Journal of Power Sources 296 (2015) 433e439

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Journal of Power Sources

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jpowsour

Direct power generation from waste coffee grounds

in a biomass fuel cell
Hansaem Jang a, Joey D. Ocon a, c, Seunghwa Lee a, Jae Kwang Lee b, Jaeyoung Lee a, b, *
a
Electrochemical Reaction and Technology Laboratory (ERTL), School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and
Technology (GIST), Gwangju, 500-712, South Korea
b
Ertl Center for Electrochemistry and Catalysis, Research Institute for Solar and Sustainable Energies, GIST, Gwangju, 500-712, South Korea
c
Laboratory of Electrochemical Engineering (LEE), Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1101,
Philippines

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

Waste biomass is directly employed

as a fuel with no any special
treatment.

Waste coffee ground is a fuel for
SOFC-based carbon fuel cell
technology.

Carbonization and gasification take
place under experimental
temperature.

Produced in-situ gaseous compounds
highly enhance electrochemical
reaction.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We demonstrate the possibility of direct power generation from waste coffee grounds (WCG) via high-
Received 8 June 2015 temperature carbon fuel cell technology. At 900  C, the WCG-powered fuel cell exhibits a maximum
Received in revised form power density that is twice than carbon black. Our results suggest that the heteroatoms and hydrogen
9 July 2015
contained in WCG are crucial in providing good cell performance due to its in-situ gasification, without
Accepted 19 July 2015
Available online xxx
any need for pre-reforming. As a first report on the use of coffee as a carbon-neutral fuel, this study
shows the potential of waste biomass (e.g. WCG) in sustainable electricity generation in fuel cells.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Direct carbon fuel cell
Solid oxide fuel cell
Carbon fuel cell
Biomass
Waste coffee ground

1. Introduction
The worldwide clamor towards less dependence on fossil fuels,
due to the emission of greenhouse gases and energy security issues,
* Corresponding author. Electrochemical Reaction and Technology Laboratory
(ERTL), School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of
Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, 500-712, South Korea.
E-mail address: jaeyoung@gist.ac.kr (J. Lee).
has led to the strong interest in using biomass energy [1]. As an
alternative, renewable energy source, biomass absorbs the same
amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) during plant growth, contributing
less to global warming. The only remaining issue, however, is how
to produce energy from biomass without competing with food
supply over the use of arable lands [1]. As such, utilization of waste
biomass byproducts, especially from the food and beverage in-
dustry, is key to solving this problem.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.07.059
0378-7753/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
434 H. Jang et al. / Journal of Power Sources 296 (2015) 433e439

Waste coffee grounds (WCG) are an abundant resource for

biomass-to-energy conversion technologies. The worldwide coffee
consumption has steadily increased over the past decades, reaching
an annual consumption of 8.8 million metric tons and leading to
enormous amounts of organic wastes [2]. There have been various
attempts in using WCG but most of these methods generate by-
products that should be discarded in landfills or eventually incin-
erated [3e8]. For example, Sena da Fonseca et al. [3] found that
WCG can be added to clay ceramics to enhance the mechanical
strength due to increased water absorption and porosity. Several
research groups [4e8] investigated the adsorption properties of
polyhydroxy polyphenol functional groups in WCG and WCG-
derived char on heavy metals. In addition, some researchers
[9,10] studied WCG reforming with pyrolysis in order to produce
bio-oil, which can then be processed to synthesize high value
chemicals. Recently, biodiesel was produced from WCG [11,12],
with the oil content, saponifiable lipids, and lipid profile varying
according to the regional location and brewing technique [12].
On the other hand, using WCG as fuel in a carbon fuel cell
technology with a solid oxide electrolyte renders multiple advan-
tages. This electrochemical technology offers higher efficiency
because it is not subject to Carnot limitations [13]. It mainly pro-
duces CO2, which could be captured and reused, and a small
amount of ashes, from which metals and/or other materials could
be retrieved [14,15]. Additionally, it does not require intermediate
conversion steps or pretreatment, improving the overall process
efficiency relative to conventional methods [16e19]. Biomass-
based carbon fuel cells can be categorized by a fuel treatment
method: i. fuel as a carbonized biomass [14,15,20e22], ii. fuel as a
gasified biomass (similar technique to that of integrated gasifica-
tion fuel cell, IGFC) [23e26], and iii. fuel as an untreated biomass
[27]. While there have been previous studies using biomass-based
carbon fuel cells as recapitulated above, this is the first report on Fig. 1. Current-potential (j-V) and -power (j-P) curves of carbon fuel cells using
the performance of WCG-powered fuel cells, without the need for (a) carbon black and (b) waste coffee grounds at different temperatures: - 750  C, C
pre-treatment or gasification. 800  C, : 850  C, and ; 900  C.
In this study, we showed the direct electrochemical oxidation
performance of WCG-powered anodes, in comparison with that of
carbon black (CB). A detailed analysis on the chemical composition temperature. When the temperature reaches up to 600  C from
and nature of WCG and carbonized WCG was performed in order to room temperature, the anode chamber was purged out by flushing
explain its electrochemical behavior. pure Ar gas (99.999%) at a rate of 30 mL min1 to eliminate internal
O2, which could oxidize the fuel. Meanwhile, pure O2 (99.99%) gas
2. Experimental was continuously fed at a rate of 50 mL min1 to the cathode side.

2.1. Preparation of biomass fuel cells

Waste coffee grounds (WCG, Tanay Hills Coffee Beanery,

Hazelnut Arabica, Philippines) were dried at room temperature for
three days (<50% relative humidity). Carbon black powder
(ENSACO 350G, Timcal) was used as reference fuel due to its high
carbon purity. The commercially available anode-supported button
type cell was fixed to a Pt (99.9%, 52 mesh, Alfa Aesar) current
collector using Ag paste (Fujikura Kasei). The cell, which is
composed of Ni-YSZ as anode, 8YSZ as electrolyte, and LSM as
cathode, was air-sealed using sealants (Thermiculite 866, the USA;
Aremco ceramabond 668) to prevent combustion of fuels during
the electrochemical reaction.

2.2. Electrochemical characterization

The fuel cell experiments were performed using an optimally

designed apparatus consisting of an alumina ceramic reactor, a
furnace and an electrochemical workstation (NARA Cell-Tech). The
power performance tests were carried out at different tempera-
tures: 750  C, 800  C, 850  C, and 900  C. The reactor was heated up
at a ramping rate of 5  C min1 up to the desired reaction
Fig. 2. The measured high frequency resistance of carbon black (black solid line with
circles, C) and waste coffee grounds (red dash line with squares, -) (For interpre-
tation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.).
 H. Jang et al. / Journal of Power Sources 296 (2015) 433e439 435

Table 1 process left a carbon backbone after volatilization of WCG.

The proximate analysis of waste coffee grounds and carbon black as a reference, To better understand the gasification and oxidation reactions,
performed along with the method in ASTM D3172.
TGA was carried out in the experimental temperature range at a
Sample Moisture Volatile matter Ash Fixed carbon ramp setting of 5  C min1 from room temperature to 900  C. To
/% as received /% dry basis /% dry basis /% dry basis reflect the real experimental condition, TGA was done in air (TGA-
Carbon black 2.02 3.46 0.03 96.50 50H, Shimadzu) and N2 gas (SDT Q600, TA Instruments Ltd.). The
Waste coffee ground 6.09 84.86 1.29 13.85 results of TGA indicated that the WCG experiment displayed unique
trends, which were not found in the test with pure carbon. Thus,
elemental analyzers were employed for estimating organic matter
The gases entering the reactor were preheated and kept at 100  C to composition (CHN-S: Flash 2000, Thermo Fisher; O: EA-1110,
prevent a dramatic temperature drop, which could influence the Thermo Quest). The result showed the presence of hydrogen and
cell resistance [28,29]. During operation, the internal cell resistance heteroatoms even after carbonization, which implies various re-
was measured with an AC-impedance meter (3560 AC mU HiTester, actions including gasification are available to occur in the range of
Hioki) at 1 kHz. experimental temperature since the carbonization was proceeded
at 950  C. These various reactions could happen due to gasification;
2.3. Characterization therefore, gas analysis was performed to figure out the gas
composition of the anode chamber at the experimental condition
Proximate analysis (ASTM D3172) of WCG showed a high and to identify the gasification reactions. WCG was placed in a
amount of volatile matter, which could be continuously ventilated horizontal furnace and then heated at the same temperature
out by Ar gas up to 600  C in the experiment. Hence, the carbon- setting with that in the electrochemical tests. The furnace was put
ization was performed at 950  C under the presence of atmospheric in a vacuum condition and then was fed with Ar gas at a rate of
oxygen without any inflow in order to foster a similar atmosphere 50 mL min1 until the sampling was finished. At the each pause,
with that in the reactor for characterizing and understanding the product gas was sampled and then analyzed with GC (7590A,
behavior of the fuels. Characterization with FE-SEM (S-4700, Hita- Agilent Technologies)/MS (5975C, Agilent Technologies). In addi-
chi) and XRD (MiniFlex II, Rigaku) exhibited that carbonization tion, surface area analysis (Belsorp max, BEL Japan. INC.) was also

Fig. 3. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of (a) carbon black, (b) coffee ground, (c) waste coffee ground, (d) 7-min-carbonized waste coffee ground, (e) 15-min-carbonized
waste coffee ground and (f) 30-min-carbonized waste coffee ground.
436 H. Jang et al. / Journal of Power Sources 296 (2015) 433e439
Fig. 4. Mass loss curves of carbon black (black solid lines), waste coffee grounds (red
dotted lines) and carbonized waste coffee grounds (red dashed lines), under (a) air and
(b) N2 gas. The TGA measurements were taken at a ramping rate of 5  C min1 (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to
the web version of this article.).
performed.
3. Results and discussion
In order to demonstrate the possibility of using WCG as fuel in
high temperature carbon fuel cells, we assembled the cells
comprised of CB and WCG. Expectedly, the overall cell performance
of the carbon fuel cells improved with the increase in the operating
temperature. WCG generally has higher operating voltages with
increasing current density than the CB, as seen in Fig. 1. For
instance, WCG-powered fuel cells exhibited a power density of
87.2 mW cm2 at 900  C, which is almost twice higher than CB-
powered anodes (46.3 mW cm2). In addition, the open circuit
potential (OCP) of WCG is noticeably higher than that of CB, which
could suggest that not only carbon electrochemical oxidation oc-
curs in the WCG-powered cells but other oxidation reactions as
well.
The predominance of anodic half reactions occurring at the
triple phase boundary (TPB), where fuel, electron-conducting ma-
terial (current collector) and ion-conducting material (electrolyte)
meet, strongly influences the carbon fuel cell performance [17]. In
solid fuels, however, the probability of forming these TPB reaction
sites is low relative to gaseous fuels. For instance, even in gaseous
fuels, reactions can only happen in the adjacency of no more than
10 mm [30e37]. For this reason, the indirect electrochemical carbon
oxidation preceded by the reverse Boudouard reaction might have
been more dominant than the direct carbon oxidation [17]. In
addition, the production of gaseous products during fuel cell
operation could lower the polarization resistance since the gaseous
reactants can easily reach the active sites in contrast to solid carbon
fuels.
The cell ohmic resistance was measured in the high frequency
region (1 kHz) to investigate the possible reactions in the anode. As
shown in Fig. 2, the reverse Boudouard reaction was dominant in
CB, evident from the dramatic drop in cell resistance as the reactor
temperature was increased beyond 700  C. The reverse Boudouard
reaction spontaneously occurred over 800  C, as seen from the
converging cell resistances of all samples. At this point, carbon
monoxide (CO) is the thermodynamically dominant species [38].
On the other hand, WCG exhibited simultaneous gasification re-
actions other than the reverse Boudouard reaction (e.g. pyrolysis) in
the temperature range considered.
In order to investigate the morphology, crystallinity, and gasi-
fication tendencies of the samples, different characterization
techniques (e.g. proximate analysis, scanning electron microscope
(SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD)) were used. The results (Table 1)
showed that WCG contains more than 80% volatile matter, most of
which could be removed by Ar gas purging up to 600  C while the
rest can be utilized as gaseous fuels. Furthermore, WCG has rela-
tively low fixed carbon content (~14%) relative to carbon black
(~97%), yet the former exhibited better fuel cell performance than
the latter. To improve our understanding on the reactions in the
anode, we also used carbonized WCG (cWCG) for comparison with
the pristine WCG, since the carbonization removed volatile mate-
rials. It could be expected that the actual WCG-powered carbon fuel
cells have characteristics in between to that of WCG and cWCG. As
shown in the SEM images in Fig. 3, the WCG samples have the same
morphologies, characterized by a honeycomb-shaped structure.
Nonetheless, the removal of volatile materials resulted to a
smoother surface and thinner walls of the structure in cWCG.
Fig. 5. The X-ray diffraction analysis of carbon black (green solid line), carbonized
waste coffee grounds (red solid line) and waste coffee grounds overlapped with
representative monomers and bimer of lignin (black bar, 4-Methoxyphenol), cellulose
(red bar, a-D-Glucose; green bar, Cellobiose) and hemicellulose (blue bar b-DL-Arabi-
nose) (black solid line). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
 H. Jang et al. / Journal of Power Sources 296 (2015) 433e439 437

Table 2
Elemental analysis of carbon black, waste coffee grounds and carbonized waste coffee grounds.

Sample Elementa

C H N S O

Carbon black 94.996 0.148 0 0 0.662

Waste coffee ground 51.896 7.249 1.651 0.083 21.361
Carbonized waste coffee ground 7 min 71.467 1.036 2.235 0 6.128
15 min 75.914 1.112 1.730 0 5.193
30 min 75.574 0.618 1.719 0 5.176
a
All values tabulated here are in weight percentages.

Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) under air condition was

carried out on CB, WCG, and cWCG. As shown in Fig. 4a, the onset of
CB oxidation into either carbon dioxide (CO2) or carbon monoxide
(CO) occurred at around 550  C. On the other hand, WCG was
readily oxidized at a considerable lower temperature, with the gap
between WCG and cWCG at 300e400  C representing difference in
degree of volatilization. While the XRD patterns of cWCG and CB
are similar (Fig. 5), the oxidation initiation temperature of cWCG
(350  C) was notably lower than CB (550  C). The heteroatoms and
hydrogen contained in WCG and cWCG, which are low in concen-
tration in CB, could lead to gasification reactions that form addi-
tional oxidizable fuels. By heteroatoms, we refer to elements and
components aside from carbon and ash. As shown in the general-
ized pyrolysis reaction below, the heteroatoms are crucial in
explaining the behavior of WCG and cWCG during carbon fuel cell
operation [39].

Cx Hy Oz ðsÞ¼H2 ðgÞþCH4 ðgÞþC2 H4 ðgÞþCOðgÞþCO2 ðgÞþCðsÞ (1)

Fig. 7. Thermodynamically calculated mole fraction of CO (red dash line) and CO2
In the same manner, the TGA under inert gas condition supports (black solid line) as a function of temperature at 1 atm (For interpretation of the ref-
the observations above (Fig. 4b). Without any oxidants, CB was erences to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
stable, as shown by the absence of any mass loss up to 800  C. This article.).

is consistent with the high stability of the almost heteroatom-free

CB in inert gas. In the region between 400  C and 700  C, both
water-gas shift reaction) [39,40] that improves the oxidation ki-
cWCG and CB have parallel mass loss curves, with slightly
netics and lowers the cell polarization. As observed in Table 2,
decreasing mass as the temperature was increased. Table 2 displays
sulfur seemed to be volatilized first, and then followed by the other
the difference in the elemental composition between CB, WCG, and
elements. Then, Ni-YSZ anode could deteriorate with sulfur, which
cWCG at various carbonization times. After only 7 min of carbon-
can be utilized as a possible fuel in liquid tin anode solid oxide fuel
ization, the hydrogen content of WCG dropped from 7.25 wt.% to
cell system [41]. Thus, this system could be considered in biomass
1.04 wt.%, which could lead to formation of water and small organic
fuel cells in order to prevent the sulfur poisoning to anode surface
molecules. Consequently, water could initiate the gasification (e.g.
and to enhance cell performance. In addition, carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen are all involved in the gasification reactions, as shown in the
change in their concentrations, consistent with the reaction in
eqn. (1).
Unlike CB, both WCG and cWCG were gasified due to the pres-
ence of the intrinsic heteroatoms and its high hydrogen content. To
better understand the reactions in the fuel cell, WCG was gasified
under the same conditions, except that the gasification was carried
out in the absence of O2 ion supply. The presence of O2 ion during
gas production can further oxidize the gaseous products and thus
hide the effect of the intrinsic heteroatoms and hydrogen. The exit

Table 3
Surface area of carbon black, waste coffee grounds and carbonized waste coffee
grounds.

Sample Analytic modela Surface area/m2 g1

Carbon black BET eq. 782.23

Waste coffee ground BET eq. 3.14
Carbonized waste 7 min Langmuir eq. 288.47
coffee ground 15 min Langmuir eq. 511.27
Fig. 6. Gas composition of the gasified waste coffee ground as a function of the reactor
30 min Langmuir eq. 807.54
temperature. The gasification products are CO (solid), CO2 (dash), CH4 (short dot), C2H4
a
(dash-dot), and C2H6 (dot). A proper model is applied in terms of the shape of isotherm.
438 H. Jang et al. / Journal of Power Sources 296 (2015) 433e439

Fig. 8. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of ash retrieved from waste coffee grounds,
including C MgO, : KCaPO4 and A K6Fe2O5.

gas distribution during gasification depends mainly on the reactor
temperature. The gaseous stream is composed of H2, O2, CO, CO2
and various C1 to C3 hydrocarbons, as expected from the biomass
pyrolysis reaction in eqn. (1). The yields of some of the pyrolysis
products from WCG are plotted in Fig. 6. Hydrocarbon products
were predominant at 750  C, proving that the hydrogen content
difference between WCG and cWCG played a crucial role in the
pyrolytic reactions. Upon reaching 800  C, the sample seemed to
have been oxidized by the elemental oxygen within the sample.
Furthermore, at higher temperatures, the CO/CO2 ratio increased
and became well-matched with the thermodynamically computed
COeCO2 speciation (Fig. 7). Regardless of the reactor temperature,
formation of oxidizable gases (e.g. CO and hydrocarbons) provided
additional fuel in the electrochemical system. This is advantageous
due to the higher accessibility of the gaseous reactants to the TPBs,
leading to sustained electrochemical oxidation in the cell. This is
reflected in the decrease in the anodic polarization and lowering of
the cell resistance in Fig. 2.
The gasification reactions in Fig. 4b occurred vigorously at
temperatures higher than 800  C, resulting to a steeper mass loss
slope in cWCG than in WCG. This is due to the difference in the
specific surface area (SSA) of the samples, as shown in Table 3.
During carbonization, the SSA of WCG sharply increased with heat-
treatment time. For instance, the SSA of WCG (807.54 m2 g1) ap-
proaches that of CB (782.23 m2 g1) after only 30 min of carbon-
ization. Thus, increased SSA from gasification could provide more
reaction sites between the solid fuels and gases.
Unlike the ash contents of most carbon materials [17], the
amount of ash in WCG is more than 1% (Table 1) and the ash con-
sists not of silicate but mostly of MgO, KCaPO4 and K6Fe2O5 (Fig. 8
Scheme 1. Illustration on a biomass fuel cell powered by waste coffee grounds (WCG).
The gasification of the WCG components is crucial in the production of easily oxidiz-
able gaseous fuels, leading to good electrochemical conversion in the carbon fuel cell.
and Table 4). The impact of these minerals in the fuel cell opera-
tion should be considered in future studies. Generally, the presence
of ash in solid oxide fuel cells is not as serious as that in molten
carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) due to the easier separation of ash [17].
Nevertheless, the accumulation of ash onto anode surface and pore
could eventually lead to fuel cell activity degradation by hiding
TPBs.
4. Conclusion
In this paper, we first report on the characteristics and perfor-
mance of waste coffee grounds (WCG) as fuel in carbon fuel cell
technology. At a cell operating temperature of 900  C, WCG-
powered fuel cells exhibited a maximum power density that is
almost twice than that of carbon black. Using various character-
ization techniques (e.g. TGA, XRD, GCeMS), we show that the
heteroatoms and hydrogen initially contained in WCG were crucial
in the in-situ gasification of WCG to produce electrochemically
oxidizable products (i.e. H2, CO and hydrocarbons), see Scheme 1.
The gaseous products of gasification could then easily access the
TPB reaction sites, resulting to decreased cell polarization. While it
would be relevant to study in detail the gasification reactions in
WCG-powered fuel cells, the complexity of gasification reactions in
this setting is limiting. Future studies should focus in looking at the
possible effects of the ash composition in WCG in its long-term fuel

Table 4
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy of carbon black, coffee grounds, waste coffee grounds and carbonized waste coffee grounds (TEM-EDS; Oxford, INCAx, England).

Samplea C O S Mg P K Ca Fe

Carbon black (Timcal 350G) 97.08 2.92

97.79 2.21
Coffee ground 91.13 5.48 1.16 0.64 0.35 0.75 0.45 0.03
94.43 4.27 0.45 0.33 0.14 0.24 0.14 0.01
Waste coffee ground 89.72 6.83 0.72 0.62 0.39 0.75 0.95 0.01
93.36 5.34 0.28 0.32 0.16 0.24 0.30 0.00
Carbonized waste coffee ground 91.66 6.12 0.06 0.56 0.43 0.94 0.23 0.01
94.42 4.73 0.02 0.29 0.17 0.30 0.07 0.00
a
The upper values in each space are in wt.%-basis and the lower ones are at.%-basis.
 H. Jang et al. / Journal of Power Sources 296 (2015) 433e439
cell performance. Nevertheless, this work provides sufficient evi-
dence that WCG can indeed be used as fuels in a high temperature
fuel cell technology.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the New & Renewable Energy
Development Program of the Korea Institute of Energy Technology
Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) grant funded by the Korea Gov-
ernment Ministry of Knowledge Economy (No. 20113020030010).
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