the effect of curing practice on development of a preselected set gradient is discussed.
performance, a study was undertaken to examine the
effect of the method of curing on the set gradient of a
newly constructed concrete slab. A field investigation Significance of the Study
was conducted to collect data on early age concrete pave-
The key aspect of the temperature gradient is its inclu-
ment displacement and behavior using different slab
sion in the AASHTO PavementME software with a
thicknesses and curing practices (4).
default value of –10°F, utilized in its fatigue design com-
Concrete slabs tend to dry from the surface and below
putations for the permanent curl/warp effective tempera-
according to the ambient daily high-low moisture cycle.
ture difference, which is the zero-stress temperature
Thus, moisture gradients are more likely to cause con-
gradient (8). The National Cooperative Highway
crete slabs to bend convexly (5). The stress induced by
Research Program (NCHRP) considers the monthly
the non-uniform temperature and moisture gradients cre-
ambient temperature and cement content to compute the
ate a horizontal failure plane at the surface of the con-
average zero-stress temperature in the concrete cross-
crete pavements, which results in the weakening of the
section (9). The zero-stress temperature gradient is the
concrete surface resistance to horizontal stresses (6). As
result of exposure to specific environmental conditions,
concrete is still in a plastic state before the final set, the
consisting of a range of temperatures and moisture varia-
effective temperature and moisture gradients should be
tions. Shortly after or during placement, the specific
offset by the gradients when concrete hardens (7). It is
environmental conditions prompt a concrete slab into a
anticipated that the capability to pre-select a value for a
built-in set gradient for design purposes is significantly
1
dependent on the capability to control the curing effec- Zachry Department of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M University, College
Station, TX
tiveness as the set gradient appears to have a significant
role in performance calibration. It should be noted that - Corresponding Author:
10°F is the default temperature gradient used in the Address correspondence to Alireza Joshaghani: joshaghani@tamu.edu
2 Transportation Research Record 00(0)
configuration that affects its long-term warping behavior
(9). A concrete slab also experiences volumetric change
owing to being subjected to climatic conditions. Climatic
conditions will promote contraction and expansion of
the concrete during service, causing a combination of
restrained and unrestrained strains and resulting in the
development of tensile stresses within the pavement,
depending on the restraint conditions. Once the stress is
sustained in the structure, the slab concrete tends to exhi-
bit time-dependent deformation, called creep, which ulti-
mately affects the final set condition of the slab. The
zero-stress temperature is the temperature of the concrete
shortly after the final set time, and before this time no
stress develops in the slab if there is a change in tempera-
ture. In this state, the slab is flat and experiences no
stress (10). Then, this temperature set will be considered
as the base concrete temperature throughout the service
life. In other words, temperatures above the zero-stress
temperature cause the expansion, and temperatures
below the zero-stress temperature will cause contraction
in the slab. The zero-stress temperature gradient depends
on the time of placement, curing quality, and the ambi-
ent conditions at the time at which the concrete is placed
(11, 12). The temperature gradient has been called the
‘‘built-in temperature gradient,’’ or the ‘‘zero-stress tem-
perature gradient.’’ As a consequence, it can represent a
composite strain as the warp strain is often expressed as
the temperature strain (9). The built-in temperature gra-
dient is defined as the existing gradient in the slab at the
time the concrete sets when a transition from a plastic
material to a solid substance occurs (13, 14).
Cracking of concrete could occur owing to long-term
critical thermal stresses, which are caused by the differ-
ence between the zero-stress temperature and the mini-
mum concrete temperature during its service life (15).
The cracking process starts at the top surface of slabs
owing to related problems in the material, traffic and
environmental loads. This is because with a positive
built-in temperature gradient, slabs that have close-to-
zero temperature gradients tend to curl upward resulting
in critical stresses at the top surface of the slabs (11). Ali
and Urgessa reported that the prediction of zero-stress
temperatures can quantify the extent of built-in curl
developed in concrete pavements (15). In addition, Hu
et al. found the positive gradient changed to a negative
gradient gradually, and the gradient of zero-stress tem-
perature tends to decrease (16). It was in the setting pro-
cess, which is the most critical moment for concrete and
the point at which it is able to bear loads (17).
Consistent with curling, a concrete slab deforms into
a concave configuration if the pavement is subjected to a
resultant negative composite gradient of temperature
and moisture effects through the thickness (18). If the
net negative temperature and the values of the moisture
gradient are high enough, the interfacial tensile strength
may cause the slab edge or corner area to separate from
the underlying base. To account for the effect of climatic
factors including curing on the concrete final setting, it
was important to consider the induced strain composed
of thermal, shrinkage, and creep effects. Comparing the
actual readings against the theoretical displacement, or
strains, yielded a straightforward method to assess the
zero-stress temperature gradient. It was also useful to
model the slab curling and warping behavior to assess
the set gradient in the slab relative to interfacial
separation.
Objectives
This paper discusses how the set gradient in a concrete
slab is related to the cracking performance and its
accounting in fatigue crack model calibration . In this
study, test slabs were placed and cured under different
conditions to assess the influence of curing conditions on
the development of set gradients in a concrete slab. The
variations in ambient weather, the curing compound
type, and application rate induce temperature and moist-
ure gradients inside a slab, which cause concrete slabs to
curl and warp. The role of the curing quality on-set and
how curing quality parameters are related to the set gra-
dient is also discussed. The data reported in this paper
indicate that development of the set gradient occurs over
a period of time that extends well beyond the time of ini-
tial concrete hardening.
Field Testing and Data Collection Program
Below is a discussion of the field instrumentation used
and collection of the associated data.
Investigation Approach
A portion of the shrinkage on the first cycle of drying is
irrecoverable and indirectly related to the set gradient
and the zero-stress temperature gradient that occur in a
concrete slab. The amount of drying shrinkage, the rate
of application of the curing compound, as well as differ-
ences in the measured strain, are correlated to the set
gradient. A field investigation was conducted at the
Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) state
materials office (SMO) to examine the behavior of early
age concrete pavement properties with variable thick-
nesses and curing practices (4). There were four slabs in
the February placement, which were 12 3 15 ft (3.6 3
4.5 m) three of them were 10’’ thick (250 mm) and one
was 7’’ (175 mm) thick, placed on an asphalt base layer,
as shown in Figure 1. In the October placement, similar
slabs were placed at different times and curing
Joshaghani and Zollinger 3

RH = the relative humidity of ambient conditions, %;

Figure 1. Test slabs locations.
conditions. The temperature gradient target in the
October placement was –10°F for slab 2, which is the
assumed temperature gradient used in the PavementME
software. The set variables for slab 2 were the curing
compound type, the application rate and time of place-
ment. Therefore, by considering the expected ambient
conditions, the application rate for the given curing com-
pound was characterized to facilitate analysis to predict
the set gradient based on the previous field and labora-
tory program data collections. The American Concrete
Institute (ACI) 308 nomograph was used to characterize
the effect of weather with respect to the potential eva-
poration (PE) (19). This index takes into account the
ambient temperature, relative humidity, concrete tem-
perature, and wind velocity. The PE is represented by
the following equation:
 
2:5 RH 2:5
PE = (70  3T 3 ð1 + 0:4 3 WV Þ 3 0:000001
100
ð1Þ
in which:
PE = potential of evaporation rate, lb/ft2/h;
T = the temperature of ambient conditions, °F;
WV = the wind velocity of ambient conditions, mph.
The field investigation consisted of examining how the
application rate, compound type and application times
affect the resulting temperature gradient. The resin-based
and wax-based compounds were used at two application
rates at different placement times to assess the curing
method in the February placement. However, all slabs
were cured with a wax-based compound in the October
placement. The curing compound was uniformly applied
to a given surface area consistent with the rate of applica-
tion in practice. A summary of the application rates and
curing compounds used is presented in Table 1. The slabs
were placed on a layer of asphalt concrete with a 1/2-in.
(12.5 mm) nominal maximum size aggregate. This base
type was considered to be a structural course. According
to the specifications, the base course was placed if the air
temperature was above 30°F (–1°C). The slab concrete
was formed with wooden forms braced with 2 3 4 stakes
every 4 ft. (1.2 m) along the form boards for support.
Data Acquisitions and Sensors
The test slabs were instrumented to facilitate analysis and
understanding of the set gradient behavior of a concrete
slab under different curing conditions. To ensure the
acquisition of a complete database associated with the set
gradient related strain fields and temperature gradient
conditions, many sensors were placed in and around the
test slabs. The main types of sensors were strain gauges
for the transversal and longitudinal strains in the surface
layer, and thermocouples for the temperature inside the
pavement. Two bars were attached to the vibrating wire
(VW) strain gauge to ensure that the sensor was properly
anchored in the concrete. Figure 2 shows the schematic
drawing of these sensors on slabs.
Moisture and Temperature Gradient
The gradients were derived from strain and linear vari-
able differential transformer (LVDT) displacement

Table 1. Summary of Used Application Rates and Curing Compounds

Slab Thickness Curing compound Application Rate in ft2/gal (m2/L) Placement

February 2017 1 7 Non-pigmented type II 250 (6.13) 10:00

resin-based (hydrocarbon)
2 10 Wax-based 250 (6.13) 14:00
3 10 Wax-based 180 (4.42) 17:00
4 10 None None 10:00
October 2017 1 7 Wax-based 180 (4.42) 10:45
2 10 Wax-based 180 (4.42) 14:30
3 10 Wax-based 250 (6.13) 17:35
4 Transportation Research Record 00(0)

Figure 2. Schematic drawing showing the location of the gauges. (LVDT = linear variable differential transformer.)

Figure 3. New approach for measuring the curing effectiveness from the surface.

measurements. Dry bulb and dew point temperature
measurements were obtained and used to track the cur-
ing process and the formation of gradients in the slabs
(20). It is also noted that the relative humidity (RH) data
was calculated from the dry bulb (T) and dew point
(Tdp) temperature data (both in °C):
   
17:502Tdp 17:502T
RH = exp  ð2Þ
240:97 + Tdp 240:97 + T
A Petra 2200 unit was installed to measure the tem-
perature and moisture data in the concrete. This unit
recorded the dew point and dry bulb temperatures based
on chilled-mirror technology at 1-min intervals. Soon
after placement of the concrete, the measurements were
initiated. Two brass sampling chambers were placed in
the concrete slab and configured to provide temperature
data at specific depths (1/4’’ and 3 1/4’’). The first sam-
pling chamber was configured to measure the dew point
temperature immediately below the membrane formed
by the curing compound. This measurement represents
the vapor pressure at the surface of the concrete
immediately below the curing medium. The other sensor
was placed deeper in the pavement section to represent
the moisture gradient forming with depth, this reading is
closer to a fully sealed condition, as shown in Figure 3.
Assessment of the effectiveness of a compound involves
a comparison between the sealed conditions and the con-
ditions under the curing medium.
The equivalent linear temperature and moisture dif-
ference coefficients represent the differences in the tem-
perature and moisture conditions between the top and
bottom of the slab (21). The parameters are determined
based on regression analysis of the temperature and
moisture profiles. This method is a similar approach to
that suggested by Mohamed and Hansen for determining
the linear temperature and humidity differences through
the slab based on the actual differences (22). The follow-
ing equations were used to estimate the thermal strains
at the slab surface as functions of the measured tempera-
ture distributions through the slab thickness:
eTempGrad = ac DTeq ð3Þ
Joshaghani and Zollinger
in which
eTempGrad = thermal strain owing to a temperature
gradient through the slab thickness;
ac = coefficient of thermal expansion of the concrete;
DTeq = equivalent linear temperature difference.
The same procedure is followed to calculate the equiv-
alent linear moisture gradient:
" fresh concrete data from static strain and temperature
# 
RH 3
eMoistGrad =  e‘ D 1  ð4Þ
100
eq
in which
eMoistGrad = moisture strain owing to a moisture gra-
dient through the slab thickness;
eN = ultimate shrinkage strain;
" #
RH 3
D 1 = equivalent linear humidity
100
eq
difference coefficient: ð5Þ
The combined net of the thermal strain eTemp Grad and
the moisture strain eMoistGrad would be the equivalent
strain eeffective at the slab surface which is calculated with
regards to the equivalent linear temperature difference,
the equivalent linear humidity coefficient, the coefficient
of thermal expansion, and the ultimate shrinkage strain
(23).
eeffective = eTempGrad + eMoistGrad ð6Þ
eset = eeffective  emeasured ð7Þ
in which eset is the difference between the theoretical and
measured strains, as previously noted.
rset Calculation
The non-recoverable shrinkage strain is a function of the
amount of evaporation that occurs at the surface of a
portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement, which is
largely responsible for driving the development of a
moisture profile through the slab with higher levels of
moisture at the bottom of the slab. This profile leads to
a negative warping of the slab, potentially separating it
from the subbase layer along the slab edges and corners.
The amount of permanent strain also depends on the
type of curing as well as the PCC mix design (7, 24, 25).
As part of the drying shrinkage in PCC is irrecoverable,
the remaining reversible part varies with the daily tem-
perature and relative humidity cycles (9).
PCC paving is also often subjected to positive tem-
perature differences owing to solar radiation and the
hydration heat. PCC slabs are probably flat when they
begin to stiffen but depending on the surrounding condi-
tions, a substantial amount of positive temperature
5
gradient may be present as the hardening process begins.
The calculated strain data was referenced to the tempera-
ture and moisture conditions that were present at the
time of the set of the concrete. The time of set does not
determine the set strain but can provide an indication of
when irrecoverable shrinkage strains begin to develop at
a given point below the surface of the slab. Early age
sensors in concrete were also considered in the determi-
nation of the built-in gradients in the PCC slabs.
Whenever the temperature gradient in the slabs falls
below the zero-stress gradient (after creep has been
accounted for) the slabs will deform accordingly. The
condition will occur repeatedly for several days after pla-
cement of the slab. Creep in tension, a time-dependent
deformation of concrete that is most prevalent at early
concrete ages, grows with curling and warping behavior
and tends to reduce the level of tensile related restraint
stresses. Creep strains primarily in the vicinity of the top
surface appear to give the most prominent shift in the
built-in gradient over time (23). Specifically, creep
reduces the tensile stress owing to the viscous movement
within the hydrated cement paste and is related to the
moisture loss and the shrinkage development. The slab
attempts to curl upward causing tensile stress at the top
of the slab, which can lead to top-down cracking in
jointed plain concrete pavements (JPCPs). Therefore, an
effective negative temperature gradient is permanently
‘‘built’’ into the slabs, with regards to the stress ratio r.
The stress associated with eset is reported with respect
to a ratio r between the flexural stress owing to the load
and flexural strength of concrete, defined as:
s
rset = ð8Þ
MOR
in which s is the equivalent stress level derived from the
set strain determination and modulus of rupture (MOR)
of the concrete. Based on the evolution of compressive
strength, the MOR was modeled using the ACI
Committee 209 equations, which is similar to the form of
the equation describing the evolution of compressive
strength (26).
 t 
f r ðt Þ = 3 fr28 ð9Þ
a+b3t
in which fr ðtÞ = MOR at age t;
fr28 = MOR at age of 28 days;
T = age of concrete in days;
a, b = fitting parameters based on beam strength data
from mixes prepared in the laboratory.
The built-in set gradient determined in this manner
was compared to the built-in set gradient based on the
analysis of cracking performance data over time and the
traffic as discussed later in the paper. The amount of
6 Transportation Research Record 00(0)
Figure 4. Comparison of the range of temperature gradients to the method of cure measured during the first 72 h.
residual or built-in gradient was determined by the dif-
ference between the theoretical (based on the measured
gradient) displacement and the measured displacement
(based on a theoretical gradient). As the magnitude of
permanent curl/warp estimated from the slab measure-
ment diminishes with time, it also reflects the effects of
creep.
Collected Data and Analysis
Temperature and Moisture Gradients
The differences in temperature and moisture through the
slabs that were cast in February (Figure 4) provide an
understanding of the distribution profiles in the test
slabs. It is noted that the slabs with better curing, such as
slab 2 and slab 3, had smaller effective temperature gra-
dients. The theoretical determination of the curling and
warping related strains depends on quantifying the mag-
nitude of the moisture and temperature gradients. The
purpose of strain computation was to assess the effect of
creep strain over time.
Microscopic Analysis (Thin Section)
One of the direct indicators of the curing effectiveness is
microstructure characterization of concrete using thin
section microscopic analysis. Concrete samples were
removed by core sampling from each slab that was cast
in February after 7 days and were taken to the labora-
tory for microscopic analysis. A thin section, a prepared
20-micron thick sample of concrete epoxied to a glass
slide, allowed examination of the paste microstructure
and porosity which relates to the quality of curing as
shown in Figure 5.
As hydration progresses, two different types of void
systems come to prominence in a typically hardened con-
crete paste: capillary pores (50 nm–10 mm) and bleed
water voids (greater than 100 mm). In this study, inter-
connected capillary pores and bleed channels were
Joshaghani and Zollinger
Figure 5. Fluorescent epoxy impregnated thin sections prepared
from the cored specimens.
analyzed as they were thought to be related to the curing
effectiveness. Superior curing may lead to a lower per-
centage of capillary pores and bleed channels at the sur-
face, for instance, of a concrete pavement. Sample
images were analyzed with a microscopy imaging com-
puter program which gives the quantity and density of
pores and voids found in the image field area. The quan-
titative analysis of the samples consisted of the identifica-
tion and measurement of the area of voids and their
number density in the images (27). The area of the voids
was compared with the total area of the thin section
studied, to obtain the percentage of void space in the
mortar. The sample from slab 4 had many voids owing
to the moisture loss during early aging. However, the use
of curing compounds at increasing application rates (on
slab 2 and 3) formed a barrier on the concrete surface
that apparently led to reduced pore structures and size
distributions at or near the surface of the cured concrete
(as compared to the sample from slab 4).
Thin section images were analyzed with a microscope
imaging program which calculated the quantity and con-
centration of voids based on the measurement of voids
Figure 6. The modified shrinkage strains data from the four slabs.
7
area. In this study, the formation of bleed channels was
related to the curing effectiveness. These channels are
typically irregularly shaped and are created in the paste
by bleed water rising to the slab surface passing by
aggregate particles or along aggregate boundaries. Slabs
1 to 4 had bleed water void contents of 2.23%, 1.98%,
1.52% and 4.35%, respectively. Samples 2 and 3 had a
lower percentage of bleed channels. Using a higher appli-
cation rate for the curing compound (on slabs 2 and 3)
decreased the percentage of bleeding channels. This was
attributed to the discovery that the bleeding process was
enhanced by the accumulation of surface moisture that
led to porous regions close to a cured surface.
Drying Shrinkage and Creep
Volumetric shrinkage of concrete owing to moisture loss
is often the source of internal strain contributing to
warping of a concrete slab. During and after hardening,
concrete is subjected to shrinkage as water is evaporated
and is not consumed by cement hydration. The volu-
metric change caused by the loss of capillary water is
mostly known as drying shrinkage. The amount of
shrinkage of a concrete mixture can be determined by
the use of ASTM C 157 test specimens. These specimens
were prepared from each slab and tested to evaluate the
effects of adding a curing compound on the shrinkage
rate. A VW gauge of EM-5 was used to measure the
modified shrinkage strain procedure for field application
via monitoring of the relative humidity and temperature
directly in the mold. As previously noted, moisture gra-
dients cause permanent shrinkage (on the first drying)
and transitory contraction (at later stages). The reversi-
ble part varies with the daily ambient relative humidity
and causes daily variations in the moisture warping.
However, the irreversible shrinkage causes permanent
moisture warping. As shown in Figure 6, slabs 1 and 4
8 Transportation Research Record 00(0)
Figure 7. Calculated and measured strain change owing to thermal and moisture gradients.
had a higher shrinkage compared to the results found for
slabs 2 and 3. Drying shrinkage and creep strains are
related to the amount of movement and distribution of
moisture in a concrete slab.
Set Strain Determination
The amount of the residual or set gradient permanent
curl/warp actually built into the test slabs is represented
by the difference between the strains induced by the cal-
culated (based on the measured gradient) corner displace-
ment and the measured corner displacement 1 in. below
the surface. The calculated strains are shown in Figure 7,
which again triggers a curling and warping behavior.
These calculated strains were also verified using the strain
readings from the VW gauges. The total strain in slab 3
was the lowest in comparison to other slabs. Slabs 1 and
4 had higher strains in accordance with the magnitude of
the measured moisture and temperature gradients. As
previously noted, data trends tend to suggest that smaller
temperature and moisture gradients occur in well cured
concrete (slabs 2 and 3).
The difference between the theoretical and measured
strain measurements in slab 3 was lower than in the
other slabs. This indicated that there was less irreversible
strain in this slab. However, the large difference between
the measured and theoretical strains indicates that the
residual strains on slabs 1 and 4 were considerable. This
is attributed to the high temperature and moisture gradi-
ents that were allowed to develop in these slabs. As the
magnitude of permanent curl/warp estimated from the
slab measurement diminishes with time, it also reflects
the effects of creep. Table 2 shows a summary of the four
slabs in Phase I. Slabs were placed at different thick-
nesses, curing compound application rates and times.
Ambient conditions can affect the temperature and
moisture distribution inside a concrete pavement. To
simplify the weather record, PE can be used. Owing to
ambient weather and the time of the placement, each
slab has a particular PE, which is pertinent to the set gra-
dient. The total equivalent temperatures (from the bot-
tom to the top of the slab) are listed in the last column
of Table 2 72 h after the placement. The purpose of
Phase II (October) was to achieve a targeted value of
Joshaghani and Zollinger 9

Table 2. Comparison between Curing Practices for Different Times of Placement

Equivalent Total equivalent

Slab/ Temperature Relative Wind PE set gradient temperature
thickness (°F) humidity (%) speed (mph) (lb/ft2/h) rset temperature (°F/in.) difference at set (°F)

February 1/7 84.6 35.7 2.2 0.081 –0.190 –2.44 –16.8

2017 2/10 78.4 69.2 9.1 0.093 –0.113 –1.10 –10.8
3/10 74.4 64.4 6.2 0.076 –0.075 –0.67 –6.4
4/10 90.8 31.5 1.1 0.075 –0.162 –1.87 –18.2
October 1/7 77.9 50.3 2.3 0.058 –0.158 –1.71 –12.1
2017 2/10 76.6 77.5 8.9 0.071 –0.121 –1.13 –10.1
3/10 72.9 88.9 8.3 0.044 –0.096 –0.82 –8.0

Note: PE = potential evaporation.

Figure 8. Rosette strain gauge instrumentation for the cored strain.

–10°F as the effective temperature difference in slab 2
(2 PM placement). In Phase II, the obtained equivalent
temperature gradient for slab 2 (a 10-in. slab) was
–10.1°F almost matching the target of –10°F/in. The
equivalent set gradient with regards to the temperature
(°F) was calculated based on the following equation:
2 3 rset ð1  nÞ 3 MoR
Equivalent DT =
C:E:a
in which MOR is the modulus of rupture of the concrete,
rset is the stress ratio, C is the Bradbury coefficient at the
slab corner, E is the elastic modulus of concrete, a is the
thermal coefficient of expansion, and n is the Poisson’s
ratio.
Cored Strain Data
Pre-instrumented sections of the test slabs consisting of
four gauges, which were isolated from the slab concrete
via coring and placed in the slab were conducted the day
after placement of the concrete. These strain gauges were
oriented with the longitudinal axis of the slab. The lead
wire for each gauge was routed underneath the slab to
protect it during coring of the strain gauge. Furthermore,
the gauges were placed transversely in the mid-slab
region to facilitate measurement of the longitudinal
strain of the slab. The instrument installations are shown
in Figure 8; the coring was undertaken at the locations
indicated in this figure.
ð10Þ
Gauges were installed in the top (1 in. from the sur-
face, 6 in. from the base) and were embedded in the bot-
tom (5 in. from the surface, 2 in. from the base) in slab 1.
Strain occurred within the cored area shown in Figure 9
with a black line. Figure 9 shows that the creep process
is taking place, although the initial strains were not cap-
tured. The amount of the residual or set gradient perma-
nent curl/warp from Figure 7 actually built into the
concrete is represented by the amount of creep strain.
This creep includes the irrecoverable strain that is shown
in Figure 9 and reflects the curing quality.
The relaxation occurred following coring of the con-
crete around the strain gauges. The creep strain in the
test slabs, which was a time-dependent deformation,
10
Figure 9. Creep strains in the cored sample (slab 1) and slabs.
Figure 10. Permanent built-in curling and warping during
construction (the zero-stress gradient).
primarily occurred once the slabs were capable of sus-
taining tensile and compressive stress, such as when slab
lift-off occurred. Strain computations were undertaken
to assess the possible onset of creep strain over time. As
explained previously, the differences between the mea-
sured and calculated strains in each test slab were the
basis for the set strain determinations as affected by the
curing conditions. Slabs 1 and 4, which experienced
greater built-in gradients, also experienced a greater
amount of early age creep. The amount of creep strain in
slabs 2 and 3 was much less than that found in slabs 1
and 4 at older ages, as shown in Figure 9. The measured
creep strain of the cored sample was significantly less
compared to the computed slab 1 creep strain. The creep
strain affects the magnitude of rset subsequently
discussed.
Calibration Analysis
Calibration of the performance for design purposes
should inherently address the effect of climate on the
fatigue cracking of concrete slabs. Even though the
Transportation Research Record 00(0)
interaction of the climate with performance is complex,
it is clear that curing effectiveness affects slab support
and ultimately affects the critical slab stresses and crack-
ing. Not only do diurnal moisture and temperature gra-
dients through the slab affect slab cracking, but they also
affect the permanent built-in curling and warping that
occurs during construction.
Summary of Calibration
As discussed earlier, an effective negative temperature
gradient can be permanently set in the slabs, as shown in
Figure 10, with regards to the stress ratio r. The setting
of the concrete was characterized in this manner to facili-
tate the correlation to pavement performance, such as
the equivalent temperature difference. A ‘‘zero-stress’’ or
‘‘built-in’’ permanent gradient depends on the curing
quality, but the upper illustration in Figure 10 pertains
to the assessment of the set gradient from a calibration
analysis of the slab cracking perspective. The magnitude
of the set gradient is estimated from the calibration of
JPCP cracking and is expressed relative to a temperature
gradient of –10°F as this is the default setting in the
PavementME software. As previously noted, the amount
of residual or set permanent curl/warp actually built into
the test slabs is represented by the difference between the
theoretical and measured data. As the magnitude of per-
manent curl/warp estimated from the slab measurement
diminishes with time it also reflects the effects of creep.
The set gradient was extracted from the difference
between the stress ratio related to the theoretical gradient
and the stress ratio related to the measured gradient. The
set gradient was also previously extracted from the anal-
ysis of slab cracking data by examining the
difference (rc&w) between the calibrated stress ratio
 C1
logðNfc Þ 2
(rc = C1 ) as a function of the actual loads to
failure ( Nfc —determined at the 10% slab cracking level
(well accepted as the tolerable amount of slab cracking)
as the terminal cracking value) and a theoretically-based
8  9C1
<log D Ni = 2
PME
stress ratio ( rPME = ) as a function of the
: C1 ;
load count (Ni) and damage (DPME) generated by the
PavementME software associated with bottom-up crack-
ing. This difference is curling and warping related and is
related to rset as:
rset = Dr + r10 8F ð11Þ
with respect to the PavementME software. The parameter
r108 F is the a set gradient which is the default setting in
PavementME and is applied to both the bottom-up and
top-down cracking determinations as was the rPME
Joshaghani and Zollinger
Figure 11. Calculation of C4 and C5 based on load damage in PavementME.
Figure 12. Correlation to C4 and C5 for eight calibration sites.
parameter. The detailed calculation is shown in Figure
11. Therefore, this shows how the loads of failure and the
level of cracking are determined. Although analysis of the
performance data is not shown here as previously noted,
the threshold cracking for the design was set at 10%, and
the comparability can be seen in the field performance as
well.
Parameters C4 and C5 are calibration constants to
adjust the cracking-damage trends to improve the fit with
the field data. Figure 12 summarizes the computation of
the set stress ratio for the calibration slabs correlated to
the calibration coefficients C4 and C5 which consisted of
a mix of bottom-up and top-down cracking sites. As
expected, the choice of the coefficients varies with rset.
The computation for the design conditions using these
correlations for the selection of the coefficients indicates
a greater performance and a reduced design thicknesses
with increasing values of rset. As the set of the slab can be
controlled, there is justification for including the default
PavementME set and calibration C4 and C5 coefficient
values in the correlation (values circled in red).
The blue points were obtained from the field perfor-
mance data, and the points in the red circle show the
PavementME national calibration. In these figures, it is
clear that the PavementME conditions fit in this plot
and serve as validation for the approach. It is well
accepted that the set gradient will vary with climatic and
11
material factors that affect how the concrete sets during
the hardening process. Analysis of the amount of heat
and moisture transport that occurs during the setting of
the concrete is a basis from which the development of
the set can be anticipated as it occurs throughout a pav-
ing operation.
Conclusion
A protocol for evaluating the role of the curing effective-
ness on performance has been presented based on the
data collected from the two tests at the FDOT SMO
location and the performance of selected sites in Florida.
The evaluation principally consisted of the resulting set
gradients. These parameters also facilitate the determina-
tion of the rate of application for a given curing com-
pound with a given ambient environment condition to
achieve a specific curing quality. It appears to be a viable
method for monitoring the curing quality performance
under different conditions. As a potential outcome/field
application for this research, this study can be used to
examine the balance between these factors as to how a
specification and a quality control (QC) protocol for
construction could be configured. The calculated rset, as
it pertains to the built-in curling, is also affected by early
age drying creep. The irreversible shrinkage contributes
to the permanent moisture warping, and the reversible
12
shrinkage causes seasonal variation in moisture warping
owing to daily ambient humidity changes. Based on the
calibration, PavementME national calibration values can
theoretically be included as part of the field data as the
set can be controlled under field conditions.
Author Contributions
The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: study
conception and design: DGZ and AJ; data collection: AJ; anal-
ysis and interpretation of results: DGZ and AJ; draft manu-
script preparation: DGZ and AJ. Both authors reviewed the
results and approved the final version of the manuscript.
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The Standing Committee on Concrete Pavement Construction
and Rehabilitation (AFH50) peer-reviewed this paper
(19-04858).