Full Thesis

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF
DIVERGING-CONVERGING
FLUIDISED BED BIOREACTOR
1
CONTENTS
Page No
.
1. CHAPTER 1 07 - 21
2. CHAPTER 2 08 - 46
3. CHAPTER 3 47 - 83
4. CHAPTER 4 84 - 108
5. CHAPTER 5 109 - 113
6. APPENDIX 114 - 132
2
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Figure 1.1: Schematic of phenomenon of fluidization.
2. Figure 1.2: Schematic of recirculating fluidized bed ( gas fluidized bed).
3. Figure 1.3: Schematic of spouted bed.
4. Figure 1.4: Schematic of Semifluidized bed.
5. Figure 1.5: Schematic of Inverse fluidized bed with very fine particles.
6. Figure 1.6: Schematic of Inverse fluidized bed with particles lighter than the liquid.
7. Figure 1.7: Schematic of Three phase fluidized bed ( cocurrent flow, liquid:
continuous phase, liquid: dispersed phase).
8. Figure 1.8: Schematic of Three phase fluidized bed ( cocurrent flow, gas: continuous
phase, liquid: dispersed phase.
9. Figure 1.9: Three phase fluidized bed ( countercurrent flow, liquid: continuous
phase, gas: dispersed phase).
10. Figure 1.10: Three phase fluidized bed ( countercurrent flow, gas: continuous phase,
liquid: dispersed phase).
11. Figure 1.11: Schematic of Fluidized bed bioreactor.
12. Figure 1.12: Type of fluidized bed bioreactors: (a) particles accomodating
immobilized enzyme. (b) particles accommodating immobilized cell. (c) microbial
flocs (d) particle biofilm aggregate.
13. Figure 3.1: Schematic of the bioreactor of proposed design.
14. Figure 3.2: Computation flow chart.
15. Figure 4.1: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with
Substrate Flowrate (Q0) for Kinetic Equation-1 (Equation 3.33), Cell Mass
Concentration in Biofilm ( ) = 250 gm/L and ( ) = 275 gm/L.
3
16. Figure 4.2: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with
Substrate Flowrate (Q0) for Kinetic Equation-2 (Equation 3.34), Cell Mass
Concentration in Biofilm ( ) = 150 gm/L and ( ) = 175 gm/L.
17. Figure 4.3: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with Initial
Substrate ( sucrose ) Concentration (CS0) at Different Values of Substrate Flowrate
(Q0) for Kinetic Equation-1(Equation 3.33), Cell Mass Concentration in Biofilm ( ) =
250 gm/L.
18. Figure 4.4: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with Initial
Substrate ( sucrose ) Concentration (CS0) for Kinetic Equation-1 (Equation 3.33), Cell
Mass Concentration in Biofilm ( ) = 275 gm/L.
19. Figure 4.5: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) With Initial
Substrate ( lactose ) Concentration (CS0) For Kinetic Equation-2(Equation 3.34), Cell
20. Figure 4.6: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) With Initial
21. Figure 4.7: Comparison Between Performance of Bioreactor of Proposed Design and
that of Bioreactor of Conventional Design (of Same Reactor Volume), for Kinetic
Equation-1 (Equation 3.33), Cell Mass Concentration in Biofilm ( ) = 250 gm/L.
24. Figure 4.10: Comparison Between Performance of Bioreactor of Proposed Design

and that of Bioreactor of Conventional Design (of Same Reactor Volume), for Kinetic
25. Figure 4.10a: Variation of Percentage Enhancement in fractional conversion attained

with Substrate Flowrate (Q0). Curve – 1 and Curve – 3 correspond to Kinetic
Equation-2(Equation 3.34). Curve – 2 and Curve – 4 correspond to Kinetic
Equation-1(Equation 3.33).

Equation-1 (Equation 3.33), Cell Mass Concentration in Biofilm ( ) = 250 gm/L and
Q0 = 7 L/s.
4
Q0 = 7 L/s.

with Feed Substrate ( sucrose ) Concentration (CS0). Kinetic Equation-1(Equation
3.33).

Q0 = 7 L/s.

Q0 = 7 L/s.

with Feed Substrate ( sucrose ) Concentration (CS0). Kinetic Equation-2(Equation
3.34).
5
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DURGAPUR
DURGAPUR, INDIA – 713209
MAY 2013
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled “Performance analysis of Diverging-Converging
fluidised bed bioreactor” submitted by
Amit Kumar (09/CHE/01)
Soni Jha (09/CHE/17)
Arpita Saha (09/CHE/23)
Ananya Basak (09/CHE/50)
in partial fulfilment of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering is a

bonafide record of the work carried out by them under my supervision and guidance. In my
opinion, the project work has satisfied the prescribed standard for the degree for which it has
been submitted.
PROF.( DR.) C.M.NARAYANAN
www.profcmn.com
6
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
7
1.1 PHENOMENON OF FLUIDIZATION
Fluidization is the operation by which solid particles are transformed into a fluidlike state
through suspension in a gas or liquid.
If a fluid is passed upward through a bed of fine particles at a low flowrate , the fluid merely
percolates through the void spaces between stationary particles. This is a fixed bed.
With an increase in flowrate, particles move apart and few vibrate and move in restricted
regions. At a still higher velocity, a point is reached where all the particles are just suspended
by the upward flowing gas or liquid. At this point the frictional force between particle and
fluid just counterbalances the weight of the particles, the vertical component of the
compressive force between adjacent particles disappears and the pressure drop through any
section of the bed about equals the weight of fluid and particles in that section. The bed is
considered to be just fluidized and is referred to as an incipiently fluidized bed or a bed at
minimum fluidization.
In liquid-solid systems, an increase in flowrate above minimum fluidization results in a
smooth, progressive expansion of the bed. Gross flow instabilities are damped and remain
small and heterogeneity or large scale voids of liquid are not observed under normal
conditions. A bed such as this is called a particulately fluidized bed, a homogeneously
fluidized bed, or a smoothly fluidized bed. In gas-solid systems, such beds can be observed
only under special conditions of fine light particles with dense gas at high pressure.
Generally, gas-solid systems behave quite differently. With an increase in flowrate beyond
minimum fluidization, large instabilities with bubbling and channeling of gas are observed.
At higher flowrates, agitation becomes more violent and the movement of solids becomes
more vigorous. In addition, the bed does not expand much beyond its volume at minimum
fluidization. Such a bed is called an aggregative fluidized bed, a heterogeneous fluidized
bed, or a bubbling fluidized bed. In a few rare cases, liquid-solid systems also behave as
bubbling beds. This occurs only with very dense solids fluidized by low density liquids.
Both gas and liquid systems are considered to be dense-phase fluidized beds as long as there
is a clearly defined upper limit or surface to the bed.
8
Figure 1.1: Schematic of phenomenon of fluidization
In gas-solid systems, gas bubbles coalesce and grow as they rise and in a deep enough bed of
small diameter, they may eventually become large enough to spread across the vessel. In the
case of fine particles, they flow smoothly down by the wall around the rising void of gas.
This is called slugging, with axial slugs. For coarse particles, the portion of the bed above
the bubble is pushed upward, as by a piston. Particles rain down from the slug , which finally
disintegrates. At about this time another slug forms, and this unstable oscillatory motion is
repeated. This is called a flat slug. Slugging is especially serious in long, narrow fluidized
beds.
9
When fine particles are fluidized at a sufficiently high gas or liquid flow rate, the terminal
velocity of the solids is exceeded, the upper surface of the bed disappears, entrainment
becomes appreciable, and, instead of bubbles, one observes a turbulent motion of solid
clusters and voids of fluids of various sizes and shapes. This is the turbulent fluidized bed.
With a further increase in fluid velocity, solids are carried out of the bed with the fluid. In this
state, we have a disperse- , dilute- , or lean-phase fluidized bed with pneumatic
transport of solids..
In many fluidized beds, smooth and steady recirculation of solids through a recirculation leg
is beneficial good operations, these beds are called circulating fluidized beds.
CYCLONE
SEPARATOR
FLUID
DISTRIBUTOR
Figure 1.2: Schematic of recirculating fluidized bed ( gas fluidized bed)
The spouted bed represents a contacting mode wherein comparatively coarse, uniformly
sized solids are contacted by fluid. In this operation, a high-velocity spout of fluid punches
through the bed of solids, thereby transporting particles to the top of the bed. The rest of the
solids move downward slowly around the spout and through the gently upward percolating
fluid.
10
Figure 1.3: Schematic of spouted bed
Semifluidized bed is characterized by simultaneous formation of packed bed and fluidized

bed, as well as an adjustable top constraint that allows the fluid to pass through, thus,
preventing the free expansion commonly found in fluidized bed. In other words, fluid flows
upward with a superficial operating velocity greater than the minimum fluidization velocity
and lesser than the terminal settling velocity of each particle. With an increase in flowrate ,
particles are just suspended by the upward flowing fluid and is then allowed to expand. But
particles reaching the top constraint (porous plate) will accumulate there forming a packed
bed as particles do not pass through the porous plate. But liquid can pass through the top
porous plate and it then moves out. Thus, the bottom portion of the bed is in fluidized
condition while the top portion of the bed assumes a packed bed state.
Unlike fluidized bed, higher velocity of fluid in semifluidized bed is possible and this lessens
the external mass transfer resistance. Furthermore, improved mass transfer in semifluidized
bed at the cost of higher-pressure drop is compensated by lower operation cost through
efficient use of oxygen. The top packed bed portion complement the fluidized bed portion by
acting as a polishing section and this lowers the level of contaminants as compared to
fluidized bed. Semifluidized bed do not exhibit elutriation of the particles coated with
microorganisms, and unstable bed expansion commonly associated with fluidized bed.
Similarly, technical challenges such as plugging of the bed by solids found in fixed-bed
operations are eliminated in semifluidized bed.
11
PACKED BED
FLUIDIZED BED
Figure 1.4: Schematic of Semifluidized bed.
Inverse fluidized bed is another type of fluidized bed system. The difference between
conventional and inverse fluidization is usually in the density of solid particles used. In the
case of conventional fluidization, density and size of solid particles is greater than the liquid,
whereas in inverse fluidization it is usually less than the liquid.
Inverse fluidization is achieved by countercurrent flow of liquid and solids where liquid is
passed from the top of the column and it flows down. Operation can be achieved in two ways:
(a) Using very fine particles such as nano particles. These fine particles are mixed with
feed liquid and then fed to the column (as shown in fig. 1.5). Since their settling
velocity close to zero, particles remain in suspension in the liquid and the entire
suspension flows down the column. At the bottom it passes through the bottom
porous plate and is sent to a membrane filter. The liquid passes through the filter
medium and the particles that are retained by the membrane are pneumatically
conveyed back to the overhead mixing tank.
12
Figure 1.5: Schematic of Inverse fluidized bed with very fine particles.
(b) Using particles of low density, that are lighter than the liquid. Liquid is fed from top
and it flows down keeping the particles in suspension. Only liquid passes through the
bottom porous plate and the particles remain behind in the fluidized bed inside the
column (as shown in fig- 1.6). Thus, no recycle of particles is required.
13
LIQUID
Figure 1.6: Schematic of Inverse fluidized bed with particles lighter than the liquid.
In a three phase fluidized bed , a bed of solids is fluidized instead of by a single fluid,
simultaneously by two fluids ( gas and liquid). The gas and liquid may flow cocurrently or
countercurrently. Either the gas or the liquid could form the continuous phase. Accordingly,
there may be four modes of operation such as
(a) co-current flow of liquid and gas with liquid forming the continuous phase (as
shown in fig-1.7)
(b) co-current flow of liquid and gas with gas forming the continuous phase (as shown
in fig-1.8)
(c) counter-current flow of liquid and gas with liquid forming the continuous phase (as
shown in fig-1.9).
(d) counter-current flow of liquid and gas with gas forming the continuous phase(as
shown in fig-1.10)
In cocurrent operation with liquid as the continuous phase, the particles are supported by
the liquid with the gas forming discrete bubbles. Both the gas and the liquid are admitted
from the bottom of the column. This mode of operation is generally referred to as gas-
liquid fluidization.
14
If the gas flowrate is progressively increased, then a stage will be reached when the gas
becomes the continuous phase and the liquid becomes the dispersed phase in the form of
liquid films or droplets.
Figure 1.7: Schematic of Three phase Figure 1.8: Schematic of Three phase
fluidized bed ( cocurrent flow, liquid: fluidized bed ( cocurrent flow, gas:
continuous phase, liquid: dispersed phase) continuous phase, liquid: dispersed phase)
In
In countercurrent operation with liquid or gas as the continuous phase, gas is admitted
from the bottom wheras liquid is admitted from the top. When liquid is forming the
continuous phase, the particles are supported by the liquid with the gas forming the
discrete bubbles. And when gas is forming the continuous phase, liquid becomes the
dispersed phase in the form of liquid films or droplets.
15
Figure 1.9: Three phase fluidized bed ( Figure 1.10: Three phase fluidized bed (
countercurrent flow, liquid: continuous phase, gas: countercurrent flow, gas: continuous phase, liquid:
dispersed phase) dispersed phase)
The main advantages of fluidized bed are

1. The smooth, liquid-like flow of particles allows continuous operation with easy handling.
2. The rapid mixing of solids leads to close to isothermal conditions throughout the bed,
hence the operation can be controlled simply and reliably.
3. It is suitable for large scale operations.
4. Heat and mass transfer rates between fluid and particles are high when compared with
other modes of contacting.
5. The circulation of solids between two fluidized beds makes it possible to remove the vast
quantities of heat produced (or needed) in large reactors.
6. The rates of heat transfer between a fluidized bed and an immersed object is high; hence,
heat exchangers within fluidized beds require relatively small surface areas.
16
7. Contacting efficiency is much better.
8. No channeling problem as every particle is uniformly surrounded by fluid.
The main disadvantages of fluidized bed are

1. Friable solids could be pulverized and entrained by the fluid.
2. Erosion of pipes and vessels from abrasion by particles can be serious.
3. For noncatalytic operations at high temperature, the agglomeration and sintering of fine
particles can require a lowering in temperature of operations, thereby reducing the reaction
rate considerably.
4. The rapid mixing of solids leads to non uniform residence times of solids in the reactor.
For continuous treatment of solids, this gives a non uniform product and poorer performance,
especially at high conversion levels. For catalytic reactions, the movement of porous catalyst
particles, which continually capture and release reactant molecules, contributes to the
backmixing of reactant , thereby reducing yield and performance.
1.2 FLUIDIZED BED BIOREACTORS
In a fluidized bed bioreactor, the substrate solution is passed upward through a bed of support
particles which accommodate immobilized enzyme, immobilized cell or may be particles
surrounded by a thin biofilm. These particles are fluidized by the upward moving fluid which
is admitted through the bottom fluid distributor. Superficial operating velocity of the fluid
should be more than minimum fluidization velocity but less than terminal settling velocity of
each particle. It has a disengagement space of larger diameter at the top which helps in
preventing the entrainment of the particles in the fluid stream. Due to decrease in fluid
velocity (because of increase in cross sectional area), the entrained particles settle down back
to the fluidized bed. These reactors eliminate the need of enzymes recovery and recycle.
As compared to packed bed bioreactors, fluidized bed bioreactors have distinct advantages
such as large surface areas for biomass attachment, minimization of channelling, plugging or
gas hold-up.The fluidized bed bioreactor may be operated at high up-flow or inverse flow of
fluid.
17
DISENGAGEMENT
SPACE
PRODUCT
SOLUTION
SUPPORT
PARTICLES
FLUID
DISTRIBUTOR
FEED SOLUTION
Figure 1.11: Schematic of Fluidized bed bioreactor.
18
Fluidized bed bio-reactors can be classified into following categories.
a) IMMOBILIZED ENZYME BIOREACTORS
Here, the solid phase contains the enzyme immobilized on its surface or entrapped
inside it and the immobilized enzyme catalyses the biochemical reaction. The liquid
phase contains the substrate to be converted to product. Support particles
accommodating immobilized enzyme are fluidized by the upward flowing stream of
substrate solution and remains suspended in the fluid stream (as shown in fig-1.12).
Support particles used for enzyme immobilization include polymer beads, silica,
activated carbon, etc. Ways of immobilization are
1. Covalent binding: the binding of enzymes to water-insoluble carriers

2. Cross-Linking: intermolecular cross-linking of enzymes by bi-functional or
multi-functional reagents.
3. Entrapping : incorporating enzymes into the lattices of a semi-permeable gel
or enclosing the enzymes in a semi-permeable polymer membrane.
4. Adsorption: enzyme is attached to the outside of an inert material. As
adsorption is not a chemical reaction, the active site of the immobilized
enzyme may be blocked by the matrix or bead, greatly reducing the activity of
the enzyme.
5. Encapsulation: involves entrapping the enzymes within a semipermeable
membrane such as cellulose nitrate and nylon-based membranes.
b) IMMOBIZED CELL BIOREACTORS
Here, the solid phase contains the microbial cells immobilized on its surface or
entrapped inside it and the immobilized cells catalyse the biochemical reaction.
The liquid phase contains the substrate to be converted to product. Support
particles accommodating immobilized cell are fluidized by upward flowing stream
of substrate solution and remains suspended in the fluid stream. Support particles
used for cell immobilization include polymer beads, silica, activated carbon, etc.
c) TOWER BIOREACTORS
The solid phase consists of microbial flocs which are kept fluidized by the upward flow of
the medium. In these type of reactors, washout of flocs is minimized by having a
disengagement space and an internal settler at top of the reactor. Due to this disengagement
space superficial liquid velocity at the top of the rector decreases and hence the flocs settle
back into the reactor without getting washed out. Also increase in floc diameter due to its
growth increases its settling velocity and this helps in retaining it the bio-reactor.
d) BIOFILM REACTOR
In this type, the microorganisms grow as a film on media particles. The media particles
usually of clay or sand or other inert materials offer very high surface area for the biomass to
grow as biofilm. When biofilm grows very large in size, it dissociates and falls out and is
immediately replaced by fresh biofilm. This phenomenon is called sloughing (as shown in
fig-1.15).
In this type, a higher upward flow velocity of the fluid can be employed compared to
microbial floc bioreactors because density of particle biofilm aggregate is greater than single
floc. However, during operation due to microbial growth, overall density of bio particle
decreases with time which usually leads to washout of the over - grown bioparticles. Under
19
these circumstances these over-grown bioparticles are intentionally washed out of the bio
reactor and by using a mechanical device, the biomass is separated from the inert media and
the inert media returned to the bioreactor whereas the separated biomass is disposed as excess
sludge.
20
Figure 1.12: Type of fluidized bed bioreactors: (a) particles accomodating immobilized enzyme. (b) particles
accommodating immobilized cell. (c) microbial flocs (d) particle biofilm aggregate.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF PRESENT STUDY
The objectives of present study are
1. To analyze the characteristic fluidized bed biofilm reactor of

diverging-converging geometry.
2. To compare the performance of fluidized bed bioreactor of above

proposed design with that of conventional fluidized bed bioreactor (of
cylindrical geometry) but of same reactor volume.
21
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
22
Rickley and Reynolds (1964) have reported studies on numerical solutions of free-molecule
flow in converging and diverging tubes and slots. They developed the integral equations
governing flux distributions for free molecule flow through converging or diverging tubes
and slots. Solution of the wall flux equations was accomplished by application of an iterative
procedure .specific cases studied in the analysis were tube length to radius ratios ;slot length
to width ratios and for each ratio, upto 14 variations of wall half-angle ranging from 75 to -
60°. Wall and exit aperture flux distributions and total and direct transmission probabilities
were prevented as functions of these parameters.
Total transmission probabilities for the convergent and divergent tubes are shown in a plot
where total transmission probability is plot against length to inert radius ratios, . For
divergent tubes, the transmission probability appears to become asymptotic especially for
half angles greater than about 20° where the total transmission probability levels off at a
length to inlet radius ratio of about 10. Another plot shows total transmission probabilities for
convergent divergent slots against length to initial width ratios. The behaviour was found to
be qualitatively similar to that tubes.
The direct transmission probabilities for the tubes and slots were also tabulated and
plotted. These probabilities rapidly approach limiting values as the length radius ratios, or
length width ratios approach infinity. Physically, as the ratio of the length to initial width (or
radius) increases for a fixed wall half angle, the percentage approaching particles that can
escape directly through the exit at angles greater than the wall half angle β tends to
decrease.
Values of the incident flux or arrival rate at the wall of the convergent or divergent tube are
tabulated and several plots of data from the table are shown in a figure. Wall flux varies
nearly linearly along the tube length for β = 0, is concave downward for the converging tube
and is concave upward for the diverging tube.
Wall flux values for converging diverging slots show qualitatively similar behaviour as of the
tubes.
The qualitative behaviour of these components of the flux curves is shown in a plot of
relative eall flux verses distance.
Flux values across the exit plane at different radial distances from the tube axis are tabulated
for convergent and divergent tubes. Flux distributions across the exit plane of tubes of
various wall half angle are shown in a plot against length to inlet radius ratios. The
magnitude of the curves decreases with increasing length to radius ratio.
23
For converging-diverging slots, flux values across the exit plane at different lateral distances
from the centreline are tabulated and plotted similarly. The general behaviour of the exit
plane curves is qualitatively similar for slots and tubes.
This report determines the flow characteristics of converging or diverging tubes and slots
under conditions of free molecule flow. It was found that the values of transmission
probabilities were in agreement with previous investigations. Wall flux distributions for the
tubes and slots were qualitatively similar to each other and were found to vary nearly linearly
with distance for the zero wall half-angle configuration.
Sparrow and Prata (1983) have reported studies on numerical solutions for laminar flow
and heat transfer in a periodically converging-diverging tube, with experimental
confirmation. A solution methodology has been employed that enables the fully developed
regime in a duct of periodically varying cross section to be determined without dealing with
the entrance region. The periodic duct considered here was a tube consisting of a succession
of alternately converging and diverging conical sections. The numerical work was carried out
for laminar flow in Reynolds number range from 100 to 1000, for various taper angles of the
converging and diverging sections, for two length-diameter ratios of the periodic geometry,
and for Prandtl numbers of 0.7, 2.5 and 5. Experiments were also performed to verify the
numerical predictions for the Nusselt number, and excellent agreement was found to prevail.
For Pr=0.7, the periodic tube results generally fell below those for the straight tube, while for
Pr=5, moderate enhancement occurred due to the periodic area change. The pressure drops
for the periodic tube were substantially greater than those for the straight tube.
Lahbabi and Chang (1986) have reported studies on flow in periodically constricted tubes:
Transition to inertial and nonsteady flows. A global spectral method was used in the solution
of Navier-Stokes equation in periodically constricted tubes considering fully three-
dimensional and time-dependent flows. Friction factors from the computed axisymmetric
stationary flow field were found to be in excellent agreement with the experimental data deep
into the inertial region where a pronounced flow-separation region was found within the tube.
This stationary solution was stable to axisymmetric disturbance at all Reynolds numbers but
destabilizes to azimuthal-dependent disturbance at a critical Reynolds number. Due to the
rotational symmetry, the Hopf bifurcation that occurred at the critical Reynolds number was a
degenerate one with two identical pairs of neutrally stable Eigen values. Nonlinear analysis
based on the centre manifold theorem and normal form analysis was carried out on a reduced
version of the full equation to characterize the Hopf bifurcation.
Chandra and Prasad (1992) presented a mathematical study which involved the formulation
off the problem on the pulsatile flow in circular tubes of varying cross section and its method
of solution. The fluid exchange across the wall was accounted for by prescribing the normal
velocity of the fluid at the wall and a perturbation analysis was carried out for low Reynolds
number flows and small amplitudes of oscillation. The analysis showed that the flow
variables ω, wall shear stress and pressure drop ∆p depended upon:
24
1. ; leakage parameter
2. Re; entrance Reynolds number
3. ᴧ2 = iα2 where α2 = Womersley’s parameter
Further assuming the perturbation parameters = 0.1 and δ = 0.1, the following expressions
were obtained for the radius of the tube r = S(x) as
a. ; for locally constricted tubes and

b. S(x) = 1+ 0.2 sin [ 2π x ] ; for the sinusoidal tubes.
The above expressions led to the conclusion that the suction decreases the shear stress at the
wall for a converging diverging tube. However the effect is more pronounced in the
converging diverging tubes with sinusoidal wall geometry than locally constricted tubes.
Though both show periodic behaviour with time and it decreases as the frequency parameter
increases. Also pressure drop decreases with suction. Further, an increase in the Reynolds
number results in an increase of the wall shear stress in the converging portion and decreases
in the diverging portion of the tube.
Ghosh, Maiti and Bhattacharya (1993) have reported studies on gas hold-up in converging-
diverging tube air lift fermenter. Fractional gas hold-up study was carried out in two air lift
fermenters. One having of conventional design that is Uniform Tube riser arm, the other
having an asymmetric riser arm which has converging-diverging sections. However in both
the cases, the height and volume of the riser are maintained equal. The system investigated
was air and sodium sulphite solution (15 - 25 g / L) at 28oC – 30oC.
The empirical correlation for fractional hold up, with the ratio of superficial gas velocity
to bubble rise velocity, UG / UB was proposed by them as,
= 0.135 ( UG / UB ) 0.77 (for Converging-Diverging tube Airlift Fermenter)
= 0.090 ( UG / UB ) 1.26 (for Uniform Tube Airlift Fermenter).
The bubble rise velocity is calculated from,
UB = ( g1.5 dB2.5 / 47 )0.5
Where = liquid density, g/cc
g = acceleration due to gravity, cm/s2
25
dB = bubble diameter, cm
= liquid viscosity, poise (g/cm-s)
where the bubble diameter dB is calculated from
where = liquid surface tension, dyne/cm
δ = porous plate pore diameter, cm
It was found that significantly increased with superficial velocity but the increase was
relatively more enhanced in case of the riser with converging-diverging geometry. This is
because of the larger interfacial area of the bubbles generated during the flow in the
converging-diverging paths of the riser tube. Gas hold-up also increased with decreasing
liquid height, hi and the change being larger in the case of Converging-Diverging Tube
(CDT).
Ghosh, Maiti and Bhattacharya (1993) have reported studies on Mass Transfer
characteristics of a modified airlift fermenter. An approach to modify external loop airlift
bioreactor is prevented that examines its performance with respect to mass transfer. In the
proposed system the uniform tube riser of the system has been replaced by a converging-
diverging tube to enhance mass transfer by bubble flow, pulsation effect and early transition
to turbulence at low Reynolds No. The experimental setup consisted of the 2 types of airlift
fermenters. Except for the riser part there are no major differences between them. In this
investigation mass transfer experiments for air-water system have been carried out taking
into consideration the gas hold-up, initial liquid height and superficial gas velocity by using
the classical sulphite oxidation method. The decrease in sulphite concentration with
concentration with time was determined by analysing liquid samples taken at regular
intervals of 5mins. The values of volumetric liquid phase mass transfer coefficient KL w.r.t.
unit volume of aerated liquid was calculated by the relation, Assuming that both gas and
liquid phases were completely mixed for both the fermenters, an empirical correlation was
developed:
The final correlation for KLA may be prevented as,
For Uniform Tube airlift fermenter (UT-ALF)
26
= 0.0091
For Convergent Divergent Tube airlift fermenter(CDT-ALF)
= 0.0187
where, Dave = average diameter of the riser column (m)
KLa = overall volumetric mass transfer coefficient (1/s)
UG = superficial gas velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s^2)
=fractional gas hold up(dimensionless)
hi =initial liquid height (m)
ΔH = hi - h0 = difference in dispersed liquid height (m)
hi = dispersed liquid height in riser (m)
h0 = dispersed liquid height in downcomer (m)
[ ] = Fr , modified Froud number
The effect of UG on volumetric mass transfer coefficients KLa has opposite trends in the two
types of airlift fermenters. KLa decreased in CDT-ALF as UG increased to higher values
beyond the bubble flow regime. But in case of UT-ALF the reverse trend is noted. The effect
of initial height hi on KLa is that lower the value of hi , the higher the value of KLa for both
types of airlift fermenters. Therefore KLa is inversely proportional to hi .
Nishimura, Matsune (1998) have reported studies on vortices and wall shear stresses in
asymmetric and symmetric channels with sinusoidal wavy walls for pulsatile flow at low
Reynolds numbers. Numerical simulation and flow visualization were performed to study the
dynamic behaviour of vortices generated in channels with two different geometries, that is, a
periodically converging-diverging channel and serpentine channel, both having sinusoidal
wavy walls. This system for pulsatile flow was used to enhance heat and mass transfer in
very viscous liquids. The numerical results predicted well the dynamic behaviour of vortices
and agreed with the flow visualizations. For both channels, the vortex expanded in each
furrow of the channel walls during the deceleration phase and shrunk during the acceleration
27
phase, which led to fluid exchange between the vortex and the main stream. The time-
averaged vortex strength and wall shear stresses increased, as the frequency of fluid
oscillation increased under a fixed oscillatory fraction of the flow rate. However, above a
certain value of the frequency, they reversely decreased due to viscous effects. This
frequency for the serpentine channel was smaller than that for the converging-diverging
channel. This channel geometries were found to have an important effect on the flow
characteristics.
Oyakawa, Shinzato and Mabuchi (1998) have reported studies on the effect of Channel
Width on heat transfer augmentation in a sinusoidal wave channel. The experiment was
carried out in a blower type,wavy sinusoidal channel was width,W = 20mm, wavelength P=
80mm and 125 wavelengths long. The entrance and downstream sections were both 200mm
in span. The pressure drop was determined by the hydraulic pressure gradient lines where the
pressures at successive points separated by wavelength P were measured using ɸ 0.5mm
static pressure taps installed in centre lines of the side wall of the channel. The heat transfer
surfaces, both the wavy walls were produced by attaching stainless foils of 30µm thickness
divided into 3parts along the span, and the surface heat flux qw was maintained uniform
under direct current heating. The wavy wall surface temperature was measured by means of a
copper constantan thermocouple of ɸ70 µm soldered midspan on the back of the foil. The
flow was visualized in the channel using fluorescein as tracer. The relations proposed by
them are:
Ƞ1 = ħ / ħo , under the condition of equal channel width.
Where ħ = average heat transfer coefficient for present system.
ħ0 = average heat transfer coefficient for a straight parallel plate duct.
The ratio Ƞ1 has been plotted against Reynold’s No. Re for various channel widths, H. It has
been seen that in general Ƞ1 takes a higher value for all channel widths at low regimes of Re.
the plot shows that the value of Ƞ1 varies from 1-1.5 for Reynold’s No. ,Re range of 3*10^4
- 10^5. Thus Ƞ1 value reaches the maximum value of 1.5. From these results,it was evident
that a wavy channel has an effective performance ratio compared to the straight parallel plate
channel.
The heat transfer augmentating ratio,
28
Ƞ11= ħ / ħref ,
Where , ħ = average heat transfer coefficient for present system.
ħref = average heat transfer coefficient for a reference channel of width H = 30mm.
Similar to the last relation, Ƞ11 was against plotted against Reynold’s No. , Re(ref) for
reference wavy channel. The change of Ƞ11 with h was apparent so as to have a significant
difference at lower Reynold’s No. , Re(ref) regime as a general feature of relative evaluation
of performance. It was seen from the plot that Ƞ11 has maximum value in the channel width
range, H = 35 ~ 40mm and on the other hand Ńu (mean Nusselt No.) reaches a maximum
when H = 40 ~ 50 mm. A comparison was made between performance and Ńu and since
both the performance and Ńu become maximal at H = 40mm or P / H = 2.0 is determined to
give the optimal situation for a wavy channel where P is the pitch. Thus the investigation
found dat the mean Nusselt No. in periodic fully developed regimes depend on the maximum
Nu at the reattachment point of the flow separated from the top of the peak, and reach
maximum at P / H = 2.0 ~ 1.6, the friction factor becomes maximal at the same ratio P / H =
2.0 ~ 1.6. The performance ratio Ƞ11 at equal pumping factor attains a maximum at P / H =
2.29 ~ 2. Thus it can be concluded that the channel is optimal at P / H = 2.0 for augmenting
heat transfer.
Kouris and Tsamopoulos (2000) have reported studies on core-annular flow in a

periodically constricted circular tube: steady state, linear stability and energy analysis. The
concentric, two phase flow of 2 immiscible fluids in a tube having sinusoidally varying cross-
section has been studied. The governing equations have been approximate using the pseudo-
spectral methodology while the Arnoldi algorithm has been implemented for computing the
most critical Eigen values that correspond to asymmetric disturbances. Stationary solutions
exhibiting flow recirculation at the expanding portion of the tube have been obtained.
Generally, steady core-annular flow in this geometry is more susceptible to instability than in
a straight tube. Decreasing the thickness of the annular fluid, inverse Weber number on the
Ohnesorge number or the density of the core fluid stabilizes the flow. The viscosity ratio
must remain strictly below 1 and it has an optimum value which maximizes the range of
allowed Reynolds numbers for stability.
Kouris and Tsamopoulos (2000) have reported studies on core annular flow in a
periodically constricted circular tube: non-linear dynamics. Nonlinear dynamics of the
29
concentric, two phase flow of two immiscible fluids in a circular tube of variable cross-
section has been studied for parameter values where the steady core annular flow (CAF) is
linearly unstable. The simulations have been carried out assuming axial symmetry that the
total flowrate remains constant and that all dependent variables are periodic in the axial
direction. The time integration originates with the numerically computed steady CAF or the
steady CAF seeded with either the most unstable mode or random small disturbances. The
values of the majority of the dimensionless parameters are such that oil flows in the centre of
the tube whereas water flows in the annulus. It has been shown that whereas the steady
(unstable) solution may indicate that the heavier water flows counter currently with respect
to oil,the time periodic (observable) solution may indicate the same, albeit at a much smaller
core flowrate or that concurrent flow occurs. It has also been shown that increasing the
inverse Weber number increases the wave amplitude to the point that the flow of the core
fluid may become discontinuous. Qualitative agreement has been obtained upon comparing
their numerical simulations with limited experimental reports.
Floryan (2001) has reported studies on vortex instability in a diverging-converging channel.

He has shown that under certain conditions the divergence-convergence of the channel leads
to the formation of a secondary flow in the form of stream wire vortices and that the
instability is driven by centrifugal effect. The instability has two modes and conditions
which depend on the amplitude and can be expressed in terms of a critical Reynolds Number.
The global critical conditions describing the minimum critical Reynolds Number required to
create the instability for the specified amplitude of the vibrations of the channel opening are
also given.
Wei, Waters, Liu and Grotberg (2002) have reported studies on the flow in a wavy walled
channel line with a poroelastic layer. Motivated by physiological flows in capillaries, venules
ad the pleural space, the pressure driven flow of a Newtonian fluid in a two- dimensional
wavy walled channel has been studied. The walls are lined with a thin poroelastic layer that
models the Glycocalyx coating of the cell surface. The upper and lower wavy walls are offset
axially by the phase angle φ , where φ = 0 (π) yields an anti-symmetric (symmetric) channel.
Biphasic theory has been employed for the poroelastic layer and the flow is solved by a
lubrication approximation using a small parameter, δ ≪ 1, where δ is the channel width/
wavelength ratio. When the hydraulic resistivity, α, the ratio of the channel width to the
Darcy permeability, is sufficiently large and φ is near enough to π, the flow develops a
trapped recirculation eddy with the Glycocalyx layer near the widest part of the channel.
30
Hossain and Islam(2004) have reported studies on Numerical investigation of unsteady flow
and heat transfer in wavy channels. Two dimensional Navier-Stokes and energy equations
have been solved numerically for unsteady laminar flow in periodic wavy(sinusoidal and
triangular) channels. For both the geometry, individual minimum height has been varied to
understand the flow and heat transfer behaviour properly. In the present study, the flow is
considered to be two-dimensional with no variation in the span wise direction. The base
geometry of minimum height, = 6mm ; maximum height , = 20mm ;amplitude , a
= 3.5mm , and wavelength , λ = 28mm has been considered. Keeping the others constant
minimum heights have been varied. As boundary conditions,no slip conditions with a
constant wall temperature were prescribed along the wall. A uniform velocity was prescribed
at the inlet. In this study,the integral forms of governing equations have been discretized
using control volume based Finite Volume Method with collocated arrangement. Calculations
were performed for several Reynolds No. from a low value upto 500. It has been observed
that at low Reynolds Number. The flow remains steady for both sinusoidal and triangular
channels characterized by steady separation bubbles in the troughs of the waves. With
increase in Reynolds No. beyond a certain critical value,the flow becomes unstable. It has
been observed that the transition to unsteady flow for triangular channel occurs at a lower
Reynolds No. than for sinusoidal channel.
Time signal of u-velocity at Re =300 for sinusoidal channel and corresponding FFT was
plotted to show that at this Reynolds No. ,the fundamental frequency for sinusoidal channel
was 20Hz. In case of triangular channel, the fundamental frequency of oscillation was 60hz.
For this channel, when was varied as 4,5,7 and 8mm, frequencies found were 40,45,24
and 26 respectively. Thus , it was found that frequencies of the flow disturbances were to be
independent of Re , but function of the geometry.
A comparison of the time mean friction factor for sinusoidal wavy channel of =6mm
with Reynolds No. shows that in steady regime the friction factor is approximately twice that
of planner channel. In the unsteady regime the friction factor is even more.
The effect of the aspect ratio(by changing the minimum height) on average friction factor,
is plotted for both channels. It is seen that friction factor is higher in all cases than the
straight channel for all Reynolds No. and with the decrease of , friction factor increases.
For the same , friction factor of triangular channel is lower than sinusoidal channel,this
is because of less effective area of the triangular channel.
31
Time average friction factor, and Nusselt No. at various Re for both steady and unsteady
flow in the sinusoidal channel. After slight increase in friction factor when flow 1 st becomes
unsteady, continues to decrease with Re however the rate decreases as well.
On the other hand, Nusselt No. increases with an increase in Re. time mean Nusselt No.
averaged over the wavelength for the sinusoidal and triangular channels of =6mm is
plotted against Re. the avg. Nusselt No. for both cases is higher than that for a straight
channel and increases with Re. The rate of increase of avg. Nusselt No. for triangular channel
is higher than that of sinusoidal channel.
Thus, when two different types of wavy geometry, sinusoidal and triangular are considered
for studying the effect of effect of aspect ratio by changing the only, it has been
observed that the flow becomes unstable with a self sustained oscillation beyond a certain
critical Re and thereby increases heat transfer rate. For sinusoidal channel, critical Re
increases with increase in , but decreases in case of triangular channel. The transition
of flow occurs earlier, at lower Re for triangular channel relative to sinusoidal channel.
Bahaidarah, Anand and Cher (2005) have reported numerical studies on heat and
momentum transfer in channels with wavy walls. A detailed numerical study was conducted
on two – dimensional flow and heat transfer through periodic wavy channels as found in
compact heat exchanger applications. Sinusoidal and arc –shaped channel configurations
were considered in this study. The effects of the Reynolds number ( Re ) , length ratio ( L / a
) , and height ratio ( / ) on the developing velocity profiles, streamlines, isotherms,
pressure drops, and module average Nusselt numbers (Nu) were examined.
Flow attained periodically fully developed state and thermally periodically fully developed
state downstream of the first module for most cases. The recirculation flow covers a smaller
portion of the domain at lower Re values, and it completely covers the concave area at higher
Reynolds numbers. An increase in either the height ratio or the length ratio for both sine and
arc-shaped configurations resulted in a decrease in the recirculation size and strength.
The higher – value isotherms penetrate deeper toward the hot surface as the Reynolds
number increases, which indicates higher heat transfer rate. The pressure drop across the
modules displays a spatially periodic behaviour. It can be stated that an increase in length or
height ratio decreases the pressure drop. Sinusoidal channels provide lower normalized
pressure drop values when compared to the corresponding arc-shaped channels.
32
It is evident that the module average Nusselt number remains fairly constant for a given
Reynolds number, thus signifying the existence of a thermally periodically fully developed
flow increases monotonically as Reynolds number increases. In some cases the heat transfer
enhancement ratios are as high as 80%. The heat transfer performance ratio is less than 1 for
most cases, signifying that such channels can be uses in applications in which pumping
power is not in short supply.
Dimakopoulos and Tsamopoulos (2006) have reported studies on transient displacement of

Newtonian liquids by gas in periodically constricted tubes.They have examined the
displacement of viscous liquids by pressurised gas from harmonically undulated tubes of
finite length. This unsteady process gives rise to a long open bubble of varying radius,
increasing length and surrounded by the liquid. Under creeping flow conditions, the thickness
of the liquid film varies periodically with a phase difference from the tube radius. At high
values of the Reynolds number, the film thickness increases with the axial distance, and the
periodicity of the flow field ahead of the bubble tip is broker. At even higher values,
recirculating vortices develop inside each tube expansion and when the tube radius S
decreases significantly nearly isolated bubbles are formed in each tube segment. The time
variation of the pressure at the tube wall monitors the location of the bubble tip.
Thomas, Thich, and Narayanan (2006) have reported studies on Low Reynolds number
flow in a channel with oscillating wavy walls. An analytical study using perturbation methods
has been investigated on the flow profiles and power requirements in am oscillating flow
field with a wavy-walled boundary. The velocity field was found for a fluid in between two
wavy-walled plates that oscillate in phase. The wavy-walled boundary caused the flow to
produce regions of recirculation within the recesses of the boundary. Once the velocity
profiles were identified, the power required to drive the oscillatory fluid motion is then
calculated and compared to a flat plate geometry without recesses. As expected, the analytical
results showed that more power was needed to drive a wavy-walled system than a flat plate
configuration.
Lin, Huang and Su (2007) have reported studies on Dimensional analysis for the heat
transfer characteristics in the corrugated channels of the plate heat exchangers.
Using Buckingham Pi theorem, this study derives dimensionless correlations to characterize

the heat transfer performance of the corrugated channel in a plate heat exchanger. The basic
components of the experimental apparatus include a water loop, an air loop and a
33
measurement system. Importantly all the components in the water system are thermally
insulated such that the wall temperature of the corrugated channel can be maintained at a
nearly constant temperature. In the experiments, the temperature distribution in the
horizontal, middle plane of the channel was monitored using thermocouples positioned at
more than 200 locations along the length of the channel. For each test condition, two to three
measurements were made in the study.
Using Buckingham Pi theorem the local heat transfer coefficient was found to be,
Hence the correlations proposed for the local Nusselt No.,Nux was:
where = local heat transfer coefficient, kJ/m2K
= hydraulic diameter, m
k = thermal conductivity, kJ/mK
ρ = density of air, kg/m3
V = average velocity, m/s
μ = viscosity of air, Ns/m2
R = radius of curvature, m
x = x co-ordinate location.
β = corrugated angle.
Δθ = temperature difference, K
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure, kJ/kgK.
The correlation proposed for Average Nusselt No., was:
34
= [ [
where = average heat transfer coefficient kJ/m2K
It was observed that increases with increasing Reynolds Number, Re, , β, δθ and
Prandtl No., but decreases with increasing . is plotted against and it is seen that
reduces with increasing . Also attains a local peak at the individual crests of the
channel surface. This result is very different from that observed in a straight duct.
isalso plotted against predicted and it is found that ɸ= 0.917 and £ varies from -
30% to 30% where,
Φ = coefficient of determination.
£ = relative error.
Similarly a plot between and predicted shows that ɸ = 0.985 and £ varies from -
20% to 30%.
A plot between and Reynolds Number, Re shows that increases strongly with
increasing
Hence dimensionless analysis confirms that Re has the most significant effect on and
. Therefore the dimensionless analysis reveals that is determined primarily by Re,
R/Dh , and β. Conversely Prx and δθ do not have a significant effect on the heat transfer
performance. The value of mean Nusselt Number, is determined principally by Re, R /

Dh and β.
Bahaidarah (2009) has reported studies on fluid flow and heat characteristics in sharp edge
wavy channels with horizontal pitch. In the present study, the flow has been considered to be
two dimensional with no variation in the span wise direction. The mass, momentum and
energy conservation equations were written. The velocity and pressure fields were linked by
the Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure Linked Equations (SIMPLE) algorithm. In the current
work a finite volume technique was used to discretize the governing conservation equations.
The flux balances were represented in terms of primary and secondary fluxes.
35
This work considered the flow characteristics of wavy channels for one set of geometric
parameters, height ratio ( Hmax / Hmin ) and module length ratio ( L / a ). The governing
independent parameters influencing the fluid flow and heat transfer through a periodic array
of wavy passage are the Reynolds Number ( Re ) and the horizontal pitch ratio. A uniform
inlet velocity profile was assigned at the inlet boundary condition. A no slip boundary
condition was assigned at walls where both velocity components were set to zero at the
boundary. The channel was subjected to constant wall temperature T w and inlet temperature
Tin condition. The stream wise gradients of all variables were set to zero at the outlet
boundary where no changes take place in the flow of direction. In this study convergence was
declared by monitoring the sum of the residues at each node. The developed code was
validated by reproducing solution for some benchmark problems. The fluid flow and heat
transfer in a parallel plate channel subjected to constant wall temperature was predicted.
Figures were drawn schematically to show the effect of Reynolds Number on the non-
dimensional stream function for one module for triangular wavy channel with no horizontal
pitch and with horizontal pitch. As Reynolds Number increases the separated flow covers a
smaller portion of the domain until it completely covers the trough at higher Reynolds
Number.
Other figures show the effect of Reynolds Number on the normalized temperature lines
(isotherms) for one module for both triangular configurations. As the Reynolds Number
increases the higher value isotherms penetrate further downstream which means the colder
fluid is getting closer to the hot surface. As a result heat transfer increases.
Numerical data for average Nusselt Number and dimensionless pressure differences across
the interior of both the configurations has been tabulated. For a given Reynolds Number the
values remain nearly constant. Therefore a figure has been plotted to present the numerical
data across one module as a function of Reynolds Number. Nusselt number (Nu) and pressure
drop are plotted against Reynolds Number. The onset of flow separation and hence the
recirculation size becomes large for the cases of larger horizontal pitch even at low Reynolds
Number. As the figure showed, the heat transfer rate will be adversely affected as the size of
the recirculation gets larger.
Therefore, flow attained periodically fully developed state and thermally periodically fully
developed state downstream of the first module for all the cases. Four different types of
geometry, triangular without horizontal pitch, and triangular horizontal pitch were
36
considered. Recirculation flow completely covers the passage at higher Reynolds Number in
case of zero horizontal pitch walls and takes place further upstream in case of horizontal
pitched walls. The module average Nusselt Number monotonically increases as Reynolds
Number increases.
Chakravarty, Narayanan and Bhattacharya (2009) have reported experimental studies on

the heat transfer with phase change on diverging-converging surfaces. Experimental
condensation of pure vapours on the inside surfaces of vertical diverging-converging tubes
have been studied. The work highlighted the significant augmentation in heat transfer
efficiency achievable in film condensation on surfaces that are of diverging-converging
geometry. The dependence of the augmentation phenomena on the geometric characteristics
of the heat transfer surface, such as angle of constriction and number of segmentation in
series, and also on the operating parameters such as fluid flow rate and fluid inlet
temperature, was also discussed.
M Floryan and Floryan (2009) have reported studies on travelling wave instability in a
diverging-converging channel.The temporal linear stability of a pressure-driven flow in a
diverging-converging channel with respect to travelling wave disturbances has been
considered. They have shown that the variations in the channel geometry lead to the flow
destabilization,as compared with the straight channel care. The minimum critical Reynolds
number required to create instability for the wavy geometry of the channel were given. They
have shown that the flow developed under the fixed mass flowrate constraint is slightly more
unstable that the flow under fixed pressure gradient constraint. The difference depends
directly on the amplitude of the channel divergence-convergence.
Takaoka, Sano, Yamamoto and Mizuskima (2009) have reported studies on convective
instability of flow in a symmetric channel with spatially periodic structures. The investigation
is conducted numerically under given inlet and outlet boundary conditions as a finite-length
flow. A localized disturbance which forms a similarly evolving wave packet while travelling
downstream is added at the inlet and the spatiotemporal development of the disturbance is
observed. The spatial structure and the phase velocity of the 2 intrinsic waves in the wave
packet are compared with the Eigen mode of stability under two different periodic boundary
conditions, one of which imposes the flow to have the same periodic length with that of the
channel geometry and the other twice the periodic length together with a shift and reflect
symmetry. Their results link a closed flow under periodic boundary conditions to an open
37
flow in a finite length channel with periodic structures which helps to estimate the critical
Reynolds No. of convective instability and travelling velocity of the wave packet.
Akbari, Sinton and Bahrami (2010) have studied laminar fully developed flow and
pressure drop in linearly varying cross sectional converging diverging microtubes
mathematically. They developed an analytical model for frictional flow resistance assuming
parabolic axial velocity profile. They obtained the following expression
= dimensionless flow resistance
Ɛ= : minimum maximum radius ratio
The above said expression was used for making numerical comparisons for the study
conducted for the Reynolds number ranging from .01 to 100, for various taper angles from 2⁰
to 15⁰ and for maximum – minimum ratios ranging from 0.5 to 1. The comparisons between
the model and the numerical results show that the proposed model predicts the axial velocity
and the flow resistance accurately. Further following results were also found through
analysis:
 For small taper angles (φ < 10), effect of the tape angle on the dimensionless flow
resistance, can be neglected with less than 6 % error and the local poiseullie’s
approximation can be used to predict flow resistance.
 It was observed through numerical analysis that the flow becomes fully developed
after less than five modules of length.
 Comparing the analytical model with the numerical data prove good accuracy of the
model to predict the flow resistance for < 10 , φ ≤ 10 and 0.5 ≤ Ɛ ≤ 1.
 The effect of minimum-maximum radius ratio was found to be more significant than
taper angle φ, on the frictional flow resistance.
The above mathematical study can also be applied to more complex wall geometries
successfully.
38
Ghosh, Bhattacharya, and Kim (2010) have reported studies on the gas hold up
characteristics of an external loop airlift Fermenter. Airlift Contactor has been modified to the
Converging-Diverging tube Airlift Contactor. This was achieved by modifying the riser.
Further the fractional gas holdup as ( ) , was determined experimentally for both the
systems(contactors) under the identical conditions. The mathematical correlation obtained
experimentally for superficial gas velocity (UG ) v/s fractional gas holdup ( Y ) as
Y = 0.25X – 0.80…..(1) .
Y = 0.45X – 0.77….(2).
The above equations were plotted on a log-log plot. They arrived at the conclusion that due to
phenomenon of bubbling coalescence and disintegeration due to pressure fluctuation in a
CDT-ALC, higher gas holdup upto 50% was observed experimentally for very low
superficial gas velocity of 0.03 m/s also they found that it is easy to maintain bubbly flow
regime, in a CDT-ALC ,which is also an ideal operating condition for an Airlift Contactor .
Narayanan (2011) has reported studies on the performance analysis of constricted tube
ultrafiltration unit for production of food grade protein concentrates from food wastes.
Production of protein concentrate using improved design of tubular ultrafiltration that employ
the constricted (converging diverging) tubes is presented. The superior performance
characteristics of such ultrafiltration modules are first simulated mathematically using a
numerical algorithm that involves an imperative procedure (segment to segment
computation). The operating parameters predicted by the developed simulation model were
1. SR : performance ratio (dimensionless)

= (i) / (i)
where, (i) is mass transfer coefficient for the segment of a constricted tubes
(i) mass transfer coefficient for equivalent straight tube module of same
membrane area
2. RR: recovery ratio (dimensionless)
= fractional solute rejection

3. ØR : transfer ratio (dimensionless)
39
P(conv) = permeate rate in constricted tube
) = permeate rate in equivalent straight tube module
The values predicted using simulation model were compared with those obtained from the
laboratory experiments. The two sets of data agreed closely with the maximum deviation
being ±12%, which proves the validity of the model. Further the paper outlines the
advantages of UF module over the thermal concentration which can be the denaturation of
protein and high salt and lactic acid content. In the course of experiment, it was found that
constricted (converging diverging tube) provide significantly higher permission rate and
enhanced solute rejection than the equivalent straight tubes. The performance efficiency of
the constricted tube is distinctly high. Again fractional pressure drop for the fluid flow and
thereby the operating cost of the converging diverging tube is only marginally higher. Further
since the chance of concentration polarization and membrane fouling and observed to be
lower degree in the constricted (converging diverging tube). The useful life of the membrane
is much higher in this case. Though as the angle of constriction is as low as 5o C. it makes it
expensive to fabricate and it should be used in the industries since augmented performance
efficiency is obtained at the cost of negligible increase in operating costs.
Yin, Yang and Li (2011) have reported studies on the effects of wave plate phase shift on
flow and heat transfer characteristics in corrugated channel. The investigation was conducted
numerically. The computations were performed on uniform wall temperature for air ( =
0.696) over a range of Reynolds no. 2000 <= <= 10000. They have discussed the
effects of phase shift and Re on flow and heat transfer simulation results showed that the
corrugated channels have a significant heat transfer enhancement, accompanied by increased
pressure loss penalty and effect of phase shift on the flow. For all the channels, the goodness
factor G decreases with increasing Re. The optimal performance was achieved on 0° phase
shift channel in lower Re region.
Ramgadia and Saha(2012) have reported studies on fully developed flow and heat transfer
characteristics in a wavy passage i.e. the effect of amplitude of waviness and Reynolds
number. Numerical simulation has been performed of fully developed flow and heat transfer
through a wavy surface. Finite Volume Method on collocated grids has been used to solve
incompressible, time dependent Navier-Stokes and energy equation in primitive variable
form. The Critical Reynolds No. of unsteadiness was found to depend on the geometrical
parameters. At Re = 600,one model showed the flow with multiple frequencies while the
40
others revealed single frequency. They established that geometry with ( ) ratio 0.2
produces the highest Nusselt Number and gives the best thermal Performance Factor Nusselt
Number and gives the best thermal Performance Factor (TPF) where is the minimum
height of the channel, is the minimum height of the channel.
Shi, Lee and Kim (2012) have reported studies on Knudsen diffusion through cylindrical
tubes of varying radii. They investigated the transmission probabilities (TPs) of linearly
diverging-converging, sinusoidally bulging and periodic tubes as compared with TPs of
conventional straight cylinders. An exact analytic solution for the TP through the straight
cylindrical tube was developed using the standard diffusion theory with a linear concentration
approximation. IET for the TPs through the diverging-converging and bulging tubes were
developed. MC simulation techniques were applied to calculate TPs through all the tube types
azimuthally symmetry of which was held with tube radius changing only along axial
coordinates (z). For the diverging –converging tube, such as two head-cut conical tubes
connecting their wider mouths, radii of the left and right sides of conical tubes were
expressed as a function of the axial distance from the inlet, and the magnitude of
opening/closing angle B at the inlet/outlet was related to , the dimensionless distance from
the imaginary tube surface of radius ro at the midpoint to the peak of the diverging-
converging tube, . The equivalent diameter of the diverging-converging tube was
also derived. A figure was plotted showing the total TP of the diverging-converging and
bulging tubes calculated using IET and MC simulations, compared with of that equivalent
straight tube. The Total Transmission factor or TP of the diverging-converging and bulging
tubes is plotted against the dimensionless tube length (L / D) with = 0.5 . It was found that
unless the tube length is comparable to the diameter, the total TP of diverging-converging
tube is noticeably higher than that of the equivalent straight line. The net effect was
represented as the enhanced TP through the diverging-converging tube.
Sochi (2012) has reported studies on the Newtonian flow in converging diverging capillaries.
The one dimensional Navier- Stokes equations are used to derive analytical expressions for
the relations between pressure and volumetric flowrate in capillaries of five different
converging diverging axisymmetric geometries for Newtonian fluids. The results are
compared to the expressions derived by the author in his previous paper for the same
geometries using the lubrication approximation. The results of the one-dimensional Navier-
41
Stokes are identical to those obtained from the lubrication approximation within a non-
dimensional numerical factor.
Negny, M.Meyer, M.Prevost have reported studies on the laminar falling film flowing over
a wavy wall column. The experimental investigation of Nishimura et al.(1987,88,90) where
numerically realized using finite element method and experimentally by flow visualization(
hydrogen bubble method), also an electrochemical method was used for validating the
theoretical method. Sinusoidal wavy wall symmetric tubes were used along with Newtonian
incompressible, isothermal film flowing down the walls of wavy tube. They avoided the use
of heat and mass transfer coefficient in order to include hydro dynamics directly in the heat
and mass transfer rates. For the wavy tube mean Nusselt and Sherwood numbers are
calculated as
where local heat transfer and mass transfer coefficient calculated as
/(
/(
where,
: main temperature or flow average temperature
: mean concentration or flow average concentration
For the laminar flow range, the heat and mass transfer are numerically studied which yielded
following conclusions :
1. The surface shape induces a recirculation zone in the furrow of the waves which
grows up in the size and strength, as the Reynolds number increases
2. Near the wall vertices are absorbed which reversed the flow, consequently high heat
transfer rate are absorbed
3. Since the vertex does not reach the interface of the wall. Its effect on mass transfer
rate is not so pronounced and very slight which is accredited to increase in surface
area and mass transfer rate.
4. In the turbulent flow region, the vertex size and strength are pronounced and it is able
to reach the interface of wall vertex. It creates the renewable of the concentration
42
boundary layer and therefore significantly increases the mass transfer rate along with
heat transfer rate.
Thus we conclude that the heat transfer rate is greatly increased for both laminar and
turbulent regimes in wavy wall reactors. The mass transfer rates however is significantly
increase in the turbulent regimes.
43
REFERENCES:
1. Akbari, Mohsen; Sinton, David; Bahrami, Majid. Laminar fully developed flow in
periodically converging-diverging microtubes. Heat Transfer Engineering , volume
31, no. 8, pp. 628-634, 2010.
2. Bahaidarah, H.M.S.; Anand, N.K.: Numerical study of heat and momentum Transfer
in channels with Wavy Walls. Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A, 47: 417-439, (2005).
3. Bahaidarah, H.M.S.: Fluid Flow and heat transfer characteristics in sharp edge wavy
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4. Chakravarty, T.K.; Narayanan, C.M.; Bhattacharya, B.C.: Experimental studies on
heat transfer with phase change on Diverging-converging surfaces. The Canadian
Journal of Chemical Engineering, Volume 69, No. 1, pp.281-285, (2009).
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6. Dimakopoulos, Yannis; Tsamopoulos, John. Transient displacement of Newtonian
liquids by gas in periodically constricted tubes. AlChe Journal, volume 52, issue 8,
pp.2707-2726, 2006.
7. Floryan, J.M. Vortex instability in a diverging-converging channel. Cambridge
University Press, (2001).
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channel.
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of a modified airlift fermenter. Bioprocess Engineering, volume 9, pp.239-244,
(1993).
11. Ghosh, T.K.; Bhattacharya, D.; Kim, T.: Gas hold-up Characteristics of an External
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unsteady flow and heat transfer in wavy channels. Australian Fluid Mechanics
Conference, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, 13-17 December, 2004.
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13. Kouris, Charmalampos; Tsamopoulos, John. Core annular flow in a periodically
constrictetd tube. Part 1. Steady state, linear stability and energy analysis. Cambridge
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14. Kouris, Charmalampos; Tsamopoulos, John. Core annular flow in a periodically
constrictetd tube. Part 2. Non-linear dynamics. Cambridge University Press, (2000).
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inertial state. Chemical engineering science, Volume 41, No. 10, pp.2487-2505,
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characteristics in the corrugated channels of plate heat exchangers. International
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production of food grade protein concentrates from food wastes. Journal of Chemical
Engineering and Materials Science, volume 2, no. 9, pp. 149-155, 2011.
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wavy wall column: Part I. Numerical investigation of the flow pattern and the coupled
heat and mass transfer.
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symmetric channels with sinusoidal wavy walls for Pulsatile flow at low Reynolds
No. Volume 19, No. 6, pp.583-593, (1998).
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on heat-transfer augmentation in a sinusoidal wave channel. JSME International
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a wavy passage: effect of amplitude of Waviness and Reynolds number. International
Journal of heat and Mass transfer, Volume 55, No. 9-10, pp.2494-2509, (2012).
23. Shi, Yong; Lee, Yong Taek; Kim, Albert S. Knudsen diffusion through cylindrical
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1108.0163v1,2012
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25. Sparrow, E.M.; Prata, A.T.: Numerical solutions for laminar flow and heat transfer in
a periodically converging-diverging tube, with experimental confirmation. Numerical
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instability of flow in a symmetric channel with spatially periodic structures. Phys.
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1573, (2012).
46
CHAPTER 3
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF
FLUIDISED BED BIOREACTOR OF
PROPOSED DESIGN.
47
3.1 DEVELOPMENT OF SOFTWARE PACKAGE
A schematic of the bioreactor of proposed design is shown in Figure 3.1
Figure 3.1 : Schematic of the bioreactor of proposed design.
The bioreactor shown above ( Figure 3.1 ) is of diverging-converging geometry having three
segments. Each segment has a diverging section and a converging section. The dimensions of
the column are given below:
= minimum diameter of the bioreactor, m
= maximum diameter of the bioreactor, m
= length of one segment of the bioreactor, m
= total height of the bioreactor, m
= angle of convergence / divergence
By simple geometry, is calculated as
(3.1)
The diameter of the reactor at any axial position z can be estimated as follows:
48
For
θ (3.2)
For
θ (3.3)
For
θ (3.4)
For
(3.5)
The performance analysis of the bioreactor involves the following steps:
Step 1 : Estimation of the minimum fluidisation velocity,
The minimum fluidisation velocity ( ) is calculated from Wen and Yu’s correlation [ 1 ]
which is given below:
(3.6)
where
= Reynolds number at minimum fluidisation
= modified Archimedes number
ρ ρ ρ μ (3.7)
= diameter of particle-biofilm aggregate, m
δ (3.8)
= diameter of support particle,
δ = biofilm thickness, m
ρ = density of particle-biofilm aggregate, kg/m3
(3.9)
= volume fraction of biofilm in aggregate
= ( volume of biofilm) / ( total volume of particle-biofilm aggregate)
49
(3.10)
= density of microbial solution, kg/m3
= density of support particle, kg/m3
ρ = density of substrate solution, kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
μ = viscosity of substrate solution, kg/m-s
Since
(3.11)
the minimum fluidisation velocity is obtained as,
(3.12)
Step 2 : Estimation of the terminal free settling velocity of particle-biofilm Aggregate,
a) First the value of terminal free settling velocity, is assumed.
Let (3.13)
b) Now the particle Reynolds Number is calculated as
(3.14)
c) The drag coefficient, is calculated with respect to the particle Reynolds Number,
, as
For , (3.15)
For , (3.16)
For , the drag coefficient, is estimated from Table (3.1) given

below, if necessary by interpolation.
50
TABLE 3.1
Values of Drag Coefficient, at different values of Particle Reynolds Number,
Particle Reynolds Number, Drag Coefficient,

0.1 240.0
0.2 125.96
0.4 64.80
0.6 44.22
0.8 33.86
1.0 27.60
2.0 14.898
4.0 8.33
6.0 6.055
8.0 4.877
10.0 4.151
20.0 2.6095
40.0 1.7346
60.0 1.40
80.0 1.2133
100.0 1.0917
200.0 0.8056
400.0 0.612
600.0 0.5261
800.0 0.474
1000 0.44
Source: C.M.Narayan, B.C.Bhattacharya, Mechanical Operations for Chemical Engineers,
Khanna Publishers, New Delhi , 1996.
d) The terminal free settling velocity of the particle-biofilm aggregate is calculated as
0.5
{( (3.17)
e) Now the deviation is calculated as
(3.18)
f) If > 1.0 ,
(3.19)
and trials are repeated starting from (b)
51
Step 3 : Estimation of the operating superficial velocity,
The operating superficial velocity, is selected such that,
(3.20)
For example,
(3.21)
It is checked that operating superficial velocity is less than the terminal free settling
velocity .
A( min ) = minimum cross – sectional area of column = (3.22)
(min) = minimum feed flowrate = A( min ) (3.23)
(max) = maximum feed flowrate = A( min ) (3.24)
The substrate flowrate at inlet, is selected such that,
(max) (3.25)
Step 4 : Estimation of the fractional liquid holdup,
The fractional liquid holdup, is calculated from the Richardson and Zaki’s correlation
[ 2 ] which is given below. This correlation has been developed for liquid-fluidised beds.
= (3.26)
where
(3.27)
(3.28)
(3.29)
The exponent n is calculated as
(3.30)
(3.31)
Values of correlation constants , and m are listed in Table 3.2 given below.
52
TABLE 3.2
Values of Correlation constants of Equation (3.30)
m
< 0.2 4.6 20.0 0.0
0.2 < < 1.0 4.4 18.0 -0.03
1.0 < < 200 4.4 18.0 0.0
200 < < 500 4.4 0.0 -0.1
> 500 2.4 0.0 0.0
Source: C.M.Narayan, Biotechnology And Bioprocess Engineering, Galgotia Publications
Pvt Ltd, New Delhi , 2008
Step 5 : Selection of the kinetic equation
The intrinsic rate is assumed to follow Monod’s kinetics. Accordingly,
μ (3.32)
where
= intrinsic rate of reaction, gm/(Ls)
= cell mass concentration in biofilm, gm/L
= substrate concentration at any cross-section z, gm/L
μ = maximum specific growth rate, s-1
= half velocity constant, gm/L
Y = overall yield coefficient for cell mass production.
The first set of kinetic constants employed in the analysis are those reported by Anjan and
Serendra Kumar [ 3 ] for the fermentation of molasses using Enterococcus Faecalas to
produce lactic acid. These are given below:
μ = 0.00071225 s-1
= 0.1 gm/L (3.33)
Y = 0.77
53
The second set of kinetic constants employed in the analysis are those reported by Schepers
and co-workers [ 4 ] for the fermentation of cheese whey permeate using Lactobacillus
Helveticus to produce lactic acid. These are given below:
μ = 0.000194 s-1
= 0.22 gm/L (3.34)
Y = 0.75
Let
μ μ (3.35)
Then, equation (3.32) reduces to
(3.36)
Step 6 : Performance equation for the Bioreactor
Assuming the reactor to be equivalent to a Plug-Flow Dispersion Reactor ( PFDR ) , the

performance equation shall be as given below:
(3.37)
where
(3.38)
= axial dispersion coefficient, m2/s
= effectiveness factor
Substituting equation (3.36) into equation (3.37), we get
(3.39)
The boundary conditions governing the system are:
B.C. 1 :
At z = 0 , = = substrate concentration in feed solution. (3.40)
B.C. 2 :
At z = , = = substrate concentration in product solution. (3.41)
54
As stated earlier the types of substrates considered are molasses and cheese whey. In case of
molasses, is sucrose concentration and in case of cheese whey permeate is lactose
concentration.
Step 7 : Estimation of the effectiveness factor,
The effectiveness factor, (z) , is computed from the correlation proposed by Gottifredi and
Gonzo [ 5 ] , which is given below:
}2 + exp [ / 2
}} – { 2
] (3.42)
where
= [{ ].[ – ½
(3.43)
β (3.44)
½
(3.45)
characteristic length
= π π π (3.46)
, = volume and surface area respectively of the biofilm.
= effective diffusivity of substrate into biofilm, m2/s.
Step 8 : Numerical solution of the performance equation using Fourth order Runge -
Kutta Method.
The performance equation is solved numerically based on the boundary conditions given in
equations (3.41) and (3.42) using Fourth order Runge - Kutta Method. The algorithm is
summarised below:
Let
(3.47)
Substituting in Equation (3.39) and rearranging, we get
(3.48)
55
Step 8.1 : The desired fractional conversion (α) is chosen and substrate concentration in
product solution is calculated as
(3.49)
Step 8.2 : The step size , Δz is specified
For example,
Let Δz = 0.01 m (3.50)
Step 8.3 : A loop is initiated with
(3.51)
(3.52)
(3.53)
(3.54)
Step 8.4 : Another nested loop is initiated within the previous loop with
(3.55)
(3.56)
(3.57)
(3.58)
Step 8.5 : The column diameter at z , , is calculated from Equations (3.2) to (3.5)
Step 8.6 : The fractional liquid holdup , is calculated from Equation (3.26)
Step 8.7 : The effectiveness factor , is calculated from Equation (3.42) by putting z = j.
Step 8.8 : is calculated from Equation (3.48) by putting .
Step 8.9 : is calculated as
(3.59)
Step 8.10 : If then put and go to Step 8.11.

Otherwise, go to Step 8.12
Step 8.11 : If ,
(3.60)
(3.61)
If ,
56
(3.62)
(3.63)
If ,
(3.64)
(3.65)
Go to Step 8.7
Step 8.12 :
( i + 1) = (i)+ ] (3.66)
) + m ( 4) ] (3.67)
Step 8.13 : The reactor height is calculated as
(3.68)
Step 8.14 : If ,
We put
(3.69)
(3.70)
and go to Step 8.4.
Otherwise go to Step 8.15
Step 8.15 : The substrate concentration in the feed ( ) is computed as
(3.71)
Step 8.16 : Print , , and α.
The entire computational procedure discussed above is illustrated in detail in the computation
flow chart showing in Figure (3.2).
57
START
INITIAL VALUES ( FATHER FILE )
DIMENSIONS OF DIVERGING-CONVERGING BIOREACTOR
= Minimum diameter of Diverging – Converging column, m.
= Maximum diameter of Diverging – Converging column, m.
= Length of each segment of Diverging – Converging column, m.
N = Number of segments of Diverging – Converging column.
= Total height of the reactor, m = ( N) ( )
PROPERTY VALUES ( SON FILE – 1 )
= Density of support particle, kg/m3
= Density of microbial solution, kg/m3
= Density of substrate solution, kg/m3
= Viscosity of substrate solution, kg/m-s
= Cell mass concentration in biofilm, gm/L
= Effective diffusivity of substrate into the biofilm, m2/s
= Axial dispersion co-efficient, m2/s
= Support particle diameter, m
δ = Biofilm thickness (assumed constant), m
= Concentration of substrate in feed solution, gm/L
MONOD’S KINETIC CONSTANTS
58
MONOD’S KINETIC CONSTANTS
μ = Maximum specific growth rate, hr-1
= Half velocity constant, gm/L
Y = Overall yield co-efficient for cell mass production
PARTICLE-BIOFILM AGGREGATE
Compute diameter of aggregate as,
Compute volume fraction of biofilm in aggregate as,
Compute density of aggregate as,
MINIMUM FLUIDIZATION VELOCITY

59
(Wen and Yu correlation)
= Modified Archimedes number
ρ ρ ρ μ
OPERATING SUPERFICIAL VELOCITY
Select operating superficial velocity of substrate solution
For example,
TERMINAL SETTLING VELOCITY

60
TERMINAL SETTLING VELOCITY
Assume a value of terminal settling velocity ( Vt )
of Particle - Biofilm Aggregate
For example,
m/s
PARTICLE REYNOLDS NUMBER
YES IS ?
No
IS ? YES
NO
DATABASE – 1 =
(TABLE 3.1)
COMPUTATION OF Vt
0.5
{(
DEVIATION
61
DEVIATION
Deviation –
NO
IS
YES
GO TO
VERIFY THAT
PARTICLE
REYNOLDS
NUMBER
A ( min ) =
(min) = A ( min )
(max) = A ( min )
Select ( substrate flowrate at inlet as ) ,
(min) < < (max)
PRINT
PERFORMANCE EQUATION
62
SOLVE PERFORMANCE EQUATION ( FOR PLUG FLOW
DISPERSION REACTOR ) USING FOURTH ORDER RUNGE –
KUTTA METHOD
Specify fractional conversion desired ( α )
Compute substrate concentration in product solution as,
Specify step size ( ∆z )
For example ,
Let ∆z = 0.01 m
ITERATION
COLUMN DIAMETER AT ANY z ,

63
COLUMN DIAMETER AT ANY z ,
For
For
For
For
FRACTIONAL LIQUID HOLD UP
64
FRACTIONAL LIQUID HOLD UP
(Richardson and Zaki’s correlation)
DATABASE
–2
( TABLE
– 3.2)
, ,m =
EFFECTIVENESS FACTOR
= π π π
1/2
μ
EFFECTIVENESS FACTOR - 1 65
EFFECTIVENESS FACTOR - 1
½
= [{ ].[ –
( j ) = [{ }2 + exp [ / 2
}} – { 2
]] -1/2
F1 =
F2 = [ ]
[ +[
m(j)=
YES IS j = 4?
SOLUTION
NO
If
If
If
GO TO EFFECTIVENESS FACTOR-1
66
SOLUTION
( i + 1) = (i)+ ]
) + m ( 4) ]
REACTOR HEIGHT
YES IS ?
NO
GO TO ITERATION
PRINT , ,α
END
FIGURE - 3.2: COMPUTATION FLOW CHART.
67
3.2 EXECUTION OF SOFTWARE PACKAGE DEVELOPED
The developed software package is executed at different values of the operating/ system
parameters (substrate flow rate, substrate concentration, biomass concentration in biofilm and
kinetic pathways involved) to evaluate the performance characteristics of the bioreactor of the
proposed design.
Typical sample calculations are presented below:
Initial values used are,
Dimensions of the diverging-converging bioreactor:
= minimum diameter = 1.0 m
= maximum diameter = 1.1 m
= length of one segment = 1.0 m
N = number of segments = 3
= total height of the bioreactor = (N) ( ) = (3) (1) = 3.0 m
The property values of feed solution :
= density of support particle = 1300 kg/m3
= density of microbial solution = 1030 kg/m3
ρ = density of substrate solution = 1000 kg/m3
μ = viscosity of substrate solution = 0.001 kg/m-s
Reactor Specifications :
= diameter of support particle = 0.0025 m
δ = biofilm thickness (assumed constant) = 0.0003 m
= substrate concentration in feed solution = 50 gm/L
The biomass concentration in biofilm ( = 250 gm/L
Kinetic constants selected are those listed in Equation (3.33). Thus,
μ = maximum specific growth rate = 0.00071225 s-1
= half velocity constant = 0.1 gm/L
Y = overall yield coefficient for cell mass production = 0.77
Also, experimental values of and chosen are,

68
= effective diffusivity of substrate into biofilm = 4.5 x 10-10 m2/s
= axial dispersion coefficient = 0.02 m2/s
Step 1 : Estimation of the minimum fluidisation velocity,
From Equation (3.8),
Diameter of particle biofilm aggregate, = δ
= 0.0025 + 2 (0.0003)
= 0.0031 m
Volume fraction of biofilm in aggregate, f =
= 0.4755 m
Density of particle-biofilm aggregate, ρ =
= (0.4755) (1030) + (1 – 0.4755) (1300)
= 1171.615 kg/m3
Modified Archimedes number, = ρ ρ ρ μ
= 50154.43
Reynolds number at minimum fluidisation,
= 22.72
69
The minimum fluidisation velocity,
= 0.007329 m/s
Step 2 : Estimation of the terminal free settling velocity of particle-biofilm Aggregate,
Let = 0.1 m/s
The particle Reynolds Number,
= 310
From Table (3.1), by interpolation
The drag coefficient,
= 0.69912

0.5
The terminal free settling velocity, {(
0.5
= 0.099745 m/s
Deviation,
= 0.225 %
Since, , m/s
70
Step 3 : Estimation of the operating superficial velocity,
The operating superficial velocity,
= 0.0088 m/s
The selected value of is seen to be less than the terminal free settling velocity
Minimum cross – sectional area of column, A (min) =
= 0.785 m2
Minimum feed flowrate, (min) = A( min )
= 0.006908 m3/s
Maximum feed flowrate, (max) A( min )
= 0.0785 m3/s
is selected between 0.006908 m3/s and 0.0785 m3/s.
Step 4 : Estimation of the fractional liquid holdup,
The fractional liquid holdup, is calculated in Step 8.6
71
Step 5 : Selection of the kinetic equation
μ = 0.00071225 s-1
= 0.1 gm/L
Y = 0.77
Step 6 : Estimation of the effectiveness factor,
The characteristic length, = π π π
= 0.000245 m
The effectiveness factor, is calculated in Step 7.7
Step 7 : Numerical solution of the performance equation using Fourth order Runge -
Kutta Method.
Step 7.1 :
Let α = 0.84
= 8.0 gm/L
Step 7.2 :
Let Δz = 0.01 m
Step 7.3 :
= 8.0 gm/L
72
Step 7.4 :
= 8.0 gm/L
= 0.0
Step 7.5 :
= 1.0 m
Step 7.6 :
= 0.785 m2
= 0.008917 m/s
= 0.099 m/s
= 100000
73
= 2.4
=
1/ 2.4
= 0.3668
Step 7.7 :
μ μ
= 0.189 gm/Ls

1/ 2
1/ 2
= 15.878
Putting z = j,
= 80.0
From Equation (3.43)
= [{ ].[ – ½
1/ 2
= 0.784
74
}2 + exp [ / 2
}} – { 2
]] -1/ 2
}2 + exp [ / 2
}} – { 2
]] -1/ 2
= 0.7386
Step 7.8 :
Putting z = j,
= 6.8936
Step 7.9 :
= 0.0689
Step 7.10 :
Step 7.11 :
= 8.0 gm/L
= 0.0345
75
Step 7.7 to 7.10 are repeated :
= 80.0
= [{ ].[ – ½
1/ 2
= 0.784
}2 + exp [ / 2
}} – { 2
]] -1/ 2
}2 + exp [ / 2
}} – { 2
]] -1/ 2
= 0.7386
= 6.9089
= 0.06908
Similarly for :
= 8.00017
= 0.03454
76
β
= 80.0017
= [{ ].[ – ½
1/ 2
= 0.7841
}2 + exp [ / 2
}} – { 2
]] -1/ 2
}2 + exp [ / 2
}} – { 2
]] -1/ 2
= 0.7387
= 6.909
= 0.06909
For j = 4 :
= 8.00035
= 0.06909
= 80.0035
77
= [{ ].[ – ½
1/ 2
= 0.7842
}2 + exp [ / 2
}} – { 2
]] -1/ 2
}2 + exp [ / 2
}} – { 2
]] -1/ 2
= 0.7388
= 6.926
= 0.06926
Step 7.12 :
(2) = (1)+ ]
= (8.0) + ]
= 8.0003 gm/L
) + m ( 4) ]
= 0.069
Step 7.13 :
= 0.01 m
78
Step 7.14 :
Since ,
= 0.01
The calculations are repeated from Step 7.4 with the above value of z until .
The condition got satisfied at i = 300. The substrate concentration in the feed ( ) is then
= 50.0 gm/L
The final results are,
50.0 gm/L
= 8.0 gm/L
α = 0.84
Lf = 3.0 m
Q0 = 7.0 L/s
79
3.3 COMPARISONS WITH THE CONVENTIONAL DESIGN
To illustrate the specific advantage of the proposed design, the performance characteristics
of the bioreactor of proposed design ( of Diverging - Converging geometry ) are compared
with those of a bioreactor of conventional design ( of straight, cylindrical geometry) but of
same volume per length ( of diameter DV ). By definition therefore, DV is the volumetric
diameter of the bioreactor of proposed design and is nothing but the diameter of a straight
cylindrical column of same volume per length as the Diverging - Converging column.
By simple geometry,
(3.72)
The developed software is therefore again executed by putting D2 = D1 = DV and the

performance features of bioreactor are estimated at different values of the substrate flowrate,
substrate concentration and using the two sets of kinetic equations, Equation (3.33) and
Equation (3.34). Computations are also performed at different values of biomass
concentration in biofilm . The same numerical algorithm has been employed in this case. The
results are illustrated in Figures (4.7) to (4.14) of Chapter 4.
80
NOMENCLATURE
= minimum diameter of the bioreactor, m
= maximum diameter of the bioreactor, m
= length of one segment of the bioreactor, m
= total height of the bioreactor, m
= angle of convergence / divergence
z = any cross-section of the bioreactor
= diameter of the bioreactor at any cross-section z, m
= minimum fluidisation velocity, m/s
= Reynolds number at minimum fluidisation, dimensionless
= modified Archimedes number, dimensionless
= diameter of particle-biofilm aggregate, m
= diameter of support particle, m
δ = biofilm thickness, m
ρ = density of particle-biofilm aggregate, kg/m3
= volume fraction of biofilm in particle-biofilm aggregate, dimensionless
= density of microbial solution, kg/m3
= density of support particle, kg/m3
ρ = density of substrate solution, kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
μ = viscosity of substrate solution, kg/m-s
= terminal free settling velocity of particle-biofilm aggregate, m/s
particle Reynolds Number, dimensionless
= drag coefficient, dimensionless
= deviation
= operating superficial velocity, m/s
81
= substrate flowrate at inlet, m3/s
A(min) = minimum cross – sectional area of column, m2
(min) = minimum feed flowrate, m3/s
(max) = maximum feed flowrate, m3/s
= fractional liquid holdup at any cross-section z
= intrinsic rate of reaction, gm/(Ls)
= cell mass concentration in biofilm, gm/L
= substrate concentration at any cross-section z, gm/L
μ = maximum specific growth rate, s-1
= half velocity constant, gm/L
Y = overall yield coefficient for cell mass production, dimensionless
= axial dispersion coefficient, m2/s
= effectiveness factor at any cross-section z, dimensionless
= substrate concentration in feed solution, gm/L
= substrate concentration in product solution, gm/L
= Thiele-type modulus, dimensionless
characteristic length, m
= volume and of the biofilm, m3
= surface area of the biofilm, m2
= effective diffusivity of substrate into biofilm, m2/s
82
REFERENCES:
1. Anjana, D.N. and Kumar, S.: Kinetic modelling of lactic acid production from
molasses with Enterococcus Faecalas. Biochemical engineering Journal, Volume 38,
pp.77-84, (2008).
2. Gottifredi, J.C. and Gonzo, E.E.: Approximate Expression For Effectiveness Factor
Estimation, Chemical Eng. J., Volume 109, pp.83-87, (2005).
3. Richardson, J.F. and Zaki, W.N.: Sedimentation and fluidisation. Part 1. Trans. Inst.
Chem. Eng, Volume 32, pp.35-53, (1954).
4. Schepers, A.W. and Co-workers,: Continuous lactic acid production in whey
permeate/yeast extract medium with immobilised Lactobacillus Helveticus. Enzyme
Microb.Technology, Volume 30, pp.176-186, (2002); Volume 38, pp.24-37, (2008).
5. Wen, C. Y. and Yu, Y. H.: A generalized method for predicting the minimum
fluidization velocity. AIChE Journal, Volume 12, No. 3, pp.610-612, (1966).
83
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.
84
Variation of fractional conversion of substrate attained (α) with substrate flowrate ( Q0 ) is
illustrated in Figure (4.1) and the corresponding data are listed in Table( 4.1). The process
considered is lactic acid production from molasses using Enterococcus Faecalas, the kinetic
constants for which are listed in Equation (3.33).
The substrate concentration (sucrose concentration) in the feed solution (CS0 ) is kept
constant at 50.0 gm/L and the total height (Lf) of the fluidized bed (reaction zone) is fixed at
3.0 m.
Data are illustrated for the case when biomass concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 250 gm/L
and also when is 275 gm/L.
TABLE 4.1
Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with Substrate Flowrate
(Q0) for Kinetic Equation-1 (Equation 3.33)
• Feed solution : Molasses, CS0 (sucrose concentration) = 50.0gm/L
• µm = 0.00071225 s-1
• Ks = 0.1 gm/L
• Y = 0.77
• D1 = 1m, D2 = 1.1m, Ls = 1m, Lf = 3m
Flowrate (L/s) CSE (gm/L) Fractional Conversion (α)

= 250 gm/L = 275 gm/L = 250 gm/L = 275 gm/L
7 8.0 6.9 0.84 0.86
7.5 8.4 7.2 0.832 0.856
8 8.9 7.6 0.82 0.848
8.5 9.3 7.9 0.814 0.842
9 9.8 8.2 0.804 0.836
9.5 10.2 8.6 0.796 0.828
10 10.7 8.9 0.786 0.822
85
0.87
Fractional
Conversion 0.85
(α)
0.83
0.81 xf = 250 gm/L

xf = 275 gm/L
0.79
0.77
0.75
6 7 8 9 10 11
Flowrate (Q0) (L/s)
Figure 4.1: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with Substrate
Flowrate (Q0) for Kinetic Equation-1 (Equation 3.33), Cell Mass Concentration in
Biofilm ( ) = 250 gm/L and ( ) = 275 gm/L.
Another set of plots illustrating variation of fractional conversion of substrate attained (α)
with substrate flowrate ( Q0 ) are shown in Figure (4.2) and the corresponding data are listed
in Table ( 4.2). Here, the process considered is lactic acid production from cheese whey
permeate using Lactobacillus Helveticus, the kinetic constants for which are listed in
Equation (3.34).
The substrate concentration (lactose concentration) in the feed solution (CS0 ) is kept constant
at 9.0 gm/L and the total height (Lf) of the fluidized bed (reaction zone) is fixed at 3.0 m.
Data are illustrated for the case when biomass concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 150 gm/L
and also when is 175 gm/L.
86
TABLE 4.2
Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate attained (Α) with Substrate Flowrate
(Q0) for Kinetic Equation-2 (Equation 3.34)
• Feed solution : Cheese whey permeate, CS0 ( lactose concentration) = 9.0gm/L
• µm = 0.000194 s-1
• Ks = 0.22 gm/L
• Y = 0.75
• D1 = 1m, D2 = 1.1m, Ls = 1m, Lf = 3m
Flowrate (L/s) CSE (gm/L) Fractional Conversion (α)

= 150 gm/L = 175 gm/L = 150 gm/L = 175 gm/L
7.0 2 1.7 0.77 0.81
7.5 2.1 1.8 0.76 0.80
8.0 2.2 1.9 0.75 0.79
8.5 2.3 2.0 0.74 0.78
9.0 2.4 2.1 0.73 0.77
9.5 2.5 2.2 0.72 0.75
10.0 2.6 2.3 0.71 0.74
0.84
0.82
Fractional
0.8
Conversion
(α)
0.78
xf = 150 gm/L
0.76 xf = 175 gm/L
0.74
0.72
0.7
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
Flowrate (Q0) (L/s)
Figure 4.2: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with Substrate
Flowrate (Q0) for Kinetic Equation-2 (Equation 3.34), Cell Mass Concentration in
Biofilm ( ) = 150 gm/L and ( ) = 175 gm/L.
87
Variation of fractional conversion of substrate attained (α) with substrate concentration
(sucrose concentration) in the feed solution (CS0) at specified values of substrate flowrate
(Q0) is illustrated in Figure (4.3) and the corresponding data are listed in Table ( 4.3). The
process considered is lactic acid production from molasses using Enterococcus Faecalas, the
kinetic constants for which are listed in Equation (3.33).
Data are illustrated for cases when Q0 is 7.0 L/s, 8.0 L/s and 9.0 L/s. The total height (Lf) of
the fluidized bed (reaction zone) is fixed at 3.0 m and biomass concentration in the biofilm
( ) is 250 gm/L.
TABLE 4.3
Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with Initial Substrate
( Sucrose ) Concentration (CS0) for Kinetic Equation-1 (Equation 3.33)
• Feed solution : Molasses
• µm = 0.00071225 s-1
• Ks = 0.1 gm/L
• Y = 0.77
• = 250 gm/L
• D1 = 1m, D2 = 1.1m, Ls = 1m, Lf = 3m.
Flowrate Q0= 7.0 L/s Flowrate Q0= 8.0 L/s Flowrate Q0= 9.0 L/s
CS0(gm/L) α CS0(gm/L) α CS0(gm/L) Α
50.1 0.84 50.1 0.82 50.01 0.804
49.7 0.843 49.7 0.824 49.7 0.806
49.3 0.845 49.3 0.828 49.3 0.809
48.8 0.848 48.9 0.83 49.01 0.812
48.3 0.85 48.5 0.832 48.6 0.814
47.8 0.853 48.1 0.835 48.2 0.817
47.3 0.856 47.6 0.838 47.9 0.820
88
Figure 4.3: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with Initial
Substrate ( sucrose ) Concentration (CS0) at Different Values of Substrate Flowrate (Q0)
for Kinetic Equation-1(Equation 3.33), Cell Mass Concentration in Biofilm ( ) = 250
gm/L.
with substrate concentration (sucrose concentration) in the feed solution (CS0) at different
values of substrate flowrate (Q0) are shown in Figure (4.4) and the corresponding data are
listed in Table (4.4). Here, biomass concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 275 gm/L. The
process considered is lactic acid production from molasses using Enterococcus Faecalas, the
kinetic constants for which are listed in Equation (3.33).
the fluidized bed (reaction zone) is fixed at 3.0 m.
89
TABLE 4.4
Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) With Initial Substrate (
Sucrose ) Concentration (CS0) for Kinetic Equation-1 (Equation 3.33)
• µm = 0.00071225 s-1
• Ks = 0.1 gm/L
• Y = 0.77
• = 275 gm/L
• D1 = 1m, D2 = 1.1m, Ls = 1m, Lf = 3m.
CS0(gm/L) α CS0(gm/L) α CS0(gm/L) α
50.1 0.86 50.05 0.848 50.01 0.836
49.9 0.867 49.8 0.853 49.6 0.841
49.09 0.871 49.15 0.857 49.0 0.844
48.2 0.875 48.4 0.861 48.3 0.848
47.3 0.879 47.6 0.865 47.4 0.852
46.4 0.883 46.7 0.869 46.5 0.855
45.5 0.887 45.8 0.873 45.7 0.859
Figure 4.4: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with Initial
Substrate ( sucrose ) Concentration (CS0) for Kinetic Equation-1 (Equation 3.33), Cell
90
Variation of fractional conversion of substrate attained (α) with substrate concentration
(sucrose concentration) in the feed solution (CS0) at specified values of substrate flowrate
(Q0) is illustrated in Figure (4.5) and the corresponding data are listed in Table (4.5). The
process considered is lactic acid production from cheese whey permeate using Lactobacillus
Helveticus, the kinetic constants for which are listed in Equation (3.34).
the fluidized bed (reaction zone) is fixed at 3.0 m and biomass concentration in the biofilm
( ) is 150 gm/L.
TABLE 4.5
Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with Initial Substrate (
Lactose ) Concentration (CS0) for Kinetic Equation-2 (Equation 3.34)
• Feed solution : Cheese whey permeate
• µm = 0.000194 s-1
• Ks = 0.22 gm/L
• Y = 0.75
• = 150 gm/L
• D1 = 1m, D2 = 1.1m, Ls = 1m, Lf = 3m.
9.1 0.77 9.01 0.75 9.05 0.73
8.47 0.78 8.5 0.765 8.58 0.743
8.06 0.80 8.15 0.779 8.24 0.757
7.60 0.81 7.75 0.79 7.89 0.771
7.09 0.83 7.31 0.81 7.50 0.78
6.51 0.84 6.82 0.82 7.08 0.802
5.84 0.86 6.27 0.84 6.61 0.818
91
Figure 4.5: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) With Initial
with substrate concentration (sucrose concentration) in the feed solution (CS0) at different
values of substrate flowrate (Q0) are shown in Figure (4.6) and the corresponding data are
listed in Table ( 4.6). Here the biomass concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 175 gm/L.The
process considered is lactic acid production from cheese whey permeate using Lactobacillus
the fluidized bed (reaction zone) is fixed at 3.0 m.
92
TABLE 4.6
Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) with Initial Substrate
( Lactose )
Concentration (CS0) for Kinetic Equation-2 (Equation 3.34 )
• µm = 0.000194 s-1
• Ks = 0.22 gm/L
• Y = 0.75
• = 175 gm/L
• D1 = 1m, D2 = 1.1m, Ls = 1m, Lf = 3m.
9.1 0.81 9.1 0.79 9.0 0.77
8.68 0.83 8.82 0.81 8.95 0.79
8.14 0.84 8.36 0.82 8.54 0.80
7.54 0.85 7.85 0.83 8.09 0.81
7.21 0.86 7.27 0.85 7.60 0.83
6.47 0.88 6.61 0.86 7.04 0.84
5.59 0.89 5.83 0.88 6.40 0.86
Figure 4.6: Variation of Fractional Conversion of Substrate Attained (α) With Initial
93
Comparison between performance of bioreactor of proposed design and that of bioreactor of
conventional design (of same reactor volume) is illustrated in Figure (4.7) and the
corresponding data are listed in Table (4.7). The process considered is lactic acid production
from molasses using Enterococcus Faecalas, the kinetic constants for which are listed in
Equation (3.33).
3.0 m.
Data are illustrated for the case when biomass concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 250 gm/L.
TABLE 4.7
Comparison Between Performance of Bioreactor of Proposed Design and that of
Bioreactor of Conventional Design with Diameter DV (of Same Reactor Volume) for
Kinetic Equation-1 (Equation 3.33)
• Feed solution : Molasses, CS0 (sucrose concentration) = 50.0gm/L
• µm = 0.00071225 s-1
• Ks = 0.1 gm/L
• Y = 0.77
• = 250 gm/L
• DV = 1.05m, Lf = 3m
DC reactor(proposed design) ST reactor(conventional design) Enhancement

Q0(L/s) Conversion (α) Q0(L/s) Conversion (α) (%)
7.0 0.84 7.0 0.67 25.37
7.5 0.832 7.5 0.66 26.06
8.0 0.82 8 0.65 26.15
8.5 0.814 8.5 0.64 27.18
9.0 0.804 9.0 0.63 27.61
9.5 0.796 9.5 0.62 28.38
10.0 0.786 10.0 0.61 28.85
94
0.9
Fractional 0.85
Conversion
0.8
(α)
0.75
0.7 ST reactor
DC reactor
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
Flowrate (Q0) (L/s)
Figure 4.7: Comparison Between Performance of Bioreactor of Proposed Design and

Another set of plots illustrating the comparison between performance of bioreactor of

proposed design and that of bioreactor of conventional design (of same reactor volume) are
shown in Figure (4.8) and the corresponding data are listed in Table (4.8). Here, the biomass
concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 275 gm/L. The process considered is lactic acid
production from molasses using Enterococcus Faecalas, the kinetic constants for which are
listed in Equation (3.33).
3.0 m.
95
TABLE 4.8
Kinetic Equation-1 (Equation 3.33).
• Feed solution : Molasses, CS0 (sucrose concentration) = 50.0 gm/L
• µm = 0.00071225 s-1
• Ks = 0.1 gm/L
• Y = 0.77
• = 275 gm/L
• DV = 1.05m, Lf = 3.0m

7.0 0.86 7.0 0.704 22.16
7.5 0.856 7.5 0.7 22.28
8.0 0.848 8.0 0.696 21.83
8.5 0.842 8.5 0.692 21.67
9.0 0.836 9.0 0.688 21.51
9.5 0.828 9.5 0.684 21.05
10.0 0.822 10.0 0.680 20.88
0.9
0.85
Fractional 0.8
Conversion 0.75 ST reactor

DC reactor
(α)
0.7
0.65
0.6
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
Flowrate (Q0) (L/s)

96
conventional design (of same reactor volume) is illustrated in Figure (4.9) and the
corresponding data are listed in Table (4.9). The process considered is lactic acid production
from cheese whey permeate using Lactobacillus Helveticus, the kinetic constants for which
are listed in Equation (3.34).
The substrate concentration (lactose concentration) in the feed solution (CS0 ) is kept constant
at 9.0 gm/L and the total height (Lf) of the fluidized bed (reaction zone) is fixed at 3.0 m.
Data are illustrated for the case when biomass concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 150 gm/L.
TABLE 4.9
• Feed solution : Cheese whey permeate, CS0 (lactose concentration) = 9.0 gm/L
• µm = 0.000194 s-1
• Ks = 0.22 gm/L
• Y = 0.75
• = 150 gm/L
• DV = 1.05m, Lf = 3.0m

7.0 0.77 7.0 0.61 26.23
7.5 0.76 7.5 0.59 28.81
8.0 0.75 8.0 0.58 29.31
8.5 0.74 8.5 0.57 29.82
9.0 0.73 9.0 0.56 30.35
9.5 0.72 9.5 0.55 30.90
10.0 0.71 10.0 0.54 31.48
97
0.8
0.75
0.7
Fractional
Conversion
0.65 ST reactor
(α)
DC reactor
0.6
0.55
0.5
6 7 8 9 10 11
Flowrate (Q0) (L/s)


proposed design and that of bioreactor of conventional design (of same reactor volume) are
shown in Figure (4.10) and the corresponding data are listed in Table (4.10). Here, the
biomass concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 175 gm/L. The process considered is lactic acid
production from cheese whey permeate using Lactobacillus Helveticus, the kinetic constants
for which are listed in Equation (3.34).
3.0 m.
98
TABLE 4.10
• Feed solution : Cheese whey permeate, CS0 ( lactose concentration ) = 9.0 gm/L
• µm = 0.000194 s-1
• Ks = 0.22 gm/L
• Y = 0.75
• = 175 gm/L
• DV = 1.05m, Lf = 3m

7 0.81 7 0.67 20.89
7.5 0.80 7.5 0.658 21.58
8 0.79 8 0.647 22.10
8.5 0.78 8.5 0.641 21.68
9 0.77 9 0.63 22.22
9.5 0.75 9.5 0.62 20.96
10 0.74 10 0.61 21.31
0.85
0.8
Fractional
0.75
Conversion ST reactor
0.7
(α) DC reactor
0.65
0.6
0.55
6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5
Flowrate (Q0) (L/s)

99
A set of plots illustrating the variation of percentage enhancement in fractional conversion
with substrate flowrate (Q0) is shown in Figure (4.10a). Here,
Curve – 1 corresponds to Kinetic Equation-2(Equation 3.34) where Cell mass concentration

in biofilm ( ) is 150 gm/L.



33
1
31
2
29
Enhancement xf=250 gm/L

27
(%)
xf=275 gm/L
25 xf=150 gm/L
xf=175 gm/L
23
3
21
4
19
6 7 8 9 10 11
Flowrate (Q0) (L/s)
Figure 4.10a: Variation of Percentage Enhancement in fractional conversion attained

with Substrate Flowrate ( Q0 ). Curve – 1 and Curve – 3 correspond to Kinetic
Equation-2 ( Equation 3.34 ). Curve – 2 and Curve – 4 correspond to Kinetic
Equation-1 ( Equation 3.33 )
100
conventional design (of same reactor volume) when substrate flowrate (Q0) is fixed at 7 L/s is
illustrated in Figure (4.11) and the corresponding data are listed in Table (4.11). The process
considered is lactic acid production from molasses using Enterococcus Faecalas, the kinetic
constants for which are listed in Equation (3.33).
Data are illustrated for the case when the total height (Lf) of the fluidized bed (reaction zone)
is fixed at 3.0 m and biomass concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 250 gm/L.
TABLE 4.11
Kinetic Equation-1 (Equation 3.33)
• µm = 0.00071225 s-1
• Ks = 0.1 gm/L
• Y = 0.77
• = 250 gm/L
• Q0 = 7.0 L/s
• DV = 1.05m, Lf = 3.0m

CS0 (gm/L) Conversion (α) CS0 (gm/L) Conversion (α) (%)
50.1 0.84 50.01 0.667 25.94
49.7 0.843 49.4 0.670 25.82
49.3 0.845 49.1 0.672 25.74
48.8 0.848 48.8 0.674 25.81
48.3 0.85 48.5 0.676 25.73
47.8 0.853 48.2 0.678 25.81
47.3 0.856 47.9 0.680 25.88
101
Equation-1 (Equation 3.33), Cell Mass Concentration in Biofilm ( ) = 250 gm/L and Q0
= 7.0 L/s.

proposed design and that of bioreactor of conventional design (of same reactor volume) when
substrate flowrate (Q0) is fixed at 7.0 L/s are shown in Figure (4.12) and the corresponding
data are listed in Table (4.12). Here, the biomass concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 275
gm/L. The process considered is lactic acid production from molasses using Enterococcus
Faecalas, the kinetic constants for which are listed in Equation (3.33).
is fixed at 3.0 m.
102
TABLE 4.12
• µm = 0.00071225 s-1
• Ks = 0.1 gm/L
• Y = 0.77
• = 275 gm/L
• Q0 = 7.0 L/s
• DV = 1.05m, Lf = 3.0m

50.1 0.86 50.0 0.712 20.78
49.9 0.867 49.2 0.713 21.59
49.09 0.871 48.8 0.717 21.47
48.2 0.875 48.3 0.72 21.52
47.3 0.879 47.5 0.728 20.74
46.4 0.883 46.6 0.733 20.46
45.5 0.887 45.7 0.737 20.35

= 7.0 L/s.
103
Another set of plots illustrating the variation of percentage enhancement in fractional
conversion with substrate flowrate (Q0) is shown in Figure (4.12a). Here,
Curve – 1 and Curve – 2 both correspond to Kinetic Equation-1(Equation 3.33) where Cell
mass concentration in biofilm ( ) is 250 gm/L and 275 gm/L respectively.

with Substrate ( sucrose ) Concentration (CS0). Kinetic Equation-1 ( Equation 3.33 ).
104
conventional design (of same reactor volume) when substrate flowrate (Q0) is fixed at 7 L/s is
illustrated in Figure (4.13) and the corresponding data are listed in Table (4.13). The process
considered is lactic acid production from cheese whey permeate using Lactobacillus
is fixed at 3.0 m and biomass concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 150 gm/L.
TABLE 4.13
• µm = 0.000194 s-1
• Ks = 0.22 gm/L
• Y = 0.75
• = 150 gm/L
• Q0 = 7.0 L/s
• DV = 1.05m, Lf = 3.0m

9.1 0.77 9.01 0.58 32.75
8.47 0.78 8.82 0.603 22.69
8.06 0.80 8.34 0.604 32.45
7.60 0.81 8.01 0.610 32.78
7.09 0.83 7.45 0.612 35.62
6.51 0.84 7.02 0.615 36.58
5.84 0.86 6.49 0.62 38.70
105
= 7.0 L/s.

proposed design and that of bioreactor of conventional design (of same reactor volume) when
substrate flowrate (Q0) is fixed at 7 L/s are shown in Figure (4.14) and the corresponding data
are listed in Table (4.14). Here, the biomass concentration in the biofilm ( ) is 175 gm/L.
The process considered is lactic acid production from cheese whey permeate using
Lactobacillus Helveticus, the kinetic constants for which are listed in Equation (3.34).
is fixed at 3.0 m.
106
TABLE 4.14
• µm = 0.000194 s-1
• Ks = 0.22 gm/L
• Y = 0.75
• = 175 gm/L
• Q0 = 7.0 L/s
• DV = 1.05m, Lf = 3.0m

9.1 0.81 9.0 0.66 22.72
8.68 0.83 8.71 0.67 23.88
8.14 0.84 8.41 0.684 22.80
7.54 0.85 8.106 0.697 21.95
7.21 0.86 7.77 0.71 21.13
6.47 0.88 7.43 0.72 22.22
5.59 0.89 7.06 0.737 20.76

= 7.0 L/s.
107
Another set of plots illustrating the variation of percentage enhancement in fractional
conversion with substrate flowrate (Q0) is shown in Figure (4.14a). Here,
Curve – 1 and Curve – 2 both correspond to Kinetic Equation-2(Equation 3.34) where Cell
mass concentration in biofilm ( ) is 150 gm/L and 175 gm/L respectively.

with Feed Substrate ( lactose ) Concentration ( CS0 ). Kinetic Equation-2 ( Equation
3.34 ).
108
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS.
109
1. As shown in Figure (4.1), when molasses is being used as feed solution, fractional
conversion of substrate attained ( α ) decreases with increase in substrate flowrate ( Q0
). This is understandable since an increase in substrate flowrate ( Q0 ) tends to
decrease the average residence time of substrate in the reaction zone and
consequently, the fractional conversion ( α ) attained decreases. On comparing the
two plots of Figure (4.1), it can be seen that the decrease of fractional conversion ( α )
with increase in substrate flowrate ( Q0 ) is much sharper when cell mass
concentration in biofilm ( xf ) = 250 gm / L. For example when substrate flowrate ( Q0
) increases from 7 L / s to 9 L / s, fractional conversion ( α ) decreases from 0.86 to
0.836 ( by 2.8 % ), when cell mass concentration in biofilm ( xf ) = 275 gm / L, while
for the same increase in substrate flowrate ( Q0 ), the decrease in fractional conversion
( α ) is by 4.3% ( from 0.84 to 0.804 ) when cell mass concentration in biofilm is 250
gm/L. It can also be observed that the fractional conversion ( α ) obtained at any
specific flowrate is higher when xf = 275 gm / L as compared to when xf = 250 gm /
L. This is understandable since increase in cell mass concentration in the biofilm ( x f )
increases the intrinsic rate of bioconversion which, in turn, assists in providing larger
fractional conversion ( α ) of substrate within the same reactor volume. Also, as stated
earlier at, at low value of cell mass concentration in the biofilm ( x f = 250 gm/L), the
fractional conversion ( α ) attained is more sensitive to change in substrate flowrate (
reactor capacity ).
2. The observation is similar when the cheese whey permeate is being used as the feed
solution Figure ( 4.2 ). It can be seen that the decrease in fractional conversion ( α ) is
sharper at lower value of cell mass concentration in the biofilm ( x f = 150 gm / L ).
For example when the feed flowrate increases from 7 L / s to 9 L / s, the magnitude of
fractional conversion ( α ) decreases from 0.81 to 0.77 ( by 4.94 % ), when cell mass
concentration in the biofilm ( xf ) = 175 gm / L, while the decrease in fractional
conversion ( α ) is by 5.2 % ( from 0.77 to 0.73 ) when cell mass concentration in the
biofilm ( xf ) = 150 gm / L. Further, as anticipated, the fractional conversion (α) of
substrate ( lactose ) attained at any specific feed flowrate is higher when the cell mass
concentration (xf ) in biofilm is higher .
3. Figures (4.3) to (4.6) illustrate dependence of fractional conversion of substrate (α)

attained on substrate (sucrose/ lactose) concentration in feed ( CS0 ) at specific values
of feed flowrate (Q0). It can be seen that the magnitude of fractional conversion (α)
decreases with increase in substrate concentration in the feed ( CS0 ) at any specific
value of substrate flowrate (Q0). The observation is identical with all values of
biomass concentration in biofilm (xf ) and also with different kinetic constants ( with
both feed solutions such as molasses and cheese whey permeate ). At a given value of
CS0 ( sucrose / lactose concentration in feed ), the reactor provides higher fractional
conversion when the feed flowrate is lower. Since the expanded bed height of the
bioreactor ( Lf ) is kept constant at 3.0 m, a lower feed flowrate shall provide larger
residence time ( τ ) of substrate in the reaction zone and thus helps in achieving larger
fractional conversion ( α ) .
110
4. The above figures ( graphical illustrations ) thus help in making an optimum choice of
process parameters such as substrate flowrate ( Q0 ) to be employed and cell mass
concentration to be maintained in the biofilm ( xf ) to attain a given fractional
conversion (α ) of substrate, while handling a feed solution of substrate concentration
( CS0 ) in a bioreactor of expanded bed height ( Lf ).
5. Comparison between the performance characteristics of the bioreactor of proposed

design ( of Diverging – Converging geometry ) and the bioreactor of conventional
design ( straight, cylindrical geometry ) but of same volume per unit length (of
diameter DV ) is illustrated in Figures ( 4.7 ) to ( 4.14 ) . It can be seen that the
bioreactor of proposed design provides significantly higher fractional conversion (α)
of substrate at any specific value of feed flowrate ( Q0 ) or feed concentration ( CS0 )
as compared to the bioreactor of straight , cylindrical geometry . This observation is
identical in the case of both feedstocks handled ( molasses as well as cheese whey
permeate ), both types of kinetic equations and at all values of biomass concentration
in biofilm ( xf ). The percentage enhancement in fractional conversion (α) ranges
from 21.0 % to 29.0 % ( Figure 4.10a , 4.12a and 4.14a ), within a feed flowrate ( Q0
) ranging from 7 L / s to 10 L/s, substrate concentration ( CS0 ) in feed solution
ranging from 45.0 to 50.0 gm / L ( for sucrose ) and 5.5 to 9.0 gm / L for ( lactose ).
6. The bioreactor of proposed design thus provides augmented performance efficiency

at the same operating conditions. The percentage enhancement increases with
increase in feed flowrate ( Q0 ) at lower values of cell mass concentration (xf ) in
biofilm ( such as 150.0 gm / L , 250 gm / L ) as shown in Figure (4.10a) . However, at
large values of cell mass concentration in biofilm ( xf = 175.0 gm / L , 275 gm / L ),
the percentage enhancement exhibits a slightly decreasing trend with increase in feed
flowrate ( Q0 ).
7. A similar trend has been observed regarding the variation of percentage enhancement
with increase in substrate concentration ( CS0 ) in the feed solution. At larger values of
of cell mass concentration (xf ) in biofilm (xf = 175.0 gm / L , 275 gm / L ), the
percentage enhancement sluggishly increases with increase in substrate concentration
( CS0 ) , but at lower value of cell mass concentration ( xf ) in biofilm (xf = 150.0 g /
L ) the percentage enhancement exhibits a decreasing trend with increase in substrate
concentration, CS0 ( Figure 4.14a ). The decrease, however, is not substantial.
In the case of molasses, at cell mass concentration, xf = 250.0 gm / L, the variation of
percentage enhancement with substrate ( sucrose ) concentration in feed ( CS0 ) is
very sluggish ( Figure 4.12a ). In other words, the increase in fractional conversion (
α ) provided by the reactor of proposed geometry is not very sensitive to changes in
substrate concentration in feed ( CS0 ), particularly at a lower value of cell mass
concentration ( xf = 250.0 gm / L ).
8. The improved performance of Diverging – Converging fluidized bed reactor may be

attributed to several factors :
111
a) The minimum fluidization velocity ( Umf ) is selected based on cross section –
1 ( inlet cross section, corresponding to minimum diameter D1 ). At this cross
section, the bed is fully fluidized which helps in speedy start-up of the
reaction. As the partially converted feed solution moves up, the cross sectional
area of the reactor increases, thereby increasing the residence time ( τ ). At
cross section – 2 ( corresponding to maximum diameter D2 ), the fluid
elements receive maximum residence time. This helps in achieving larger
fractional conversion ( α ) of the substrate. As the product solution ( with a
small percentage of unconverted substrate ) moves further up, the cross-
sectional area decreases, the turbulence increases. There shall be more intimate
mixing among fluid elements and this facilitates further bioconversion, even
though the substrate concentration is at a lower level.
b) If the fractional conversion ( α ) attained is not high enough, then the reaction
mixture enters the second diverging section , where due to gradual increase in
reactor volume, additional ( and higher ) residence time is provided to attain
higher conversion . This is followed by the second converging section where,
as stated earlier, more efficient contacting between fluid elements occurs to
bring the bioconversion to the ultimate desired level.
c) Experimentally, it has been estimated that the value of axial dispersion
coefficient ( DL ) is lower for a Diverging – Converging tube as compared to a
straight , cylindrical tube of same volume per unit length [ 1 ]. Typically, the
experimental value of axial dispersion coefficient ( DL ) for Diverging –
Converging column is 0.02 m2 / s while that for a straight, cylindrical column
of diameter DV is 0.0315 m2 / s. Radial dispersion is of high magnitude in a
Diverging – Converging tube and this provided an uniform concentration of
substrate at any particular cross-section inside the reactor ( with little radial
variation ). However, due to the lower degree of axial dispersion, the system
dynamics tends to approach plug flow and this tends to improve the reactor
performance.
d) Another equally interesting feature regarding the proposed design is that the
pressure drop in the system remains reasonably low [ 2, 3 ]. Thus, the
operating cost of the bioreactor shall not be materially different from that of a
conventional fluidized bed bioreactor.
9. The prospects of industrial adaptation of the bioreactor of proposed design must be,
therefore, anticipated to be quite bright.
112
REFERENCES:
1. Narayanan, C.M., Unpublished Work.
2. Narayanan, C.M., Performance Analysis of Constricted Tube Ultrafiltration Unit for

Production of Food Grade Protein Concentrates from Food Wastes, Journal of
Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Volume 2, No. 9, pp. 149-155, 2011.
3. Chakravarty, T.K.; Narayanan, C.M.; Bhattacharya, B.C.: Experimental studies on

heat transfer with phase change on Diverging-converging surfaces. The Canadian
Journal of Chemical Engineering, Volume 69, No. 1, pp.281-285, (2009).
113
APPENDIX
SAMPLE COMPUTER
PROGRAMS
114
PROGRAM 1
//Performance analysis of Diverging-Converging Bioreactor
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
using namespace std;
int main()
//initial values
char ch;
double mu,ks,y,de,dl,delta,rhos,rhom,rhof,muf,xf,g,done,ls,dtwo,theta,lf;
int n,i,j;
double dp;
cout<<"\nEnter all the kinetic constants:";
cout<<"\nEnter the max specific growth rate:";
cin>>mu;
cout<<"\nEnter the half velocity constant:";
cin>>ks;
cout<<"\nEnter the yield coefficient:";
cin>>y;
cout<<"\nEnter the effective diffusivity of substrate into the biofilm:";
cin>>de;
cout<<"\nEnter the axial dispersion coefficient:";
cin>>dl;
115
cout<<"\nEnter the support particle diameter:";
cin>>dp;
cout<<"\nEnter the biofilm thickness:";
cin>>delta;
cout<<"\nEnter all the property values:";
cout<<"\nEnter the density of particle:";
cin>>rhos;
cout<<"\nEnter the density of the microbial solution:";
cin>>rhom;
cout<<"\nEnter the density of the substrate solution:";
cin>>rhof;
cout<<"\nEnter the viscosity of the substrate solution:";
cin>>muf;
cout<<"\nEnter the cell mass concentration in biofilm:";
cin>>xf;
cout<<"\nEnter the acceleration due to gravity:";
cin>>g;
cout<<"\nEnter the dimensions of the diverging converging bioreactor:";
cout<<"\nEnter the minimum column diameter:";
cin>>done;
cout<<"\nEnter the length of one segment:";
cin>>ls;
cout<<"\nEnter the number of segments:";
cin>>n;
cout<<"\nEnter the maximum column diameter:";
cin>>dtwo;
cout<<"\nEnter the angle of convergence:";
116
cin>>theta;
lf=n*ls;
cout<<"\nThe total length of the reactor:"<<lf;
//calculation of diameter of particle-biofilm aggregate
double dpm,f;
dpm=dp+(2.0*delta);
cout<<"\nThe diameter of particle biofilm aggregate:"<<dpm;
f=1.0-pow((dp/dpm),3.0);
cout<<"\nThe volume fraction of biofilm:"<<f;
//calculation of density of particle-biofilm aggregate
double rhosm;
rhosm=(f*rhom)+(1.0-f)*rhos;
cout<<"\nThe density of particle-biofilm aggregate:"<<rhosm;
//calculation of minimum fluidization velocity
double umf,arm,remf;
//using Wen and Yu's correlation
arm=(pow(dpm,3.0)*(rhosm-rhof)*g*rhof)/pow(muf,2.0);
remf=pow((pow(33.67,2.0)+(0.0408*arm)),0.5)-33.67;
umf=(remf*muf)/(dpm*rhof);
cout<<"\nThe minimum fluidization velocity:"<<umf;
double uop,qo;
cout<<"\nEnter the value of Flowrate:";
cin>>qo;
uop=(4.0/3.14)*qo/pow(done,2.0);
cout<<"\nThe Operating Velocity is:"<<uop;
//tabulation of discharge coefficient Cd values
117
double rei[21],cdi[21];
rei[0]=0.1;cdi[0]=240.0;
rei[1]=0.2;cdi[1]=125.96;
rei[2]=0.4;cdi[2]=64.80;
rei[3]=0.6;cdi[3]=44.22;
rei[4]=0.8;cdi[4]=33.86;
rei[5]=1.0;cdi[5]=27.60;
rei[6]=2.0;cdi[6]=14.898;
rei[7]=4.0;cdi[7]=8.33;
rei[8]=6.0;cdi[8]=6.055;
rei[9]=8.0;cdi[9]=4.877;
rei[10]=10.0;cdi[10]=4.151;
rei[11]=20.0;cdi[11]=2.6095;
rei[12]=40.0;cdi[12]=1.7346;
rei[13]=60.0;cdi[13]=1.40;
rei[14]=80.0;cdi[14]=1.2133;
rei[15]=100.0;cdi[15]=1.0917;
rei[16]=200.0;cdi[16]=0.8056;
rei[17]=400.0;cdi[17]=0.612;
rei[18]=600.0;cdi[18]=0.5261;
rei[19]=800.0;cdi[19]=0.474;
rei[20]=1000.0;cdi[20]=0.44;
//calculation of teminal velocity of the particle
double vt,rep,cd,dev,x;
vt=1.0;
x=vt;
//calculation of Rep
118
do
rep=(dpm*rhof*vt)/muf;
cout<<"\nPrint rep:"<<rep;
if(rep<1000.0)
i=0;
do
if(rep==rei[i]){
cd=cdi[i];break;}
if(rep>rei[i] && rep<rei[i+1]){
cd=cdi[i]-((cdi[i]-cdi[i+1])*(rep-rei[i])/rei[i]);break;}
i=i+1;
}while(i<21);
else
cd=0.44;
cout<<"\nPrint Cd:"<<cd;
vt=pow(((4.0/3.0)*dpm*((rhosm-rhof)/(rhof))*g/cd),0.5);
dev=abs((vt-x)*100.0/x);
cout<<"\nPrint vt:"<<vt;
if(dev<1.0)
break;
vt=(x+vt)/2.0;
x=vt;
119
cout<<"\nprint deviation:"<<dev;
}while(dev>1.0);
cout<<"\nThe terminal settling velocity of the particle:"<<vt;
if(vt>uop)
cout<<"\nThe value of Vt is verified";
cout<<"\nPrint the re and cd values:"<<rep<<"\n"<<cd;
cout<<"\nPrint deviation"<<dev;
//specify Cse
double
cse,cs[1000],w[1000],z,deltaz,yone,d,ui,ret,ao,bo,m,none,ef,muone,lone,fi,b,nd,ntwo,u,fo
ne,mone[4],lfcal,csocal;
cout<<"\nEnter the exit concentration Cse:";
cin>>cse;
cout<<"\nEnter the value of deltaz:";
cin>>deltaz;
i=0;
cs[0]=cse;
w[0]=0.0;
z=0.0;
do
j=0;
cs[j]=cs[i];
w[j]=w[i];
//calculation of diameter of tube at z
yone=abs((done-dtwo)/ls);
120
if(z>=0.0 && z<(ls/2.0))
d=done+(2.0*z*yone);
else if(z>=(ls/2.0) && z<ls)
d=done+(2*yone*(ls-z));
else if(z>=ls && z<(3.0*ls/2.0))
d=2.0*(done+(ls+z)*yone);
else
d=2.0*(done+(2*yone*(z-ls)));
cout<<"\nPrint d:"<<d;
//calculation of voidage from Richardson and Zaki's correlation
ui=pow(10.0,(log10(vt)-(dpm/d)));
cout<<"\nPrint ui:"<<ui;
ret=d*vt*rhof/muf;
cout<<"\nPrint ret:"<<ret;
if(ret<0.2)
{ao=4.6;bo=20.0;m=0.0;}
else if(ret>0.2 && ret<=1.0)
{ao=4.4;bo=18.0;m=-0.03;}
{ao=4.4;bo=18.0;m=0.0;}
else if(ret>200.0 && ret<=500)
{ao=4.4;bo=0.0;m=-0.1;}
else
{ao=2.4;bo=0.0;m=0.0;}
none=(ao+(bo*(dp/d)))*pow(ret,m);
cout<<"\nPrint n1:"<<none;
ef=pow((uop/ui),(1.0/none));
121
cout<<"\nPrint ef:"<<ef;
muone=(mu*xf*f*(1.0-ef))/(y*ef);
cout<<"\nPrint mu1:"<<muone;
lone=(1.0/6.0)*(pow(dpm,3.0)-pow(dp,3.0))/pow(dpm,2.0);
cout<<"\nPrint l1:"<<lone;
fi=lone*pow((muone/(ks*de)),0.5);
cout<<"\nPrint fi:"<<fi;
u=4.0*qo/(3.14*pow(d,2.0));
cout<<"\nPrint u:"<<u;
do
b=cs[j]/ks;
cout<<"\nprint b:"<<b;
nd=(pow(2.0,0.5)/fi)*((1+b)/b)*pow((b-log(1+b)),0.5);
cout<<"\nprint nd:"<<nd;
ntwo=pow((pow((1.0/nd),2.0)+exp((6.0*pow(fi,2.0))/(5.0*pow((1.0+b),2.0))-
pow((1.0/nd),2.0))),-0.5);
cout<<"\nprint n:"<<ntwo;
fone=(ntwo/dl)*(muone*cs[j])/(ks+cs[j])+(u*w[j]/dl);
cout<<"\nprint f:"<<fone;
mone[j]=deltaz*fone;
cout<<"\nprint m:"<<mone[j];
if(j==3)
break;
j=j+1;
if(j==1)
cs[j]=cs[i]+(deltaz/2.0)*w[i];
if(j==2)
122
cs[j]=cs[i]+((deltaz/2.0)*w[i])+((deltaz/4.0)*mone[j-2]);
if(j==3)
cs[j]=cs[i]+(deltaz*w[i])+((deltaz/2.0)*mone[j-2]);
if(j<3)
w[j]=w[i]+(mone[j-1]/2.0);
if(j==3)
w[j]=w[i]+mone[j-1];
}while(j<=3);
cs[i+1]=cs[i]+deltaz*w[i]+(deltaz/6.0)*(mone[0]+mone[1]+mone[2]);
w[i+1]=w[i]+(1.0/6.0)*(mone[0]+2.0*mone[1]+2.0*mone[2]+mone[3]);
cout<<"\nPrint cs:"<<cs[i+1];
cout<<"\nprint w:"<<w[i+1];
//calculate Lf(cal)
lfcal=deltaz*(i+1);
i=i+1;
z=z+deltaz;
cout<<"\nprint lfcal:"<<lfcal;
}while(lfcal<lf);
cout<<"\nlfcal:"<<lfcal;
//calculate Cso(cal)
csocal=cs[i];
cout<<"\nThe initial substrate concentration Cso:"<<csocal;
cout<<"\nThe length of the reactor:"<<lf;
getch();
return 0;
123
PROGRAM 2
//Performance analysis of equivalent Straight column Bioreactor
#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
using namespace std;
int main()
//initial values
char ch;
double mu,ks,y,de,dl,delta,rhos,rhom,rhof,muf,xf,g,done,ls,dtwo,theta,lf;
int n,i,j;
double dp;
cout<<"\nEnter all the kinetic constants:";
cout<<"\nEnter the max specific growth rate:";
cin>>mu;
cout<<"\nEnter the half velocity constant:";
cin>>ks;
cout<<"\nEnter the yield coefficient:";
cin>>y;
cout<<"\nEnter the effective diffusivity of substrate into the biofilm:";
cin>>de;
cout<<"\nEnter the axial dispersion coefficient:";
cin>>dl;
124
cout<<"\nEnter the support particle diameter:";
cin>>dp;
cout<<"\nEnter the biofilm thickness:";
cin>>delta;
cout<<"\nEnter all the property values:";
cout<<"\nEnter the density of particle:";
cin>>rhos;
cout<<"\nEnter the density of the microbial solution:";
cin>>rhom;
cout<<"\nEnter the density of the substrate solution:";
cin>>rhof;
cout<<"\nEnter the viscosity of the substrate solution:";
cin>>muf;
cout<<"\nEnter the cell mass concentration in biofilm:";
cin>>xf;
cout<<"\nEnter the acceleration due to gravity:";
cin>>g;
cout<<"\nEnter the dimensions of the diverging converging bioreactor:";
cout<<"\nEnter the minimum column diameter:";
cin>>done;
cout<<"\nEnter the length of one segment:";
cin>>ls;
cout<<"\nEnter the number of segments:";
cin>>n;
cout<<"\nEnter the maximum column diameter:";
cin>>dtwo;
cout<<"\nEnter the angle of convergence:";
125
cin>>theta;
lf=n*ls;
cout<<"\nThe total length of the reactor:"<<lf;
//calculation of diameter of particle-biofilm aggregate
double dpm,f;
dpm=dp+(2.0*delta);
cout<<"\nThe diameter of particle biofilm aggregate:"<<dpm;
f=1.0-pow((dp/dpm),3.0);
cout<<"\nThe volume fraction of biofilm:"<<f;
//calculation of density of particle-biofilm aggregate
double rhosm;
rhosm=(f*rhom)+(1.0-f)*rhos;
cout<<"\nThe density of particle-biofilm aggregate:"<<rhosm;
//calculation of minimum fluidization velocity
double umf,arm,remf;
//using Wen and Yu's correlation
arm=(pow(dpm,3.0)*(rhosm-rhof)*g*rhof)/pow(muf,2.0);
remf=pow((pow(33.67,2.0)+(0.0408*arm)),0.5)-33.67;
umf=(remf*muf)/(dpm*rhof);
cout<<"\nThe minimum fluidization velocity:"<<umf;
double uop,qo;
cout<<"\nEnter the value of Flowrate:";
cin>>qo;
uop=(4.0/3.14)*qo/pow(done,2.0);
cout<<"\nThe Operating Velocity is:"<<uop;
//tabulation of discharge coefficient Cd values
126
double rei[21],cdi[21];
rei[0]=0.1;cdi[0]=240.0;
rei[1]=0.2;cdi[1]=125.96;
rei[2]=0.4;cdi[2]=64.80;
rei[3]=0.6;cdi[3]=44.22;
rei[4]=0.8;cdi[4]=33.86;
rei[5]=1.0;cdi[5]=27.60;
rei[6]=2.0;cdi[6]=14.898;
rei[7]=4.0;cdi[7]=8.33;
rei[8]=6.0;cdi[8]=6.055;
rei[9]=8.0;cdi[9]=4.877;
rei[10]=10.0;cdi[10]=4.151;
rei[11]=20.0;cdi[11]=2.6095;
rei[12]=40.0;cdi[12]=1.7346;
rei[13]=60.0;cdi[13]=1.40;
rei[14]=80.0;cdi[14]=1.2133;
rei[15]=100.0;cdi[15]=1.0917;
rei[16]=200.0;cdi[16]=0.8056;
rei[17]=400.0;cdi[17]=0.612;
rei[18]=600.0;cdi[18]=0.5261;
rei[19]=800.0;cdi[19]=0.474;
rei[20]=1000.0;cdi[20]=0.44;
//calculation of teminal velocity of the particle
double vt,rep,cd,dev,x;
vt=1.0;
x=vt;
//calculation of Rep
127
do
rep=(dpm*rhof*vt)/muf;
cout<<"\nPrint rep:"<<rep;
if(rep<1000.0)
i=0;
do
if(rep==rei[i]){
cd=cdi[i];break;}
if(rep>rei[i] && rep<rei[i+1]){
cd=cdi[i]-((cdi[i]-cdi[i+1])*(rep-rei[i])/rei[i]);break;}
i=i+1;
}while(i<21);
else
cd=0.44;
cout<<"\nPrint Cd:"<<cd;
vt=pow(((4.0/3.0)*dpm*((rhosm-rhof)/(rhof))*g/cd),0.5);
dev=abs((vt-x)*100.0/x);
cout<<"\nPrint vt:"<<vt;
if(dev<1.0)
break;
vt=(x+vt)/2.0;
x=vt;
128
cout<<"\nprint deviation:"<<dev;
}while(dev>1.0);
cout<<"\nThe terminal settling velocity of the particle:"<<vt;
if(vt>uop)
cout<<"\nThe value of Vt is verified";
cout<<"\nPrint the re and cd values:"<<rep<<"\n"<<cd;
cout<<"\nPrint deviation"<<dev;
//specify Cse
double
cse,cs[1000],w[1000],z,deltaz,yone,d,ui,ret,ao,bo,m,none,ef,muone,lone,fi,b,nd,ntwo,u,fo
ne,mone[4],lfcal,csocal;
cout<<"\nEnter the exit concentration Cse:";
cin>>cse;
cout<<"\nEnter the value of deltaz:";
cin>>deltaz;
i=0;
cs[0]=cse;
w[0]=0.0;
z=0.0;
do
j=0;
cs[j]=cs[i];
w[j]=w[i];
//calculation of diameter of tube at z
yone=abs((done-dtwo)/ls);
129
d=pow(((pow(dtwo,3.0)-pow(done,3.0))/(3.0*ls*yone)),0.5);
cout<<"\nPrint d:"<<d;
//calculation of voidage from Richardson and Zaki's correlation
ui=pow(10.0,(log10(vt)-(dpm/d)));
cout<<"\nPrint ui:"<<ui;
ret=d*vt*rhof/muf;
cout<<"\nPrint ret:"<<ret;
if(ret<0.2)
{ao=4.6;bo=20.0;m=0.0;}
{ao=4.4;bo=18.0;m=-0.03;}
{ao=4.4;bo=18.0;m=0.0;}
else if(ret>200.0 && ret<=500)
{ao=4.4;bo=0.0;m=-0.1;}
else
{ao=2.4;bo=0.0;m=0.0;}
none=(ao+(bo*(dp/d)))*pow(ret,m);
cout<<"\nPrint n1:"<<none;
ef=pow((uop/ui),(1.0/none));
cout<<"\nPrint ef:"<<ef;
muone=(mu*xf*f*(1.0-ef))/(y*ef);
cout<<"\nPrint mu1:"<<muone;
lone=(1.0/6.0)*(pow(dpm,3.0)-pow(dp,3.0))/pow(dpm,2.0);
cout<<"\nPrint l1:"<<lone;
fi=lone*pow((muone/(ks*de)),0.5);
cout<<"\nPrint fi:"<<fi;
130
u=4.0*qo/(3.14*pow(d,2.0));
cout<<"\nPrint u:"<<u;
do
b=cs[j]/ks;
cout<<"\nprint b:"<<b;
nd=(pow(2.0,0.5)/fi)*((1+b)/b)*pow((b-log(1+b)),0.5);
cout<<"\nprint nd:"<<nd;
ntwo=pow((pow((1.0/nd),2.0)+exp((6.0*pow(fi,2.0))/(5.0*pow((1.0+b),2.0))-
pow((1.0/nd),2.0))),-0.5);
cout<<"\nprint n:"<<ntwo;
fone=(ntwo/dl)*(muone*cs[j])/(ks+cs[j])+(u*w[j]/dl);
cout<<"\nprint f:"<<fone;
mone[j]=deltaz*fone;
cout<<"\nprint m:"<<mone[j];
if(j==3)
break;
j=j+1;
if(j==1)
cs[j]=cs[i]+(deltaz/2.0)*w[i];
if(j==2)
cs[j]=cs[i]+((deltaz/2.0)*w[i])+((deltaz/4.0)*mone[j-2]);
if(j==3)
cs[j]=cs[i]+(deltaz*w[i])+((deltaz/2.0)*mone[j-2]);
if(j<3)
w[j]=w[i]+(mone[j-1]/2.0);
if(j==3)
w[j]=w[i]+mone[j-1];
131
}while(j<=3);
cs[i+1]=cs[i]+deltaz*w[i]+(deltaz/6.0)*(mone[0]+mone[1]+mone[2]);
w[i+1]=w[i]+(1.0/6.0)*(mone[0]+2.0*mone[1]+2.0*mone[2]+mone[3]);
cout<<"\nPrint cs:"<<cs[i+1];
cout<<"\nprint w:"<<w[i+1];
//calculate Lf(cal)
lfcal=deltaz*(i+1);
i=i+1;
z=z+deltaz;
cout<<"\nprint lfcal:"<<lfcal;
}while(lfcal<lf);
cout<<"\nlfcal:"<<lfcal;
//calculate Cso(cal)
csocal=cs[i];
cout<<"\nThe initial substrate concentration Cso:"<<csocal;
cout<<"\nThe length of the reactor:"<<lf;
getch();
return 0;
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PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF

5. CHAPTER 5 109 - 113

6. APPENDIX 114 - 132

1. Figure 1.1: Schematic of phenomenon of fluidization.

2. Figure 1.2: Schematic of recirculating fluidized bed ( gas fluidized bed).

3. Figure 1.3: Schematic of spouted bed.

4. Figure 1.4: Schematic of Semifluidized bed.

11. Figure 1.11: Schematic of Fluidized bed bioreactor.

13. Figure 3.1: Schematic of the bioreactor of proposed design.

14. Figure 3.2: Computation flow chart.

24. Figure 4.10: Comparison Between Performance of Bioreactor of Proposed Design

25. Figure 4.10a: Variation of Percentage Enhancement in fractional conversion attained

26. Figure 4.11: Comparison Between Performance of Bioreactor of Proposed Design

28. Figure 4.12a: Variation of Percentage Enhancement in fractional conversion attained

29. Figure 4.13: Comparison Between Performance of Bioreactor of Proposed Design

30. Figure 4.14: Comparison Between Performance of Bioreactor of Proposed Design

31. Figure 4.14a: Variation of Percentage Enhancement in fractional conversion attained

Amit Kumar (09/CHE/01)

Soni Jha (09/CHE/17)

Arpita Saha (09/CHE/23)

Ananya Basak (09/CHE/50)

in partial fulfilment of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering is a

PROF.( DR.) C.M.NARAYANAN

Figure 1.2: Schematic of recirculating fluidized bed ( gas fluidized bed)

Semifluidized bed is characterized by simultaneous formation of packed bed and fluidized

Figure 1.4: Schematic of Semifluidized bed.

The main advantages of fluidized bed are

The main disadvantages of fluidized bed are

1.2 FLUIDIZED BED BIOREACTORS

Figure 1.11: Schematic of Fluidized bed bioreactor.

a) IMMOBILIZED ENZYME BIOREACTORS

1. Covalent binding: the binding of enzymes to water-insoluble carriers

b) IMMOBIZED CELL BIOREACTORS

The objectives of present study are

1. To analyze the characteristic fluidized bed biofilm reactor of

2. To compare the performance of fluidized bed bioreactor of above

a. ; for locally constricted tubes and

= 0.135 ( UG / UB ) 0.77 (for Converging-Diverging tube Airlift Fermenter)

= 0.090 ( UG / UB ) 1.26 (for Uniform Tube Airlift Fermenter).

The bubble rise velocity is calculated from,

UB = ( g1.5 dB2.5 / 47 )0.5

Where = liquid density, g/cc

g = acceleration due to gravity, cm/s2

= liquid viscosity, poise (g/cm-s)

where the bubble diameter dB is calculated from

where = liquid surface tension, dyne/cm

δ = porous plate pore diameter, cm

The final correlation for KLA may be prevented as,

For Uniform Tube airlift fermenter (UT-ALF)

For Convergent Divergent Tube airlift fermenter(CDT-ALF)

where, Dave = average diameter of the riser column (m)

KLa = overall volumetric mass transfer coefficient (1/s)

UG = superficial gas velocity (m/s)

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s^2)

=fractional gas hold up(dimensionless)

hi =initial liquid height (m)

ΔH = hi - h0 = difference in dispersed liquid height (m)

hi = dispersed liquid height in riser (m)