There are many different types of bearings.

Type Description Friction Stiffness† Speed Life Notes

Depends on Good, Widely used, relatively high

Rubbing surfaces, usually materials and provided friction, suffers
with lubricant; some construction, PTFE wear is low, Low to very high - fromstiction in some
Plain Low to very
bearings use pumped has coefficient of but some depends upon application applications. Depending upon
bearing high
lubrication and behave friction ~0.05-0.35, slack is and lubrication the application, lifetime can
similarly to fluid bearings. depending upon normally be higher or lower than
fillers added present rolling element bearings.

Rolling coefficient of
friction with steel
can be ~0.005
Good, but Moderate to Moderate to high
Rolling (adding resistance Used for higher moment
Ball or rollers are used to some slack high (often (depends on lubrication,
element due to seals, packed loads than plain bearings
prevent or minimise rubbing is usually requires often requires
bearing grease, preload and with lower friction
present cooling) maintenance)
misalignment can
increase friction to
as much as 0.125)

Mainly used in low-load, high

Jewel Off-center bearing rolls in Low due to Adequate (requires precision work such as clocks.
Low Low
bearing seating flexing maintenance) Jewel bearings may be very
small.

Fluid is forced between two Very high Virtually infinite in some Can fail quickly due to grit or
Fluid Zero friction at zero (usually applications, may wear at dust or other contaminants.
faces and held in by edge Very high
bearing speed, low limited to a startup/shutdown in Maintenance free in
seal
few some cases. Often continuous use. Can handle
 hundred negligible maintenance. very large loads with low
feet per friction.
second
at/by seal)

Zero friction at zero

speed, but constant
power for levitation,
Active magnetic bearings
Faces of bearing are kept eddy currents are
Indefinite. Maintenance (AMB) need considerable
Magnetic separate by magnets often induced when No practical
Low free. power. Electrodynamic
bearings (electromagnets or eddy movement occurs, limit
(with electromagnets) bearings(EDB) do not require
currents) but may be
external power.
negligible if
magnetic field is
quasi-static

Very high or low

Limited range of movement,
Flexure Material flexes to give and depending on materials
Very low Low Very high. no backlash, extremely
bearing constrain movement and strain in application.
smooth motion
Usually maintenance free.

†
Stiffness is the amount that the gap varies when the load on the bearing changes, it is distinct from the friction of the bearing.

Types[edit]
External vs internal gears[edit]
Internal gear

An external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone. Conversely, an internal gear is one with the teeth formed
on the inner surface of a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, an internal gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees. Internal gears do not
cause output shaft direction reversal.[5]

Spur[edit]

Spur gear
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk with the teeth projecting radially, and although
they are not straight-sided in form (they are usually of special form to achieve constant drive ratio mainly involute), the edge of each tooth is
straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed together correctly only if they are fitted to parallel shafts.

Helical[edit]

Helical gears
Top: parallel configuration
Bottom: crossed configuration

Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at
an angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed
in parallel or crossedorientations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the most common orientation. In the latter,
the shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration the gears are sometimes known as "skew gears".

The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth, causing them to run more smoothly and quietly.[6] With parallel helical gears,
each pair of teeth first make contact at a single point at one side of the gear wheel; a moving curve of contact then grows gradually across the
tooth face to a maximum then recedes until the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side. In spur gears, teeth suddenly meet at a
line contact across their entire width causing stress and noise. Spur gears make a characteristic whine at high speeds. Whereas spur gears are
used for low speed applications and those situations where noise control is not a problem, the use of helical gears is indicated when the
application involves high speeds, large power transmission, or where noise abatement is important.[7] The speed is considered to be high when the
pitch line velocity exceeds 25 m/s.[8]

A disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along the axis of the gear, which needs to be accommodated by appropriate thrust bearings,
and a greater degree of sliding friction between the meshing teeth, often addressed with additives in the lubricant.

Skew gears[edit]
For a 'crossed' or 'skew' configuration, the gears must have the same pressure angle and normal pitch; however, the helix angle and handedness
can be different. The relationship between the two shafts is actually defined by the helix angle(s) of the two shafts and the handedness, as
defined:[9]

for gears of the same handedness

for gears of opposite handedness

Where is the helix angle for the gear. The crossed configuration is less mechanically sound because there is only a point contact
between the gears, whereas in the parallel configuration there is a line contact. [9]

Quite commonly, helical gears are used with the helix angle of one having the negative of the helix angle of the other; such a pair might
also be referred to as having a right-handed helix and a left-handed helix of equal angles. The two equal but opposite angles add to zero:
the angle between shafts is zero – that is, the shafts are parallel. Where the sum or the difference (as described in the equations above)
is not zero the shafts are crossed. For shafts crossed at right angles, the helix angles are of the same hand because they must add to 90
degrees.

 3D Animation of helical gears (parallel axis)

 3D Animation of helical gears (crossed axis)
Double helical[edit]
Double helical gears

Main article: Double helical gear

Double helical gears, or herringbone gears, overcome the problem of axial thrust presented by "single" helical gears, by having two sets
of teeth that are set in a V shape. A double helical gear can be thought of as two mirrored helical gears joined together. This arrangement
cancels out the net axial thrust, since each half of the gear thrusts in the opposite direction resulting in a net axial force of zero. This
arrangement can remove the need for thrust bearings. However, double helical gears are more difficult to manufacture due to their more
complicated shape.

For both possible rotational directions, there exist two possible arrangements for the oppositely-oriented helical gears or gear faces. One
arrangement is stable, and the other is unstable. In a stable orientation, the helical gear faces are oriented so that each axial force is
directed toward the center of the gear. In an unstable orientation, both axial forces are directed away from the center of the gear. In both
arrangements, the total (or net) axial force on each gear is zero when the gears are aligned correctly. If the gears become misaligned in
the axial direction, the unstable arrangement will generate a net force that may lead to disassembly of the gear train, while the stable
arrangement generates a net corrective force. If the direction of rotation is reversed, the direction of the axial thrusts is also reversed, so a
stable configuration becomes unstable, and vice versa.

Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with spur gears without any need for different bearings.
Bevel[edit]
Main article: Bevel gear

Bevel Gear

A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must
occupy the same point. Their shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle between the shafts. The angle
between the shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees
are called miter gears.

Spiral bevels[edit]
Spiral bevel gears

Main article: Spiral bevel gear

The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with spur gears, or they may be cut in a variety of other shapes. Spiral bevel gear teeth
are curved along the tooth's length and set at an angle, analogously to the way helical gear teeth are set at an angle compared to spur
gear teeth. Zerol bevel gears have teeth which are curved along their length, but not angled. Spiral bevel gears have the same
advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins as helical gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally
used only at speeds below 5 m/s (1000 ft/min), or, for small gears, 1000 r.p.m.[10]

Hypoid[edit]

Hypoid gear

Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft axes do not intersect. The pitch surfaces appear conical but, to compensate
for the offset shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of revolution.[11][12] Hypoid gears are almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90
degrees. Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of the teeth, contact between hypoid gear teeth may be
even smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel gear teeth, but also have a sliding action along the meshing teeth as it rotates and
therefore usually require some of the most viscous types of gear oil to avoid it being extruded from the mating tooth faces, the oil is
normally designated HP (for hypoid) followed by a number denoting the viscosity. Also, the pinion can be designed with fewer teeth than a
spiral bevel pinion, with the result that gear ratios of 60:1 and higher are feasible using a single set of hypoid gears. [13] This style of gear is
most commonly found driving mechanical differentials; which are normally straight cut bevel gears; in motor vehicle axles.

Crown[edit]

Crown gear

Main article: Crown gear

Crown gears or contrate gears are a particular form of bevel gear whose teeth project at right angles to the plane of the wheel; in their
orientation the teeth resemble the points on a crown. A crown gear can only mesh accurately with another bevel gear, although crown
gears are sometimes seen meshing with spur gears. A crown gear is also sometimes meshed with an escapement such as found in
mechanical clocks.

Worm[edit]
Worm gear

4-start worm and wheel

Main article: Worm drive

Main article: Slewing drive

Worm gears resemble screws. A worm gear is usually meshed with a spur gear or a helical gear, which is called the gear, wheel, or worm
wheel.

Worm-and-gear sets are a simple and compact way to achieve a high torque, low speed gear ratio. For example, helical gears are
normally limited to gear ratios of less than 10:1 while worm-and-gear sets vary from 10:1 to 500:1.[14] A disadvantage is the potential for
considerable sliding action, leading to low efficiency. [15]

Worm gears can be considered a species of helical gear, but its helix angle is usually somewhat large (close to 90 degrees) and its body
is usually fairly long in the axial direction; and it is these attributes which give it screw like qualities. The distinction between a worm and a
helical gear is made when at least one tooth persists for a full rotation around the helix. If this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not, it is a 'helical
gear'. A worm may have as few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several turns around the helix, the worm will appear, superficially, to
have more than one tooth, but what one in fact sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals along the length of the worm. The usual
screw nomenclature applies: a one-toothed worm is calledsingle thread or single start; a worm with more than one tooth is called multiple
thread or multiple start. The helix angle of a worm is not usually specified. Instead, the lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the
helix angle, is given.

In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear attempts to drive the worm, it may or may not succeed.
Particularly if the lead angle is small, the gear's teeth may simply lock against the worm's teeth, because the force component
circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to overcome friction. Worm-and-gear sets that do lock are called self locking, which can be
used to advantage, as for instance when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the worm and then have the
mechanism hold that position. An example is the machine headfound on some types of stringed instruments.

If the gear in a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical gear only a single point of contact will be achieved. [16] If medium to high power
transmission is desired, the tooth shape of the gear is modified to achieve more intimate contact by making both gears partially envelop
each other. This is done by making both concave and joining them at a saddle point; this is called a cone-drive.[17] or "Double enveloping"

Worm gears can be right or left-handed, following the long-established practice for screw threads.[5]

 3D Animation of a worm-gear set

Non-circular[edit]
Non-circular gears

Main article: Non-circular gear

Non-circular gears are designed for special purposes. While a regular gear is optimized to transmit torque to another engaged member
with minimum noise and wear and maximum efficiency, a non-circular gear's main objective might be ratio variations, axle
displacement oscillations and more. Common applications include textile machines, potentiometers and continuously variable
transmissions.

Rack and pinion[edit]

Rack and pinion gearing

Main article: Rack and pinion

A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted
to linear force by meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism is used in
automobiles to convert the rotation of the steeringwheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s). Racks also feature in the theory of
gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite radius), and
the tooth shapes for gears of particular actual radii are then derived from that. The rack and pinion gear type is employed in a rack
railway.

Epicyclic[edit]

Epicyclic gearing

Main article: Epicyclic gearing

In epicyclic gearing one or more of the gear axes moves. Examples are sun and planet gearing (see below) and mechanical differentials.

Sun and planet[edit]

Sun (yellow) and planet (red) gearing

Main article: Sun and planet gear

Sun and planet gearing was a method of converting reciprocating motion into rotary motion in steam engines. It was famously used
by James Watt on his early steam engines in order to get around the patent on the crank but also had the advantage of increasing the
flywheel speed so that a lighter flywheel could be used.

In the illustration, the sun is yellow, the planet red, the reciprocating arm is blue, the flywheel is green and the driveshaft is grey.

Harmonic drive[edit]
Harmonic drive gearing

Main article: Harmonic drive

A harmonic drive is a specialized gearing mechanism often used in industrial motion control, robotics and aerospace for its advantages
over traditional gearing systems, including lack of backlash, compactness and high gear ratios.

Cage gear[edit]

Cage gear in Pantigo Windmill, Long Island (with the driving gearwheel disengaged)
 A cage gear, also called a lantern gear or lantern pinion has cylindrical rods for teeth, parallel to the axle and arranged in a circle around
it, much as the bars on a round bird cage or lantern. The assembly is held together by disks at either end into which the tooth rods and
axle are set. Lantern gears are more efficient than solid pinions[citation needed], and dirt can fall through the rods rather than becoming
trapped and increasing wear.

Sometimes used in clocks, the lantern pinion should always be driven by a gearwheel, not used as the driver. The lantern pinion was not
initially favoured by conservative clock makers. It became popular in turret clocks where dirty working conditions were most
commonplace. Domestic American clock movements often used them.

Magnetic gear[edit]
All cogs of each gear component of magnetic gears act as a constant magnet with periodic alternation of opposite magnetic poles on
mating surfaces. Gear components are mounted with abacklash capability similar to other mechanical gearings. At low load, such gears
work without touching, giving increased reliability without noise. [18]

Automation or automatic control, is the use of various control systems for operating equipment such as machinery, processes in factories, boilers
and heat treating ovens, switching in telephone networks, steering and stabilization of ships or aircraft and other applications with minimal or
reduced human intervention. Some processes have been completely automated.

The biggest benefit of automation is that it saves labor, however, it is also used to save energy and materials and to improve quality, accuracy and
precision.

The term automation, inspired by the earlier word automatic (coming from automaton), was not widely used before 1947, when General Motors
established the automation department. [1] It was during this time that industry was rapidly adopting feedback controllers, which were introduced in
the 1930s.[2]

Automation has been achieved by various means including mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, electronic and computers, usually in
combination. Complicated systems, such as modern factories, airplanes and ships typically use all these combined techniques.
Two common types of automation are feedback control, which is usually continuous and involves taking measurements using a sensor and
making calculated adjustments to keep the measured variable within a set range, and sequence control, in which a programmed sequence of
discrete operations is performed, often based on system logic. Cruise control is an example of the former while an elevator or an automated teller
machine (ATM) is an example of the latter.

The theoretical basis of feedback control is control theory, which also covers servomechanisms, which are often part of an automated system.

Feedback control is called "closed loop" while non-feedback control is called "open loop."

Feedback control[edit]
Feedback control is accomplished with a controller. To function properly a controller must provide correction in a manner that maintains stability.
Maintaining stability is a principle objective of control theory.

As an example of feedback control, consider a steam coil air heater in which a temperature sensor measures the temperature of the heated air,
which is the measured variable. This signal is constantly "fed back" to the controller, which compares it to the desired setting (set point). The
controller calculates the difference (error), then calculates a correction and sends the correction signal to adjust the air pressure to a diaphragm
that moves a positioner on the steam valve, opening or closing it by the calculated amount. All the elements constituting the measurement and
control of a single variable are called a control loop.

The complexities of this are that the quantities involved are all of different physical types; the temperature sensor signal may be electrical or
pressure from an enclosed fluid, the controller may employ pneumatic, hydraulic, mechanical or electronic techniques to sense the error and send
a signal to adjust the air pressure.

The first controllers used analog methods to perform their calculations. Analog methods were also used in solving differential equations of control
theory. The electronic analog computer was developed to solve control type problems and electronic analog controllers were also
developed.[3] Analog computers were displaced by digital computers when they became widely available.

Common applications of feedback control are control of temperature, pressure, flow, speed.

Sequential control and logical sequence control[edit]

Sequential control may be either to a fixed sequence or to a logical one that will perform different actions depending on various system states. An
example of a adjustable but otherwise fixed sequence is a timer on a lawn sprinkler. An elevator is an example that uses logic based on the
system states.

A basic form of sequential control is relay logic by which electrical relays engage electrical contacts which either start or interrupt power to a
device. Relay logic was developed when starting and stopping industrial sized electric motors, opening and closing solenoid valves and starting
and stopping other devices was done with relays, timers and other electrical hardware. More complicated examples involve start up and shut down
sequences for equipment, in which a number of safety precautions can be taken by good design of control logic. The number of relays, cam timers
and drum sequencers can number into the hundreds or even thousands in some factories. Special computers called programmable logic
controllers were designed to replace many of these hardware items and to add a higher level of functionality.

In a typical hard wired motor start and stop circuit (called a control circuit) a motor is started by pushing a "Start" or "Run" button that activates a
pair of electrical relays. The "lock-in" relay locks in contacts that keep the control circuit energized when the push button is released. (The start
button is a normally open contact and the stop button is normally closed contact.) Another relay energizes a switch that powers the device that
throws the motor starter switch (three sets of contacts for three phase industrial power) in the main power circuit. (Note: Large motors use high
voltage and experience high in-rush current, making speed important in making and breaking contact. This can be dangerous for personnel and
property with manual switches.) All contacts are held engaged by their respective electromagnets until a "stop" or "off" button is pressed that de-
energizes the lock in relay. See diagram: Motor Starters Hand-Off-Auto With Start-Stop (Note: The above description is the "Auto" position case in
this diagram).

Commonly interlocks are added to a control circuit. Suppose that the motor in the example is powering machinery that has a critical need for
lubrication. In this case an interlock could be added to insure that the oil pump is running before the motor starts. Timers, limit switches and
electric eyes are other common elements in control circuits.

Solenoid valves are widely used on compressed air or hydraulic fluid for powering actuators on mechanical components. While motors are used to
supply continuous rotary motion, actuators are typically a better choice for intermittently creating a limited range of movement for a mechanical
component, such as moving various mechanical arms, opening or closing valves, raising heavy press rolls, applying pressure to presses.

Control circuits are often drawn using ladder logic, so named because the wiring diagram resembles a ladder.

Computer control[edit]
Computers can perform both sequential control and feedback control, and typically a single computer will do both in an industrial
application. Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are a type of special purpose microprocessor that replaced many hardware components such
as timers and drum sequencers used in relay logic. General purpose process control computers have increasingly replaced stand alone
controllers, with a single computer able to perform the operations of hundreds of controllers. Process control computers can process data from a
network of PLCs, instruments and controllers in order to implement typical (such as PID) control of many individual variables or, in some cases, to
implement complex control algorithms using multiple inputs and mathematical manipulations. They can also analyze data and create real time
graphical displays for operators and run reports for engineers and management.

Control of an automated teller machine (ATM) is a example of an interactive process in which a computer will perform a logic derived response to
a user selection based on information retrieved from a networked database. The ATM process has a lot of similarities to other online transaction
processes. The different logical responses are called scenarios. Such processes are typically designed with the aid of use cases and flowcharts,
which guide the writing of the software code.

Cyclonic separation is a method of removing particulates from an air, gas or liquid stream, without the use of filters,
through vortex separation. Rotationaleffects and gravity are used to separate mixtures of solids and fluids. The method can also be used to
separate fine droplets of liquid from a gaseous stream.

A high speed rotating (air)flow is established within a cylindrical or conical container called a cyclone. Air flows in a helical pattern, beginning at
the top (wide end) of the cyclone and ending at the bottom (narrow) end before exiting the cyclone in a straight stream through the center of the
cyclone and out the top. Larger (denser) particles in the rotating stream have too much inertia to follow the tight curve of the stream, and strike the
outside wall, then falling to the bottom of the cyclone where they can be removed. In a conical system, as the rotating flow moves towards the
narrow end of the cyclone, the rotational radius of the stream is reduced, thus separating smaller and smaller particles. The cyclone geometry,
together with flow rate, defines the cut point of the cyclone. This is the size of particle that will be removed from the stream with a 50% efficiency.
Particles larger than the cut point will be removed with a greater efficiency, and smaller particles with a lower efficiency.
Airflow diagram for Aerodyne cyclone in standard vertical position. Secondary air flow is injected to reduce wall abrasion.
Airflow diagram for Aerodyne cyclone in horizontal position, an alternate design. Secondary air flow is injected to reduce wall abrasion, and to help move collected
particulates to hopper for extraction.

An alternative cyclone design uses a secondary air flow within the cyclone to keep the collected particles from striking the walls, to protect them
from abrasion. The primary air flow containing the particulates enters from the bottom of the cyclone and is forced into spiral rotation by stationary
spinner vanes. The secondary air flow enters from the top of the cyclone and moves downward toward the bottom, intercepting the particulate
from the primary air. The secondary air flow also allows the collector to optionally be mounted horizontally, because it pushes the particulate
toward the collection area, and does not rely solely on gravity to perform this function.

Large scale cyclones are used in sawmills to remove sawdust from extracted air. Cyclones are also used in oil refineries to separate oils and
gases, and in the cement industry as components of kiln preheaters. Cyclones are increasingly used in the household, as the core technology in
bagless types of portable vacuum cleaners and central vacuum cleaners. Cyclones are also used in industrial and professional kitchen
ventilation for separating the grease from the exhaust air in extraction hoods. [1] Smaller cyclones are used to separate airborne particles for
analysis. Some are small enough to be worn clipped to clothing, and are used to separate respirable particles for later analysis.

Analogous devices for separating particles or solids from liquids are called hydrocyclones or hydroclones. These may be used to separate solid
waste from water in wastewater and sewage treatment.
Feed-forward is a term describing an element or pathway within a control system which passes a controlling signal from a source in its external
environment, often a command signal from an external operator, to a load elsewhere in its external environment. A control system which has only
feed-forward behavior responds to its control signal in a pre-defined way without responding to how the load reacts; it is in contrast with a system
that also has feedback, which adjusts the output to take account of how it affects the load, and how the load itself may vary unpredictably; the load
is considered to belong to the external environment of the system.

In a feed-forward system, the control variable adjustment is not error-based. Instead it is based on knowledge about the process in the form of a
mathematical model of the process and knowledge about or measurements of the process disturbances". [1]

Some prerequisites are needed for control scheme to be reliable by pure feed-forward without feedback: the external command or controlling
signal must be available, and the effect of the output of the system on the load should be known (that usually means that the load must be
predictably unchanging with time). Sometimes pure feed-forward control without feedback is called 'ballistic', because once a control signal has
been sent, it cannot be further adjusted; any corrective adjustment must be by way of a new control signal. In contrast 'cruise control' adjusts the
output in response to the load that it encounters, by a feedback mechanism.

An open-loop controller, also called a non-feedback controller, is a type of controller that computes its input into a
system using only the current state and its model of the system.

A characteristic of the open-loop controller is that it does not use feedback to determine if its output has achieved the
desired goal of the input. This means that the system does not observe the output of the processes that it is controlling.
Consequently, a true open-loop system can not engage in machine learning and also cannot correct any errors that it
could make. It also may not compensate for disturbances in the system.

Examples[edit]
An open-loop controller is often used in simple processes because of its simplicity and low cost, especially in systems
where feedback is not critical. A typical example would be a conventional washing machine, for which the length of
machine wash time is entirely dependent on the judgment and estimation of the human operator. Generally, to obtain a
more accurate or more adaptive control, it is necessary to feed the output of the system back to the inputs of the
controller. This type of system is called a closed-loop system.

For example, an irrigation sprinkler system, programmed to turn on at set times could be an example of an open-loop
system if it does not measure soil moisture as a form of feedback. Even if rain is pouring down on the lawn, the sprinkler
system would activate on schedule, wasting water.

Stepper motors are often used for open-loop control of position. A stepper motor rotates to one of a number of fixed
positions, according to its internal construction. Sending a stream of electrical pulses to it causes it to rotate by exactly
that many steps, hence the name. Such motors are often used, together with a simple initial datum sensor (a switch that
is activated at the machine's home position), for the control of simple robotic machines or even the commonplace inkjet
printer head. The drawback of open-loop control of steppers is that if the machine load is too high, or the motor attempts
to move too quickly, then steps may be skipped. The controller has no means of detecting this and so the machine
continues to run slightly out of adjustment, until reset. For this reason, more complex robots and machine tools instead
use servomotors rather than stepper motors, which incorporate encoders and closed-loop controllers.

Open-loop control is useful for well-defined systems where the relationship between input and the resultant state can be
modeled by a mathematical formula. For example determining the voltage to be fed to an electric motor that drives a
constant load, in order to achieve a desired speed would be a good application of open-loop control. If the load were not
predictable, on the other hand, the motor's speed might vary as a function of the load as well as of the voltage, and an
open-loop controller would therefore be insufficient to ensure repeatable control of the velocity.

An example of this is a conveyor system that is required to travel at a constant speed. For a constant voltage, the
conveyor will move at a different speed depending on the load on the motor (represented here by the weight of objects
on the conveyor). In order for the conveyor to run at a constant speed, the voltage of the motor must be adjusted
depending on the load. In this case, a closed-loop control system would be necessary.
Subrogation is the legal doctrine whereby one person takes over the rights or remedies of another against a third party.[1] Rights of subrogation
can arise two different ways: either automatically as a matter of law, or by agreement as part of a contract.[2] Subrogation by contract most
commonly arises in contracts of insurance. Subrogation as a matter of law is an equitable doctrine, and forms part of a wider body of law known
as unjust enrichment. The two most common areas where subrogation is relevant are insurance and sureties. In each case, the basic premise is
that where one person (i.e. typically an insurer or a guarantor) makes a payment on an obligation which, in law, is the primary responsibility of
another party, then the person making the payment is subrogated to the claims of the person to whom they made the payment with respect to any
claims or remedies which are exercisable against the primarily responsible party. For example, if a car owner has collision insurance [3] on their car
and the car is damaged by a negligent third party, if the car owner elects to claim under his insurance policy, then any claims which the car owner
had against the negligent party will pass to the insurance company in jurisdictions which recognise the doctrine. Similarly, if a
father guarantees the debts of his son to the bank (i.e. a contract of suretyship), and the bank elects to call upon the guarantee rather than
claiming against the son directly, then if the father pays out on the guarantee, he will become subrogated to the bank's claims against the son.

The doctrine of subrogation can also pass proprietary rights, i.e. a security interest or claim to ownership of goods. If a work of art is stolen, and
the insurance company pays out under a policy of insurance to the owner, if the art is later recovered, then legally it will belong to the insurance
company under rights of subrogation. Similarly, if a ship is insured and then sinks, any rights of salve will pass to the insurer if the claim is paid out
as a total loss. If a guarantee is paid out by a guarantor, but the bank also held a mortgage over the debtor's home, then the guarantor will be
subrogated to the bank's rights as a mortgagee with respect to the debtor's home.

In the most common areas where subrogation arises as a matter of law, it will also commonly be regulated in the terms of the relevant contract.
For example, in a contract of guarantee, the guarantee will often provide that the guarantor either waives their right of subrogation, or agrees not
to exercise it unless the bank has completely been paid in full. In a contract of insurance, in addition to right of subrogation at law, there will often
be a contractual right of subrogation which will be bolstered by the insured party agreeing that they will provide all necessary assistance to the
insurance company in pursuing any subrogated claims.

Subrogation is sometimes misunderstood by lay people and criticised on the basis that payment under an insurance claim is simply a right based
upon their payments of insurance premia, and a belief that they should also retain a right to exercise any claims arising from the insured event.
However, an insurance contract is a contract of indemnity, and to allow a party to receive insurance proceeds and claim against third parties would
mean that they might recover more than their total loss. Because subrogation operates to prevent such over-recovery, it is considered to form part
of the general law of unjust enrichment (i.e. preventing a party by being unjustly enriched by pursuing a claim for a loss in respect of which they
have already been indemnified).

Subrogation is an equitable remedy and is subject to all the usual limitations that apply to equitable remedies.
Delegation (or passing down) is the partnership of authority and responsibility to another person (normally from a manager to a subordinate) to
carry out specific activities. It is one of the core concepts of management leadership. However, the person who delegated the work remains
accountable for the outcome of the delegated work. Delegation empowers a subordinate to make decisions, i.e. it is a shift of decision-making
authority from one organizational level to a lower one. Delegation, if properly done, is not abdication. The opposite of effective delegation
ismicromanagement, where a manager provides too much input, direction, and review of delegated work. In general, delegation is good and can
save money and time, help in building skills, and motivate people. Poor delegation, on the other hand, might cause frustration and confusion to all
the involved parties.[1] Some agents however do not favour a delegation and consider the power of making a decision rather burdensome.[2]

n contract law, rescission has been defined as the unmaking of a contract between parties.[1] Rescission is the unwinding of a transaction. This is
done to bring the parties, as far as possible, back to the position in which they were before they entered into a contract (the status quo ante).

EXPROMISSION, civil law. The act by which a creditor accepts a new debtor, who becomes bound instead of the old, the latter being released. It
is a species of novation. (q.v.) 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 802. Vide Delegation.

Putrefaction is one of seven stages in the decomposition of the body of a dead animal. It can be viewed, in broad terms, as the decomposition
of proteins in a process that results in the eventual breakdown of cohesion between tissues and the liquefaction of most organs.

In terms of thermodynamics, all organic tissue is a stored source of chemical energy and when not maintained by the constant biochemical efforts
of the living organism it will break down into simpler products. The breakdown of proteins in a decomposing carcass is a spontaneous process but
one that is accelerated as the anaerobic microorganisms, already present in the animal'sdigestive tract when it was alive, consume and digest the
proteins that comprise the creature's cells. As cells and their proteins are digested, the tissues of the body are left in a weakened state. Proteins
are broken down into smaller components and these are excreted by the bacteria. The excreted components, which include gases
and amines such as putrescine and cadaverine, carry the putrid odor associated with a decomposing body. The gases are initially constrained
within the body cavities but diffuse through adjacent tissues and into the circulatory system. Once in the blood vessels, the gases can then spread
to other parts of the body. The result is visible bloating of the torso and then limbs. The increased internal pressure due to the rising volume of gas
also helps to weaken and separate tissues. At some point, some part of the body will rupture, releasing the gas. As the bacteria consume all
available proteins, the process of decomposition progresses into the next stage: skeletonization.

The term decomposition is a generalized expression covering the overall process from the death of the individual until skeletonization of the body.
Putrefaction is only one stage of that process. Material that is subject to putrefaction is called putrescible.

Approximate timeline[edit]

 2–3 days: Discoloration appears on the skin of the abdomen. The abdomen begins to swell due to gas formation.
 3–4 days: The discoloration spreads and discolored veins become visible.
 5–6 days: The abdomen swells noticeably and the skin blisters.
 2 weeks: The abdomen is bloated; internal gas pressure nears maximum capacity.
 3 weeks: Tissues have softened. Organs and cavities are bursting. The nails fall off.
 4 weeks: Soft tissues begin to liquefy and the face becomes unrecognizable.
The exact rate of putrefaction is dependent upon many factors such as weather, exposure and location. Thus, refrigeration at a morgue or funeral
home can retard the process, allowing for burial in three days or so following death without embalming. The rate increases dramatically in tropical
climates.

A speedometer or a speed meter is a gauge that measures and displays the instantaneous speed of a land vehicle. Now universally fitted
to motor vehicles, they started to be available as options in the 1900s, and as standard equipment from about 1910 onwards. [1] Speedometers for
other vehicles have specific names and use other means of sensing speed. For a boat, this is a pit log. For an aircraft, this is an airspeed indicator.

The speedometer was invented by the Croatian Josip Belušić[citation needed] in 1888, and was originally called a velocimeter.[citation needed]
Coagulation (thrombogenesis) is the process by which blood forms clots. It is an important part of hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from
a damaged vessel, wherein a damaged blood vessel wall is covered by a platelet and fibrin-containing clot to stop bleeding and begin repair of the
damaged vessel. Disorders of coagulation can lead to an increased risk of bleeding (hemorrhage) or obstructive clotting (thrombosis).[1]

Coagulation is highly conserved throughout biology; in all mammals, coagulation involves both a cellular (platelet) and a protein (coagulation
factor) component.[2] The system in humans has been the most extensively researched and is the best understood. [citation needed]

Coagulation begins almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel has damaged the endothelium lining the vessel. Exposure of the blood to
proteins such as tissue factor initiates changes to blood platelets and the plasma protein fibrinogen, a clotting factor. Platelets immediately form a
plug at the site of injury; this is called primary hemostasis. Secondary hemostasis occurs simultaneously: Proteins in the blood plasma,
called coagulation factors or clotting factors, respond in a complex cascade to form fibrin strands, which strengthen the platelet plug.[3