Vaccination:

Why and when

should it be given?
Submitted by: Hana Esmayil
Class XII – N

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 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled

“Vaccination: Why and when it should be given?” is
an original work done by Miss. Hana Esmayil during
the academic year 2019-20 under the able guidance
and supervision of Mrs. Vijayalakshmi for the partial
fulfillment of his/her academic course.

Examiner’s Signature:
Venue:
Date:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude
to my teacher Mrs. Vijayalakshmi as well as our
principal Mrs. Hameeda Kader who gave me the
golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the
topic “Vaccination: Why and when should it be
given?”, which also helped me in doing a lot of
Research and I came to know about so many new
things I am really thankful to them.

Secondly, I would also like to thank my parents and

friends who helped me a lot in finalizing this project
within the limited time frame.

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 INDEX

1. Introduction

2. How vaccination works?

3. Types of vaccines

4. When to vaccinate?

5. Common diseases prevented by vaccination

6. Current worldwide affairs

7. Conclusion

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 INTRODUCTION

The word vaccination was first used by Edward

Jenner in 1796. Louis Pasteur furthered the
concept through his pioneering work in
microbiology.

Vaccination is the administration of antigenic

material (a vaccine) to stimulate adaptive immunity
to a disease. Vaccines can prevent or ameliorate the
effects of infection by many pathogens. Vaccination
is generally considered to be the most effective
method of preventing infectious diseases. The
material administered can either be live but
weakened forms of pathogens (bacteria or viruses),
killed or inactivated forms of these pathogens, or
purified material such as proteins can also be used.

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 HOW VACCINE WORKS?
A vaccine works by training the immune system to
recognize and combat pathogens, either viruses or
bacteria. To do this, certain molecules from the
pathogen must be introduced into the body to trigger
an immune response. These molecules are
called antigens, and they are present on all viruses
and bacteria. By injecting these antigens into the
body, the immune system can safely learn to
recognize them as hostile invaders, produce
antibodies, and remember them for the future. If the
bacteria or virus reappears, the immune system will
recognize the antigens immediately and attack
aggressively well before the pathogen can spread and
cause sickness.

Vaccination causes the immune system to produce

T-lymphocytes and antibodies. Sometimes, after
getting a vaccine, the imitation infection can cause
minor symptoms, such as fever. Such minor
symptoms are normal and should be expected as the
body builds immunity. Vaccines help develop
immunity by imitating an infection. This type of
infection, however, almost never causes illness, but
it does cause the immune system to produce T-
lymphocytes and Once the imitation infection goes
away, the body is left with a supply of “memory” T-

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lymphocytes, as well as B-lymphocytes that will
remember how to fight that disease in the future.

The Herd Immunity Imperative:

Vaccines don't just work on an individual level, they

protect entire populations. Once enough people are
immunized, opportunities for an outbreak of disease

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become so low even people who aren't immunized
benefit. Essentially, a bacteria or virus simply won't
have enough eligible hosts to establish a foothold
and will eventually die out entirely. This
phenomenon is called "herd immunity" or
"community immunity," and it has allowed once-
devastating diseases to be eliminated entirely,
without needing to vaccinate every individual.
This is critical because there will always be a
percentage of the population that cannot be
vaccinated, including infants, young children, the
elderly, people with severe allergies, pregnant
women, or people with compromised immune
systems. Thanks to herd immunity, these people are
kept safe because diseases are never given a chance
to spread through a population.
Public health officials and scientists continue to
study herd immunity and identify key thresholds,
but one telling example is the country of Gambia,
where a vaccination rate of just 70% of the
population was enough to eliminate Hib disease
entirely.
However, if too many people forgo vaccinations, herd
immunity can break down, opening up the
population to the risk of outbreaks. That is why
many officials and doctors consider widespread
immunization a public health imperative and blame
recent disease outbreaks on a lack of vaccination.

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 TYPES OF VACCINES
The key to vaccines is injecting the antigens into the
body without causing the person to get sick at the
same time. Scientists have developed several ways of
doing this, and thus we have the following types of
vaccines available:

1. Live Attenuated Vaccines:

For these types of vaccines, a weaker, asymptotic

form of the virus or bacteria is introduced into the
body. Because it is weakened, the pathogen will not
spread and cause sickness, but the immune system
will still learn to recognize its antigens and know to
fight in the future.

Advantages: Because these vaccines introduce

actual live pathogens into the body, it is an excellent
simulation for the immune system. So live
attenuated vaccines can result in lifelong immunity
with just one or two doses.

Disadvantages: Because they contain living

pathogens, live attenuated vaccines are not given to
people with weakened immune systems, such as
people undergoing chemotherapy or HIV treatment,
as there is a risk the pathogen could get stronger

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and cause sickness. Additionally, these vaccines
must be refrigerated at all times so the weakened
pathogen doesn't die.

Specific Vaccines:
Measles
Mumps
Rubella (MMR combined vaccine)

2. Inactivated Vaccines:

For these vaccines, the specific virus or bacteria is

killed with heat or chemicals, and its dead cells are
introduced into the body. Even though the pathogen
is dead, the immune system can still learn from its
antigens how to fight live versions of it in the future.

Advantages: These vaccines can be freeze dried and

easily stored because there is no risk of killing the
pathogen as there is with live attenuated vaccines.
They are also safer, without the risk of the virus or
bacteria mutating back into its disease-causing
form.

Disadvantages: Because the virus or bacteria is

dead, it's not as accurate a simulation of the real
thing as a live attenuated virus. Therefore, it often
takes several doses and "booster shots" to train the
body to defend itself.

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Specific Vaccines:
Polio (IPV)

3. Subunit/conjugate Vaccines:

For some diseases, scientists are able to isolate a

specific protein or carbohydrate from the pathogen
that, when injected into the body, can train the
immune system to react without provoking sickness.

Advantages: With these vaccines, the chance of an

adverse reaction in the patient is much lower,
because only a part or the original pathogen is
injected into the body instead of the whole thing.

Disadvantages: Identifying the best antigens in the

pathogen for training the immune system and then
separating them is not always possible. Only certain
vaccines can be produced in this way.

Specific Vaccines:
Hepatitis B
Haemophilus Influenzae Type B (Hib)
Pertussis (part of DTaP combined immunization)

4. Toxoid Vaccines:

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Some bacterial diseases damage the body by
secreting harmful chemicals or toxins. For these
bacteria, scientists are able to "deactivate" some of
the toxins using a mixture of formaldehyde and
water. These dead toxins are then safely injected into
the body. The immune system learns well enough
from the dead toxins to fight off living toxins, should
they ever make an appearance.

Specific Vaccines:
Diphtheria
Tetanus

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 WHEN TO VACCINATE?
The National Immunization Schedule is a schedule
of vaccines that are offered as part of the Universal
Immunization Program (UIP).

Following are the commonly administered vaccines

and the diseases that it prevents:

1. BCG vaccine – prevents tuberculosis

2. OPV vaccine – prevents polio
3. DPT vaccine – prevents Diphtheria, Pertussis
and Tetanus
4. Hepatitis B vaccine – prevents Hepatitis B
5. Hib Conjugate vaccine – prevents pneumonia
and meningitis
6. Measles vaccine – prevents Measles
7. MMR vaccine – prevents Measles, Mumps and
Rubella
8. Typhoid vaccine – prevents Typhoid
9. TT vaccine – prevents Tetanus

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The schedule recommended by the National
Immunization Schedule is as follows:

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 COMMON DISEASES
PREVENTED BY VACCINATION
1. Tuberculosis:

Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria called

Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria usually
attack the lungs, but they can also damage other
parts of the body. TB spreads through the air when
a person with TB of the lungs or throat coughs,
sneezes, or talks. Symptoms of TB in the lungs may
include
A bad cough that lasts 3 weeks or longer
Weight loss and loss of appetite
Coughing up blood or mucus
Weakness or fatigue, fever, night sweats

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 2. Polio:

Polio, or poliomyelitis, is a crippling and potentially

deadly infectious disease. It is caused by the
poliovirus. The virus spreads from person to person
and can invade an infected person’s brain and spinal
cord, causing paralysis (can’t move parts of the
body).
Symptoms may include:
• Sore throat
• Fever
• Tiredness
• Nausea
• Headache
• Stomach pain

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 3. Diphtheria:

Diphtheria is an infection caused by the bacterium

Corynebacterium diphtheriae. It spreads by coughs
and sneezes, or through close contact with someone
who's infected and also by sharing items, such as
cups, cutlery, clothing or bedding, with an infected
person.

The main symptoms of diphtheria are:

• a thick grey-white coating at the back throat
• a high temperature (fever) of 38C or above
• sore throat
• headache
• swollen glands in your neck
• difficulty breathing and swallowing
• pus-filled blisters on legs, feet and hands
• large ulcers surrounded by red, sore-looking
skin

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 4. Pertussis:

Pertussis, also known as whooping cough, is a

highly contagious respiratory disease. It is caused by
the bacterium Bordetella pertussis.

Pertussis is known for uncontrollable, violent

coughing which often makes it hard to breathe. After
cough fits, someone with pertussis often needs to
take deep breaths, which result in a “whooping”
sound. Pertussis can affect people of all ages, but
can be very serious, even deadly, for babies less than
a year old.

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 5. Tetanus:

Tetanus is a serious illness caused by Clostridium

bacteria. The bacteria live in soil, saliva, dust, and
manure. The bacteria can enter the body through a
deep cut, like those from stepping on a nail, or
through a burn.
The infection causes painful tightening of the
muscles, usually all over the body. It can lead to
"locking" of the jaw. This makes it impossible to
open the mouth or swallow. Tetanus is a medical
emergency.

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 6. Hepatitis B:

Hepatitis B is a serious liver infection caused by the

hepatitis B virus (HBV). The virus is most commonly
transmitted from mother to child during birth and
delivery, as well as through contact with blood or
other body fluids.

Hepatitis B signs and symptoms may include:

• Abdominal pain
• Dark urine
• Fever
• Joint pain
• Loss of appetite
• Nausea and vomiting
• Weakness and fatigue
• Jaundice

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 7. Measles:

Measles is a highly contagious infectious disease

caused by the measles virus. Symptoms usually
develop 10–12 days after exposure to an infected
person and last 7–10 days.

Signs and symptoms typically include:

• Fever
• Dry cough
• Runny nose
• Sore throat
• Inflamed eyes (conjunctivitis)
• Tiny white spots inside the mouth
• Skin rash

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 8. Mumps:

Mumps is a contagious disease that is caused by

mumps virus. It passes from one person to another
through saliva, nasal secretions, and close personal
contact. It typically starts with a few days of fever,
headache, muscle aches, tiredness, and loss of
appetite. Then most people will have swelling of their
salivary glands. This is what causes the puffy cheeks
and a tender, swollen jaw.

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 9. Rubella:

Rubella is an infection caused by the rubella virus.

Symptoms are often mild, but if infection occurs
during pregnancy, it can cause severe harm to the
unborn child, including deafness. Most people who
get rubella usually have a mild illness, with
symptoms that can include a low-grade fever, sore
throat, and a rash that starts on the face and
spreads to the rest of the body.

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 10. Typhoid:

Typhoid is a bacterial infection that can lead to a

high fever, diarrhea, and vomiting. It can be fatal. It
is caused by the bacteria Salmonella typhi. The
infection is often passed on through contaminated
food and drinking water, and it is more prevalent in
places where handwashing is less frequent.

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 CURRENT WORLDWIDE
AFFAIRS

The world is facing multiple health challenges, one of

the major challenges being the outbreaks of vaccine-
preventable diseases like measles and diphtheria.
Vaccine hesitancy – the reluctance or refusal to
vaccinate despite the availability of vaccines –
threatens to reverse progress made in tackling
vaccine-preventable diseases. Vaccination is one of
the most cost-effective ways of avoiding disease – it
currently prevents 2-3 million deaths a year, and a
further 1.5 million could be avoided if global
coverage of vaccinations improved.

Measles, for example, has seen a 30% increase in

cases globally. The reasons for this rise are complex,
and not all of these cases are due to vaccine
hesitancy. However, some countries that were close
to eliminating the disease have seen a resurgence.

The reasons why people choose not to vaccinate are

complex; a vaccines advisory group to WHO
identified complacency, inconvenience in accessing
vaccines, and lack of confidence are key reasons
underlying hesitancy.

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 CONCLUSION
Vaccines are the perfect defense against a
preventable and contagious disease that can be
deadly.
Vaccines save millions of lives every year. When a
particular section of a city or town is immunized
against a communicable disease, several members of
the same community are shielded against the
diseases as the opportunity for an outbreak is
minimum.

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