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Chapter 01
An Overview of Technical Writing
A matter of definition -- workplace and academic
writing have different goals. Academic writing involves
a teacher and a writing assignment. The teacher reads
and evaluates the work.
The substance of technical/business/workplace writing,
also known as professional writing, is different from
academic writing—no longer is there a teacher
who must read the work. It becomes the responsibility
of the writer to entice the reader successfully.
Writing at Work Versus Writing at School: Eight Basic
Differences
1. Writing at work achieves job goals.
2. Writing at work addresses a variety of
readers.
3. Writing at work addresses readers with
different perspectives.
4. Writing at work creates excessive paperwork
and e-mail.
The reader will ask
 What is this?
 Why should I read this?
 How does it affect me?
 What am I going to have to do?
1. Writing at work may be read by readers
unknown to the writer.
2. Writing at work has an indefinite life span.
3. Writing at work creates legal liability for the
writer and the organization.
4. Writing at work likely means using a variety of
written documents.
Communicating at work through writing is made
possible by learning, understanding, and practicing a
method of writing that applies to any
document. Reporting Technical Informationexplains
that method.
The foundations of effective technical writing include
clarity, conciseness, organization, and correctness.
Audience awareness is tremendously important to
successful technical writing.
Use these guideposts: Know your reader.
Know your objective.
Be simple, direct, and concise.
Know the context in which your communication will be
used.
The qualities of good technical writing include:
 Has an effective design
 Can be read selectively
 Presents a rational and readily discernible plan
 Reads coherently
 Answers readers' questions
 Includes any necessary front matter
 Provides essential information without jargon
or padding
 Uses table and graphs, when appropriate, to
clarify
 Has a summary when needed
 Conveys an impression of authority,
thoroughness, soundness, and honest work
 Can stand alone without further explanation
 Makes a positive statement about the writer
and organization
Good technical writing is free from typographical
errors, grammatical slips, and misspelled words
Chapter 02
Composing
Achieving a readable style means using basic
principles of effective style:
 Analyzing Content
 Determining If a Particular Style Will Be
Expected
 Discovering Content
 Arranging Content
 Drafting and Revising
 Revising
 Document Design
 Editing
To write effectively, begin with an analysis of the
situation that requires you to write. As you choose and
arrange your content, you will probably be:
 analyzing the situation that requires a written
response,
 choosing and arranging content,
 drafting and revising, and then
 editing the finished draft.
Analyze your task; discover your purpose.
When choosing and arranging what your reader needs,
be guided by
 why you are writing.
 what your reader needs.
 how your reader perceives the subject.
When arranging content:
 various documents follow different styles.
 follow examples of similar documents.
 purpose often dictates arrangement.
If you have not already developed your own individual
style of drafting and revising, with practice, you will
discover what works best for you.
During your final revision, ask yourself the following
questions:
 Is your writing logical?
 Does it include all necessary information?
 Is the style concise, consistent, and reader-
friendly?
 When necessary, have you used visuals that
support the message?
 Is your document design inviting, easy to read,
and consistent with the purpose?
Final edit:
 Remember that before delivering your
document, you must carefully check for all
errors. Editing requires care, objective reading,
and diligence.
Chapter 03
Writing for Your Readers
You must never forget that your readers cannot read
your mind and know exactly what you are thinking.
Written documents, designed after careful analysis of
the characteristics of those who will read them,
become your way of helping readers understand what
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is in your mind. The following principles will help you
understand the process
 Goals of Communication
 The Planning Process
 Determining Your Readers
 Asking Questions to Analyze Your Reader


Determining Your Purpose
Understanding Your Role as a Writer
 Planning the Content
 Anticipating the Context in Which Your Writing
Will Be Received
Remember that planning is the most important part of
the writing process. Before studying the planning
process, remember that in developing any
communication, you have three main goals that show
the relationship between reader, purpose, and context
 You want your readers to understand your
meaning exactly the way you intend.
 You want your writing to achieve its goal with
the targeted readers.
 You want to keep the goodwill of those with
whom you communicate.
Before studying the planning process, remember that
in developing any communication, you will want to
show the relationship between reader, purpose, and
context. Determine:
 Why you are writing
 What your readers need
 How your readers perceive the subject
To help you determine who your readers are, consider
the following questions:
 Is your writing academic or nonacademic?
 If it is for work, does your writing have diverse
purposes with a single reader or a variety of
readers?
We live in a society of information overload and must
entice the reader to want to read our documents. The
reader will ask questions such as
 What is this document?
 Why should I read it?
 How does it affect me?
 What am I going to have to do?
Ask yourself who will read what you write and who will
act upon what you write
 Does your reader know anything at all about
your topic?
 What is your reader's educational level?
 What is your reader's cultural background?
 Do you have credibility with the reader?
 Do you have a relationship with the reader?
 Why is each person on the distribution list
receiving a copy?
 How much does each person on this list know
about your topic?
Once you have analyzed the reader, think about the
situation that led to the topic. You will then be ready to
determine the purpose
 Why are you writing?
 What do you want to achieve with your
writing?
 What is your role in the organization
As you plan the content, anticipate the context in
which your writing will be received:
 What ideas should be admitted?
 How should ideas be arranged?
 How will your writing be used?
 What tone do you want to convey?
Chapter 04
Achieving a Readable Style
This chapter shows you how to use basic principles of
effective style:
 Determine Your Readers' Knowledge of the
Subject
 Determine If a Particular Style Will Be
Expected
 Anticipate Your Readers' Comprehension Level
in a Given Context
 Know Your Relationship to Your Readers and
How You Want to Sound
 Adjust the Style to the Reader, the Purpose,
and the Context
Effective writers adjust their style to the needs of their
readers. They know
 the readers' knowledge of the subject,
 the readers' expectations about style based on
the specific kind of writing,
 the readers' probable reading levels based on
the context in which the document will be
read, and
 the writer's relationship to the readers, that is,
the professional roles of both the writer and
the readers.
Select your level of language; adjust the density of
information.
When forming paragraphs
 Create a group of sentences that work together
to form one idea.
 Keep them to a moderate length.
 Begin with a topic sentence.
 Follow with supporting sentences, building on
the idea stated in the topic sentence.
 Use, but do not overuse, highlighting
techniques such as lists.
When forming sentences:
 Watch sentence length.
 Keep subjects and verbs close together.
 Omit verbiage; use concrete verbs.
 Write clean prose.
 Avoid ponderous language.
 Avoid excessive use of is/are verb forms.
 Use active voice for clarity.
 Define when necessary.
 Avoid impersonal language.
Chapter 05
Writing ethically
Writing ethically is a responsibility of all professionals
and includes considering:
 Ethical Perspectives
 Your Professional Obligations
 Codes of Conduct
 Recognizing Unethical Communication
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 Plagiarism and Theft of Intellectual Property
 Deliberately Imprecise or Ambiguous Language
 Manipulation of Numerical Information
 Use of Misleading Illustrations
 Promotion of Prejudice
 Anticipating Consequences
 Applying Principles
 Managing Unethical Situations
Philosophers of ethics espouse two basic perspectives.
The first focuses on character, encouraging us to
develop virtues such as:
 wisdom
 courage
 prudence
 truthfulness
 generosity
The second perspective focuses on process and
outcomes, asking questions such as
 What will I do?
 What are my obligations?
 What am I permitted?
 What are the consequences of my actions?
Each of your ethical obligations includes several, often
intersecting, and, from time to time, competing
considerations. Consider, for example, your obligations
to:
 yourself
 your profession
 your academic institution
 the public
 your employer
 your colleagues
Your profession has a code of conduct. For example,
the Society for Technical Communication (STC), the
international association for technical writers and
graphic artists, has composed its guidelines as a list of
six principles:
1. Legality
2. Honesty
3. Confidentiality
4. Quality
5. Fairness
6. Professionalism
Know the codes of conduct that motivate and regulate
ethical communication for your company and your
profession: you might have to cite their guidelines to
justify your decisions regarding ethical dilemmas on
the job.
Establish a professional code of conduct for yourself:
 What are your principles?
 What are you willing and unwilling to do?
 What do you expect of yourself?
 Who in your profession do you admire and try
to be like?
Also essential to ethical communication is recognizing
the ways in which individuals on the job might be
unethical in their communications. Chief among the
possibilities are
 Plagiarizing
 Deliberately using imprecise or ambiguous
language
 Using misleading visuals
 Promoting prejudice
In addition to knowing your ethical obligations as a
communicator, it is also important to consider the
consequences of your decisions and actions. At work:
 Ethical dilemmas will not always be clear.
 You may be asked to make ethical decisions on
your own.
 You may have to handle unethical situations.
 Your profession's code of conduct will guide
you.
Chapter 06
Writing for International Readers
Designing effective written business communications
for readers in other countries requires an approach of
the development of international communication
documents from eight perspectives:
1. Understanding Readers from Various Cultures--
Individualism versus Collectivism: Valuing
Either Individuals or Groups
2. Separation of Business and Private
Relationships
3. Power Distance between Social Ranks
4. Universal or Relative View of Truth
5. Whether the Entire Message Is Contained in
the Text
6. Whether Uncertainty Is to Be Avoided or
Accepted
7. The Power and Value of Time
8. Masculine versus Feminine
Designing effective written business communications
for readers in other countries requires that you
approach the development of international
communication documents from various perspectives.
Effective international writers
 Do not assume that the United States in the
greatest country in the world.
 Know that cultures vary but no one culture is
inherently superior to any other.
 Know that not all cultures value individualism
like the United States.
 Understand that in group-valuing (collectivist)
cultures, individuals live within tight social
networks in which members identify closely
with their families and business organizations.
 Know that cultures differ in a number of ways,
so readers have differing expectations.
 Know that written communications are valued
in the United States because they often
document individual actions.
 Understand that, in contrast, group-valuing
organizations tend to prize oral communication
over written communication. Documents
prepared in collectivist cultures may not be as
explicit or as detailed as they are in
individualist cultures, like the United States
The fatal communication error: thinking the United
States is the best.
 Communicating successfully with people from
other cultures requires that you play by their
ground rules.
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 The U.S. culture differs dramatically from most
cultures in the world.
 Everyone thinks his or her culture is "the best."
 You may not like many of the characteristics of
the cultures of people with whom you need to
communicate, but you must respect the
differences between cultures and the
perspectives of readers from outside your own
tradition.
Individualism drives all other U.S. cultural
characteristics.
 We value our individualism over the rules and
priorities of the group.
 Individual achievements receive more
accolades than team achievements.
 U.S. businesspeople tend to separate their
business lives from their personal lives.
 Americans tend to be direct and to the point; a
strong work ethic is valued.
 Written communications are valued in the
United States because they often document
individual actions.
In group-valuing (collectivist) cultures, individuals live
within tight social networks and are motivated by the
group's needs and achievements.
 In group-valuing (collectivist) cultures,
individuals live within tight social networks in
which members identify closely with their
families and business organizations.
 They are motivated by the group's needs,
which may not always mesh with the
individual's desires.
 Self-effacement along with deference to the
interest of the group is the standard. Concerns
about the welfare of the group overshadow the
success and needs of any one person.
 Employees in collectivist societies act according
to the interest of the group.
 Promotions are based on seniority within the
group.
 People's business and personal lives merge.
 Extensive time is spent building business
relationships.
 Extended family needs often determine
business decisions.
Group-valuing organizations tend to prize oral
communication over written communication. When you
are writing to individuals within a group-valuing
culture, you will want to:
 focus on how the issues you are discussing
reflect on the organization and the actions of
the group.
 de-emphasize yourself: avoid excessive use of
"I" and focus on establishing
rapport with the organization, not specific
individuals.
 focus on emphasizing the relationship between
you and your business and your reader.
 emphasize your relationship with the group
before launching into discussion of the
business you wish to transact.
 focus on being formal, reserved but positive,
and indirect.
In high-power distance cultures, employees manage
their work according to their superior's specifications,
and authoritarian attitudes prevail
 Hierarchies in organizations are pronounced;
the powerful have privileges that the less
powerful do not have, and subordinates expect
to take orders.
 Employees expect their supervisors to make
unilateral decisions, and they do what they are
told without asking questions.
 Superiors are authoritarian figures, and
disagreeing with "the boss" is unacceptable.
 Age is a positive factor and a major
qualification for leadership roles.
 Formality and politeness in communications
are considered extremely important.
 One is never openly aggressive.
In low-power distance cultures, the individual may
freely follow his or her own preferences and criticize
management
 Inequalities among people are minimized.
 Formality and politeness in communications
are considered extremely important.
 Subordinates are consulted.
 Decentralization in responsibility is popular.
 Employees have upward mobility.
 Teamwork is valued because interdependence
exists between the less and the more powerful.
The United States, however, is generally a mid-level-
power distance country. Because of the emphasis on
the responsibility of the individual and the individual's
responsibility for his or her destiny, Americans like to
be involved in decision making.
 Central decision making is accepted, but those
in the organization below the leaders expect to
be heard.
 Great differences in rank are expected, but
those who have rank ideally have earned it
through extreme individual effort, success in
achieving business goals, and hard work.
 U.S. organizations are moving toward "flatter"
organizations and participatory management
The writer's understanding of the
extent of teamwork in a particular U.S.
company, as well as an international
company, can be critical to success in
dealing and working with that
company
In a universalism culture, writers are advised to be as
specific and concrete as possible. Clarity and precision
in format, language, and meaning are valuable.
In a particularist culture, in which truth is relative,
comments may be less direct and more dependent on
the situation.
 Central decision making is accepted.
 The message may appear vague.
 Oral communication may be more significant
than written communication.
 Rules that apply in one business situation may
cease to apply when a different situation
arises.
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 The writer should discuss the impact of the
situation on the group.
The text of U.S. documents is expected to contain all
facts necessary to arrive at a solid business decision.
Contracts are considered binding.
In nontextual cultures, the language is suggestive,
oblique, and theoretical; documents themselves are
often wordy, tending to focus on organizational
situations rather than pristine factual details.
 What a document ultimately "means" may be a
function of the circumstances under which it
was prepared.
 Business obligations may not be clearly or
completely stated.
In cultures that accept uncertainty, written documents
may be less problematic than they are in cultures that
seek to avoid uncertainty, where documents are
valued for documentation and governance purposes.
 In companies that dislike uncertainty, precisely
written documents, forms, tables, graphs,
procedures, policies, and style sheets are
valued because they create uniformity.
 Although tolerance for uncertainty varies in the
United States, fear of litigation is driving more
companies toward insistence on precision in
documents.
When you address members of cultures that value
relationships over productivity, emphasize
relationships with the persons with whom you are
doing business. Central decision making is accepted
 Oral communication may be more significant
 Make business secondary to the relationship.
 In contrast, in preparing documents for U.S.
readers, emphasize the business goal: be
precise, direct, and complete. Make goals,
expectations, and commitments known.
American women need to avoid assuming a
domineering stance when working with men from
cultures outside of the United States where males
assume positions of authority
 Make business secondary to the relationship.
 Women need to write to men in these
masculine cultures using a formal and polite
tone.
 Avoiding immediate, direct discussion of
business issues is imperative.
 Establishing rapport with the individual within
the organization is critical.
Because many of these questions pertain to U.S.
documents, you can see how effective use of
international communications requires that you
broaden your perspective as you plan a document
 To whom is this message directed?
 What do you know about the reader(s)? Age?
Interests? Education? Job responsibilities?
Title?
 Have you met your reader in person?
 What is their attitude toward you, and how do
they perceive the topic?
 What are their particular characteristics, as
gleaned from messages they have written or
encounters you have had with them?
 If the document is being directed to a reader in
a non-U.S. culture, what are its
characteristics?
o Is it oriented toward the individual or
toward the group?
o Do people separate their business and
private relationships?
o Does this culture value success of
individuals or success of groups?
o Do people see truth as universal or as
relative to particular circumstances?
o Is the entire message--and what it
means--usually contained in the text?
Do the people value time and efficiency?
 How well are the members of your target
audience able to read English?
 What is the situation that has led to your need
to write this document?
 What purpose do you hope to achieve? What
do you want to happen as a result of this
document?
 Based on the broad value characteristics of the
culture, what choices do you need to make a
o Structure (deductive or inductive)
o Organization of idea
o Degree of specificity about business
purpose
o Type of information disclosed about
you and your organization
o Quantity of detail presented about you
and your organization
o Style
o Sentence length
o Word choice
o Address protocols
o Tone
o Formatting techniques
o Graphics
If you find that you will be communicating with people
from other cultures, particularly in a business context,
be sure that you research the business etiquette for
each country. These procedures include
 understanding the use of business cards,
 dressing appropriately,
 making proper introductions and greetings,
 knowing how business decisions are made, and
 knowing what topics to discuss and to avoid in
all conversations, business or social.
In short, considering culture is simply another
dimension of considering your audience and the
context in which your message will be read.
Chapter 07
Gathering, Evaluating, and
Documenting Information
On the job you will often find yourself in situations
requiring good research skills. You will need to know
what questions to ask, where to look for answers, and
how to evaluate the responses you receive from
various sources.
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Goals of Communication:
 Asking Productive Questions
 Looking for Answers
 Evaluating Answers
 Citing Sources
Asking Productive Questions
Efficient research starts with systematic questioning.
You have to determine as specifically as possible what
you already know and what you do not yet know about
your subject. Consider these six questions:
 What personal experience do I have regarding
this subject?
 What have I read about this subject?
 What have I heard from friends or colleagues
about this subject?
 What specific questions would I ask a specialist
about this subject?
 Why is this subject important to me, my
business, or my client?
 What keywords would I use to investigate this
subject in a library's catalog/database or on
the Web?
Looking for Answers
A wide variety of informational sources are typically
available to you
 Interviews: Find out as much as possible
about your subject specialists
o What qualifies them to advise you in
this area—their education, their job
experience, both?
o What have they said or written about
this subject
o What is their particular approach to the
subject?
o What is their potential bias?
o What is their reputation within the
profession
 Newsgroups:
o Upon joining a newsgroup, observe the
discussion before you start to ask
questions.
o If the newsgroup offers archives of
previous messages or FAQs, review
this material.
o Compose a clear and specific subject
line to your message.
o Keep your message to the point.
o Don't engage in "flaming" within the
newsgroup.
 World Wide Web:
o Choose your search engines carefully.
o Choose useful keywords to search.
o Choose credible sites
 Library: The electronic library catalog uses
indexes with resources such as
o Applied Science and Technology
Abstracts
o Business Dateline
o New York Times
o Newspaper Abstracts
o Index to Legal Periodicals & Books
o GPO Monthly Catalog
o Periodical Abstracts
o Social Science Abstract
o Wilson Business Abstracts
Evaluating Answer
 Ask questions to substantiate credibilty.
 Assume reponsiblity for accuracy.
 Verify all information
Use correct and accepted style to document sources.
The intentional or unintentional borrowing of words,
images, or ideas without attribution is plagiarism.
Citing Sources
A formal system of citation is particularly important if
your document or presentation might be used by
others to conduct subsequent research. The consistent
formatting of citations will assist researchers in
locating the sources you used. This is taken directly
from the text under the heading "Citing Sources."
Chapter 08
Designing and Formatting Documents
 Understanding the Basics of Document Design
 Designing Effective Pages and Screens
 Choosing Readable Type
 Helping Readers Locate Information
 Testing Your Design
Know what decisions are yours to make and then:
 Choose a design that fits your situation.
 Plan your design from the beginning.
 Reveal your design to your readers.
Before you start writing, carefully consider how you
will organize and display your information. Ask
questions such as the following:
 How will people use the document?
 Will most people read it from beginning to
end?
 Will they want to skim it and grab the main
points without reading more? Will they want to
jump to a specific topic?
 Even if they read the document through once,
will they want to come back later and find a
specific point quickly?
 How familiar are your readers with the subject
of the document?
 How much support will they need in
understanding and navigating the information?
 How familiar are your readers with this kind of
document? Do they come to the document with
certain expectations about how the information
will be organized and exhibited?
 Will most people see this document on paper
or on a computer screen?
To help you design effective pages and screens,
choose a design that fits your situation
 Plan your design from the beginning.
 Use blank space to frame and group
information.
 Space the lines of text for easy reading
 Set the line length for easy reading.
 Use a ragged right margin
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Plan a design that always shows the same type of
information in the same way throughout your
document. The design could include:
 the type size,
 the typeface (or font),
 placement of an element on the page,
 whether the text has a border (also called a
line or rule) over or under it,
 whether the text or headings are bold or italic,
 the amount of space that comes before and
after a heading, and
 the style of the text following each kind of
heading, and so forth.
To choose a readable type:
 Choose a legible type size.
 Choose a font that suits your document.
 Use special typefaces sparingly.
 Use highlighting effectively.
 Use a mixture of cases, not all capitals.
 Use color cautiously and consistently
To help readers locate information
 Write descriptive headings.
 Design distinctive headings.
 Use page numbers and headers or footers.
Headings are the map to your document, identifying
the key topics and revealing the direction of thought
 Use concrete language.
 Use questions, verb phrases, and sentences
instead of nouns alone.
 Use standard keywords if readers expect them.
 Make the headings at a given level parallel.
 Make sure the headings match the table of
contents.
 Limit the number of heading levels.
 Create a pattern for the headings and stick to
it.
 Match size to importance
 Put more space before a heading than after it.
 Keep each heading with the section it covers.
 Use headings frequently.
 Consider using numbers with your headings.
A reminder about e-mails: On the job, you will
probably write and receive more e-mail messages than
any other kind of document. Here are five simple
guidelines to follow
1. Keep messages brief.
2. Use the message line to specify the purpose of
the message.
3. Keep paragraphs short.
4. Use headings when needed to specify sections
of the message.
5. Avoid decorative headings and backgrounds.
When designing Web sites:
 Create the site
 Design the pages of the site.
 Maintain the site.
In creating your site, consider the following guidelines:
 Explore and experiment.
 Strive for a consistent design for all the pages
at your site.
 Make your site inviting but simple.
 Focus your efforts on the home page.
 Give your visitors opportunities to interact with
your pages.
 Be sensitive to the cultural differences of your
international audience.
 Make your site accessible to visitors with
disabilities
In designing your pages, keep in mind the following
common practices:
 Include a complete menu of links at the top
and bottom of each page.
 Avoid excessive links in the running text.
 Include identifying information on each page.
 Choose a light, solid color for the background
of your pages, such as a light gray, green, or
blue.
 Adjust the length of your pages to your
information.
 Keep illustrations small.
 Restrict animation to video or audio/video clips
that the visitor specifically clicks on to view.
 Use only two levels of headings.
 Minimize your use of italics.
 Use bold type selectively and consistently.
 Edit and proofread carefully.
 Check the design of your site using a variety of
computers and monitors.
Once you have designed your site, you still have to
maintain it. Remember the following guidelines
 Register your site with a variety of search
engines.
 Keep updating your pages.
 Periodically check all of your internal and
external links to see that each is still active.
 If possible, avoid changing the address of your
site.
Testing Your Design:
 Planning the test
 Conducting the test
 Interpreting and revising
But usability testing is especially important if
 it is on a topic of great importance,
 the document is a kind you've never written
before,
 it will be used by a large number of readers, or
 it might be used in ways that could differ
widely or lead to serious mistakes.
Chapter 09
Creating and Managing Text
Considering ways to create and manage text is an
important skill you will need when you begin planning
and writing reports. Important elements include
 Collecting and Grouping Information
 Planning Content Development
 Reports with Standard Arrangement Patterns
 Topical Arrangement
 Specific Reader Needs
o Chronological Arrangement
o Persuasive Arrangement and
Development
 Strategies for Developing Content
8

 Organization and Content Development  Plan your report around the questions.
 Other Types of Development  Draft an introduction.
In developing a report, first know the topic. Then think  Develop the body of the report to answer the
about how to organize the information: questions.
 How you will arrange the ideas.
 Where you will place material within specific
Chapter 10
sections. Developing the Main Elements of
 How you will decide "what goes where." Reports
Then, you will need to focus on developing the content Business and technical reports contain a number of
within each section: standard elements with various purposes designed to
 Collect and group information. help readers access the report.
 Gather your research. Following accepted guidelines will help you develop the
 Group your material and notes into specific main elements such as:
categories.  Prefatory Elements, including Letter of
 Label these categories. Transmittal, Title Page, Submission Page,
 Develop your report around main sections: Table of Contents, List of Illustrations, and a
 introduction Glossary and List of Symbols
 informational categories ordered in terms of  Abstracts and Summaries
report purpose  Discussion, or Body, of the Report
How you design your report will depend on  Online Reports
 The kind of report you write. Effective report design reflects:
 Your readers' information needs. 1. the reality of more than one reader, and
 The purpose of the report. 2. the needs of busy readers who need to access
In many situations, the plan of the document you will information quickly.
write is predetermined by:  Letter of Transmittal:
 The kind of report you write. o Statement of transmittal
 Many government funding agencies require o Reason for the report
that all reports submitted follow a specific plan. o Statement of subject
 Many organizations also have a standard plan o Purpose of the report.
for their policies--what sections must be o May include more details of report:
included and the order in which they appear.  Background material
Sometimes you the writer must decide how to present  Mention of earlier reports.
your research or the information you need to convey.  Additional reports that may be
Two basic formats are: needed.
 topical arrangement--logical and inclusive  Information that may be of
special interest or significance
 chronological arrangement--presents Specific
information sequentially conclusions/recommendations
Persuasive Arrangement and Development  Financial implication
 Know your readers' objections.  Acknowledgments - those who
 Anticipate the perspective of readers. provided help in the project
Strategies for Developing Content  Title Page:
Technical writing explains, describes, defines by using o Name of the company or individual(s)
several different methods: preparing the report.
 definition of terms o Name of the company or course for
 description
which the report was prepared.
 background (history) of the concept
o Specific title and subtitle of the report.
 visual and verbal illustrations
o Type of report: assessment, proposal,
 analogies
etc.
 examples
o Date of submission.
 cause/effect analyses
 comparison and contrast o Code number of the report.
Make Use of Organization to Reveal Content o Contract numbers under which the
Present logical, carefully organized, visually accessible work was performed.
chunks of information o Company or agency logo.
Allow readers to enter/exit the document easily, o Proprietary and security notices.
depending on their information needs o Names of contact/responsible
Use various approaches to develop reports. For individuals.
example  Submission Page:
 Determine your purpose. o List of contributors
 Develop a list of questions that your readers o Signatures - reports require
will want answered. accountability. Signatures on a
9

submission page indicate that the o Analyses of results.

authors stand behind the content. o Conclusions emerging from results.
 Table of Contents: o Recommendations dealing with the
o Reflects rhetorical purpose of report. results.
o Indicates the page on which each  Important to remember about the discussion:
major topic begins. o It can stand alone.
o Forecasts the extent and nature of the o It's the report segment read the least.
topical coverage.
o Suggests the logic of the arrangement. o It's the source, the foundation, and
o Shows relationship among the report documentation for every statement
parts. written in the abstract and summary.
 List of Illustrations or Exhibits:
o Lists all visuals by description (tables, o Conclusions need to evolve from the
graphs, maps, etc.). discussion.
 Glossary and List of Symbols: o Recommendations need to evolve from
o Abbreviations. the discussion and the conclusions
o Acronyms.  Parts of the discussion include:
o Symbols o Subject.
o Terms not known to readers outside a o Purpose.
specialized group o Scope.
 Abstracts and Summaries provide the essence o Background/history of the topic.
of the report: o Plan of development.
o Topic. The discussion should be planned around each topic to
o Purpose. be presented in the report.
o Result(s).  Notes on the conclusion:
o Conclusion(s). o Reports will end with a statement of
o Recommendation(s) the primary issues covered in the
 Informative Abstracts include: discussion.
o The research. o Factual summary gives the essential
o Objectives. facts presented but without
o Research methods used. interpretation.
o The findings, including principal results o Interpretation of the factual summary
and conclusions. is done in the executive summary
 Descriptive Abstracts include: Recommendations emerge from conclusions, but some
reports end with conclusions:
o What topics the full report contains.
o The report purpose.  Appendixes, which may or may not be
o Explanation of content areas paginated and have a numbering scheme, can
contain:
Differences in abstracts are tending to disappear.
Some abstracts reveal the characteristics of both
abstract types.
o Tables of supporting data.
 Summary - often called Executive Summary -
includes:
o Subject and purpose of the project. o Statistical studies.
o Research approach used.
o Spreadsheets.
o Topics covered.
o Essential background - why the
o Any material that supports the points
report/research was needed.
or arguments of the report.
o Results.
o Conclusions and recommendations.
o Cost/Potential and return on  Notes on online reports:
investment.
o Anticipated implementation problems
and solutions. o Usually begin with report title.
 Discussion, or body, of the report includes:
o Why the report was created. o Report abstract follows title.
o Its objectives.
o Methods. o Often a link leads reader to the body
o Findings. and rest of report.
o Results.
10

o Readers may scroll through table of

contents.