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Pesticides and The Environment PDF
Pesticides and The Environment PDF
Fred Fishel
Department of Agronomy
Once a pesticide is introduced into the environment, whether through an application, a disposal or a spill, it is influenced by many processes.
These processes determine a pesticide's persistence and movement, if any, and its ultimate fate.
The fate processes can be beneficial. They can move a pesticide to the target area or destroy its potentially harmful residues. Sometimes
they can be detrimental, leading to reduced control of a target pest, injury of nontarget plants and animals, and environmental damage. Of
particular concern today is the movement of pesticides into groundwater.
Different soil and climatic factors and different handling practices can promote or prevent each process. An understanding of the fate
processes can help every pesticide applicator ensure that applications are not only effective, but are also environmentally safe.
Pesticide adsorption
The adsorption process binds pesticides to soil particles, similar to iron filings or paper clips sticking to a magnet. Adsorption often occurs
because of the attraction between a chemical and soil particles. Positively charged pesticide molecules, for example, are attracted to and
can bind to negatively charged clay particles.
Many soil factors influence pesticide adsorption. Soils high in organic matter or clay are more adsorptive than coarse, sandy soils, in part
because a clay or organic soil has more particle surface area, or more sites onto which pesticides can bind. Moisture also affects adsorption.
Wet soils tend to adsorb less pesticide than dry soils because water molecules compete with the pesticide for the binding sites.
Pesticides vary in their adsorption to soil particles. Some pesticides such as paraquat and glyphosate bind very tightly, while others bind only
weakly and are readily desorbed or released back into the soil solution.
One problem resulting from pesticide adsorption is reduced pest control. For example, weeds may not be controlled if a herbicide is held
tightly to soil particles and cannot be taken up by the roots of the target weeds. Some pesticide labels recommend higher application rates
when the chemical is applied to adsorptive soils.
Plant injury can be another problem resulting from adsorption of pesticides to soil particles. Injury can result when a pesticide used for one
crop is later released from the soil particles in amounts great enough to cause injury to a sensitive rotational crop. This pesticide ³carry-over²
can also lead to the presence of illegal residues on rotational food or feed crops.
Adsorption is particularly important because it influences whether other processes are able to affect pesticides.
Pesticide transfer
Pesticide transfer is sometimes essential for pest control. For example, for certain preemergence herbicides to be effective, they must move
within the soil to reach the germinating seeds. Too much movement, however, can move a pesticide away from the target pest. This can lead
to reduced pest control, contamination of surface water and groundwater, and injury of nontarget species, including humans. Five ways that
pesticides can be transferred are through volatilization, runoff, leaching, absorption and crop removal.
Volatilization
Volatilization is the conversion of a solid or liquid into a gas. Once volatilized, a pesticide can move in air currents away from the treated
surface. Vapor pressure is an important factor in determining whether a pesticide will volatilize. The higher the vapor pressure, the more
volatile the pesticide.
Environmental factors tend to increase volatilization. They include high temperature, low relative humidity, and air movement. A pesticide
tightly adsorbed to soil particles is less likely to volatilize; soil conditions such as texture, organic matter content, and moisture can thus
influence pesticide volatilization.
Volatilization can result in reduced control of the target pest because less pesticide remains at the target site. Vapor drift, the movement of
pesticide vapors or gases in the atmosphere, can lead to injury of nontarget species. Herbicide vapors in particular can injure nontarget
plants.
To reduce pesticide volatilization, avoid applying volatile pesticides when conditions are unfavorable, such as very hot, dry days or when the
soils are wet. Labels often provide warnings if there is a volatility hazard under certain conditions.
Labels for volatile pesticides may suggest adding the pesticide to the soil by tillage or irrigation during or shortly after application. This helps
to reduce volatilization by reducing the amount of exposed pesticide on the soil surface. Low-volatile formulations are also available for some
pesticides.
Runoff
Runoff is movement of water over a sloping surface. Runoff occurs when water is applied faster than it can enter the soil. Pesticides can be
carried in the water itself or bound to eroding soil particles.
The severity of pesticide runoff depends on the slope or grade of an area; the erodibility, texture and moisture content of the soil; and the
amount and timing of rainfall and irrigation. Pesticide runoff usually is greatest when a heavy or sustained rain follows soon after an
application. Over-irrigation can lead to excess surface water; it also can lead to pesticide runoff, especially when an irrigation system is used
to apply a pesticide.
Vegetation or crop residue tends to slow the movement of runoff water. Certain physical and chemical properties of the pesticide, such as
how quickly it is absorbed by plants or how tightly it is bound to plant tissue or soil, are also important.
Herbicide runoff can cause direct injury to nontarget plants. Insecticide and nematicide runoff into surface waters such as streams and ponds
can be particularly harmful to aquatic organisms. Pesticide runoff also can lead to groundwater contamination and can cause injury to crops,
livestock or humans if the contaminated water is used downstream.
Practices to reduce pesticide runoff include monitoring of weather conditions, careful application of irrigation water, using a spray mix
additive to enhance pesticide retention on foliage, and incorporating the pesticide into the soil. Reduced-tillage cropping systems and surface
grading, in addition to contour planting and strip cropping of untreated vegetation, can slow the movement of runoff water and help keep it
out of wells, sinkholes, water bodies and other sensitive areas.
Leaching
Leaching is the movement of pesticides through the soil rather than over the surface. Leaching depends, in part, on the pesticide's chemical
and physical properties. For example, a pesticide held strongly to soil particles by adsorption is less likely to leach. Another factor is
solubility. A pesticide that dissolves in water can move with water in the soil. The persistence, or longevity, of a pesticide also influences the
likelihood of leaching. A pesticide that is rapidly broken down by a degradation process is less likely to leach because it may remain in the
soil only a short time.
Soil factors that influence leaching include texture and organic matter, in part because of their effect on pesticide adsorption. Soil
permeability (how readily water moves through the soil) is also important. The more permeable a soil, the greater potential for pesticide
leaching. A sandy soil is much more permeable than a clay.
The method and rate of application, the use of tillage systems that modify soil conditions, and the amount and timing of water a treated area
receives after application can also influence pesticide leaching. Typically, the closer the time of application to a heavy or sustained rainfall,
the greater the likelihood that some pesticide leaching will occur.
A certain amount of pesticide leaching may be essential for control of a target pest. Too much leaching, however, can lead to reduced pest
control, injury of nontarget species and groundwater contamination.
Monitoring weather conditions and the amount and timing of irrigation can help minimize pesticide leaching. Careful pesticide selection is
important because those pesticides that are not readily adsorbed, not rapidly degraded, and highly water soluble are the most likely to leach.
Labels must be read carefully for instructions on the rates, timing and methods of application. The label may also advise against using the
pesticide when certain soil, geologic or climatic conditions are present.
Pesticides can leach through the soil to groundwater from storage, mixing, equipment cleaning and disposal areas. Under certain conditions,
some pesticides can leach to groundwater from normal applications. The section "Pesticides and water quality" provides further discussion
on groundwater and safe handling practices to prevent contamination.
Absorption or uptake
Absorption or uptake is the movement of pesticides into plants and animals. Absorption of pesticides by target and nontarget organisms is
influenced by environmental conditions and by the chemical and physical properties of the pesticide and the soil. Once absorbed by plants,
pesticides may be broken down or they may remain in the plant until tissue decay or harvest.
Crop removal
Crop removal transfers pesticides and their breakdown products from the treatment site. Most harvested food commodities are subjected to
washing and processing procedures that remove or degrade much of the remaining pesticide residue. While we typically associate
harvesting with food and feed products, it is easy to forget that pesticides potentially can be transferred during such operations as tree and
shrub pruning and turfgrass mowing.
Pesticide degradation
Pesticide degradation, or the breakdown of pesticides, usually is beneficial. Pesticide-destroying reactions change most pesticide residues in
the environment to nontoxic or harmless compounds. However, degradation is detrimental when a pesticide is destroyed before the target
pest has been controlled. Three types of pesticide degradation are microbial, chemical, and photodegradation.
Microbial degradation
Microbial degradation is the breakdown of pesticides by fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms that use pesticides as a food source. Most
microbial degradation of pesticides occurs in the soil. Soil conditions such as moisture, temperature, aeration, pH, and the amount of organic
matter affect the rate of microbial degradation because of their direct influence on microbial growth and activity.
The frequency of pesticide application also is a factor that can influence microbial degradation. Rapid microbial degradation is more likely
when the same pesticide is used repeatedly in a field. Repeated applications can actually stimulate the buildup of organisms that are
effective in degrading the chemical. As the population of these organisms increases, degradation accelerates and the amount of pesticide
available to control the pest is reduced. In extreme cases, accelerated microbial degradation has led to certain products being removed from
the marketplace. Microorganisms greatly reduce the effectiveness of these chemicals soon after application.
The possibility of very rapid pesticide breakdown is reduced by using pesticides only when necessary and by avoiding repeated applications
of the same chemical. Alternating between different classes, groups or formulations of pesticides can minimize the potential for microbial
degradation problems as well as pest resistance.
Chemical degradation
Chemical degradation is the breakdown of pesticides by processes that do not involve living organisms. Temperature, moisture, pH and
adsorption, in addition to the chemical and physical properties of the pesticide, determine which chemical reactions take place and how
quickly they occur.
One of the most common pesticide degradation reactions is hydrolysis, a breakdown process in which the pesticide reacts with water. Many
organophosphate and carbamate insecticides are particularly susceptible to hydrolysis under alkaline conditions. Some are actually broken
down within a matter of hours when mixed with alkaline water.
Product labels may warn against mixing a pesticide with certain fertilizers, other pesticides or water with specific characteristics. Following
these precautions can help prevent pesticide degradation and potential incompatibility problems. In some situations, buffers or other
additives may be available to modify spray mix conditions and prevent or reduce degradation. Pesticide degradation and possible corrosion
of application equipment can be avoided by not allowing a spray mix to remain in a tank for a long period of time.
Photodegradation
Photodegradation is the breakdown of pesticides by light, particularly sunlight. Photodegradation can destroy pesticides on foliage, on the
surface of the soil, and even in the air.
Factors that influence pesticide photodegradation include the intensity of the sunlight, properties of the application site, the application
method and the properties of the pesticide. Pesticide losses from photodegradation can be reduced by adding the pesticide to the soil during
or immediately after application.
Potential sources of contamination include sites used for storage, mixing, loading, disposal, or application of pesticides or where equipment
is cleaned. Wells should be safe from both surface and subsurface contamination from such sources. Soil can be graded, or diversion
terraces or ditches can be built upslope to intercept or divert surface runoff from the wellhead. Monitoring the area around a well can ensure
that changes in land use do not increase the risk of contamination. Situating a well at least 10 feet from a building makes it accessible for
maintenance and inspection.
Improperly closed or abandoned wells can contribute to groundwater contamination. The procedures for proper well closing can depend on
site condition, but wells should be filled in such a way as to prevent water movement within the drill hole.