RG Notes 14

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Relativity and Gravitation (SPA7019) 2014
Lecture notes
Last updated 02.10.14
Lecturer: A. Polnarev.
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A. Polnarev. Relativity and Gravitation (SPA7019) 2014. Content of lecture notes
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1. Content of lecture notes

Page
Course information 2 4
Lecture 1. Introduction I 5
About this course
The principle of equivalence
Gravity as a space-time geometry
The principle of covariance
More about the summation convention
Lecture 2. Tensors II 9
The principle of covariance and tensors
Transformation of coordinates
Contravariant and covariant tensors
Reciprocal tensors
Examples
Lecture 3. Physical Geometry of Space-Time III 13

Proper time
Physical distance
Synchronization of clocks
Invariant 4-volume
Lecture 4. Covariant differentiation IV 16

Parallel translation
Covariant derivatives and Christoffel symbols
The Christoffel symbols and the metric tensor
Physical applications
Lecture 5. Test Particles in a Gravitational Field V 20

Hamilton-Jacobi equation
Eikonal equation
The motion in a spherically symmetric static gravitational field
Lecture 6. Curvature of Space-Time VI 23

The Riemann curvature tensor
Symmetry properties of the Riemann tensor
Bianchi Identity
The Ricci tensor and the scalar curvature
Geodesic deviation equation
Stress-Energy Tensor
Heuristic ”Derivation” of EFEs
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A. Polnarev. Relativity and Gravitation (SPA7019) 2014. Content of lecture notes
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Lecture 7. Rigorous Derivation of EFEs VII 28

The principle of the least action
The action function for the gravitational field
The action function for matter
The stress-energy tensor and the action density
The final EFEs
Lecture 8. Solving EFEs VIII 35

Weak field and slow motion approximation
The Schwarzschild metric as an exact solution of EFEs
Physical singularity versus coordinate singularity in the Schwarzschild metric
A little bit about Relativistic Cosmology (not examinable)
Lecture 9. Black Holes IX 43

Limit of stationarity
Event horizon
Schwarzschild black holes
Kerr Black Holes
”Ergosphere” and Penrose process
Lecture 10. In the vicinity of the Schwarzschild Black Hole X 46

Test particles in the Schwarzschild Metric
Stable and Unstable Circular Orbits
Propagation of light in the Schwarzschild metric
Lecture 11. Experimental Confirmation of GR and Gravitational Waves (GWs) XI 49

Relativistic experiments in the Solar system and Binary pulsar
Propagation of GWs
Detection of GWs
Generation of GWs
Example of of the source of gravitational radiation
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A. Polnarev. Relativity and Gravitation (SPA7019) 2014. Course information
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2. Course information
This course is an introduction to General Relativity and includes:

Explanation of the fundamental principles of GR. The motion of particles in a given gravitational field. The prop-
agation of electromagnetic waves in a gravitational field. The derivation of Einstein’s field equations from the basic
principles. The derivation of the Schwarzschild solution. Analysis of the Kerr solution. A discussion of physical
aspects of strong gravitational fields around black holes. The generation, propagation and detection of gravitational
waves. The weak general relativistic effects in the Solar System and binary pulsars. The experimental tests of General
Relativity.
Assessment
Course-work 10%, exam 90%
Key Objectives
1. Effects of General Relativity in the Solar System and in the Universe:
you should have a good understanding of the importance of general relativity in physics and astronomy.
2. Curvilinear Coordinates, Covariant Differentiation:
You should be able to operate with concepts of differential geometry and understand the deep relationship between
physics and geometry.
3. Motion of Particles in a Gravitational Field:
You should understand the fundamental difference in the motion of particles in relativistic theory of gravitation and
in Newtonian theory. You should be able to write down and solve in the simplest cases the geodesic equation.
4. The Curvature Tensor and the Einstein Equations:
You should understand basic physical principle of the least action and have good qualitative understanding of the
most important stages of the derivation of these equations.
5. Black Holes:
You should understand what is event horizon and what is the limit of stationarity. You should be able to describe the
main effects of strong gravitational field around black hole and have idea how the black holes could be discovered.
6. Gravitational Waves:
You should be able to derive the wave equation for propagation of gravitational radiation, understand why gravitational
waves are transverse and traceless, what is similarity and what is the difference with electromagnetic waves. You
should also be able to produce order of magnitude estimations of amplitudes of gravitational waves from astrophysical
sources of gravitational radiation.
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A. Polnarev. (SPA7019). 2012. Lecture 1. Introduction.
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I. LECTURE 1. INTRODUCTION
About this course IA
The principle of equivalence IB
Gravity as a space-time geometry IC
The principle of covariance ID
More about the summation convention I E
A. About this course
This course is an introduction to General Relativity (GR) and includes:

Explanation of the fundamental principles of GR.
The motion of particles in a given gravitational field.
The propagation of electromagnetic waves in a gravitational field.
The derivation of Einstein’s field equations from the basic principles.
The derivation of the Schwarzschild solution.
Analysis of the Kerr solution.
A discussion of physical aspects of strong gravitational fields around black holes.
The generation, propagation and detection of gravitational waves.
The weak general relativistic effects in the Solar System and binary pulsars.
The experimental tests of General Relativity.
B. The principle of equivalence
The basic postulate of the GR states that a uniform gravitational field is equivalent to (which means is not dis-
tinguishable from) a uniform acceleration. In practice this means that a person cannot feel (locally) the difference
between standing on the surface of some gravitating body (for example the Earth) and moving in a rocket with
corresponding acceleration (Fig. 1.1). According to Einstein ( Fig.1.2) these effects are actually the same. The
important consequence of the equivalence principle is that any gravitational field can be eliminated in free falling
frames of references, which are called local inertial frames or local galilean frames Fig. 1.3). In other words, there is
no experiment to distinguish between being weightless far out from gravitating bodies in space and being in free-fall
in a gravitational field. Another illustration of this principle is shown on Fig.1.4. This picture, as well as some other
images, is taken from the very interesting astronomical website by Nick Strobel.
1. The Principle of Equivalence in Newtonian Gravity
All bodies in a given gravitational field will move in the same manner, if initial conditions are the same. In other words,
in given gravitational field all bodies move with the same acceleration. In absence of gravitational field, all bodies move
also with the same acceleration relative to the non-inertial frame. Thus we can formulate the Principle of Equivalence
which says: locally, any non-inertial frame of reference is equivalent to a certain gravitational field. Globally (not
locally), actual gravitational fields can be distinguished from corresponding non-inertial frame of reference by its
behavior at infinity: Gravitational Fields generated by gravitating bodies decay with distance.
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Fig.1.1.
Links: Author of original picture is Nick Strobel
http://www.astronomynotes.com/relativity/equiv1.gif
Fig. 1.2.
Links: http://www.astronomynotes.com/light/einstein2.jpg
Fig. 1.3

http://www.astronomynotes.com/relativity/equiv2.gif
Fig. 1.4
http://www.astronomynotes.com/relativity/lightpaths.gif
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In Newton’s theory the motion of a test particle is determined by the following equation of motion
min~a = −mgr ∇φ, (I.1)
where ~a is the acceleration of the test particle, φ is newtonian potential of gravitational field, min is the inertial mass
of the test particle and mgr is its gravitational mass, which is the gravitational analog of the electric charge in the
theory of electromagnetism. The fundamental property of gravitational fields that all test particles move with the
same acceleration for given φ is explained within frame of newtonian theory just by the following coincidence:
min
= 1, (I.2)
mgr
i.e. inertial mass min is equal to gravitational mass mgr .
2. The Principle of Equivalence in GR
As it is known from every course on Special Relativity (SR), this theory works only in the frames of reference of the
special kind called Global Inertial Frames of Reference. For such frames of reference the following combination of
time and space coordinates remains invariant in all global inertial frames of references
ds2 = c2 dt2 − dx2 − dy 2 − dz 2 . (I.3)
This combination is called the interval. All space-time coordinates in different global inertial frames of reference are
related to each other by the Lorentz transformations. It is also known that these transformations leave the shape of
the interval unchanged. But this is not the case if one considers transformation of coordinates in more general case,
when at least one of frames of reference is non-inertial. This interval is not reduced anymore to the simple sum of
squares of the coordinate differentials and can be written in the following more general quadratic form:
3 X
X 3
ds2 = gik dxi dxk ≡ gik dxi dxk , (I.4)
i=0 k=0
where repeating indices mean summation. In inertial frames of reference
g00 = 1, g11 = g22 = g33 = −1, and gik = 0, if i 6= k. (I.5)
3. Example: non-inertial rotating frame of reference
Transformation to a uniformly rotating frame is
x = x0 cos Ωt − y 0 sin Ωt, y = x0 sin Ωt + y 0 cos Ωt, z = z 0 , (I.6)
where Ω is the angular velocity of rotation around z-axis. In this non-inertial frame of reference as one can see by
straightforward calculations
ds2 = [c2 − Ω2 (x02 + y 02 )]dt2 − dx02 − dy 02 − dz 02 + 2Ωy 0 dx0 dt − 2Ωx0 dy 0 dt. (I.7)
C. Gravity as a space-time geometry
The fundamental physical concept of GR is that a gravitational field is identical to geometry of curved space-time.
This idea, called the Geometrical Principle, entirely determines the mathematical structure of General Relativity.
According to the GR gravity is nothing but a manifestation of space-time 4-geometry.
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The geometry is determined by metric
ds2 = gik (xm )dxi dxk , (I.8)
where gik (xm ) is called the metric tensor (what exactly is meant by the term ”tensor” we will discuss in the next
lecture). At the present moment we can consider gik (xm ) as a 4 × 4 -matrix and all its components in a general
case can depend on all 4 coordinates xm , where m = 0, 1, 2, 3. All information about the geometry of space-
time is contained in gik (xm ). The dependence of gik (xm ) on xm means that this geometry is different in different
events, which implies that the space-time is curved and its geometry is not Euclidian. Such sort of geometry is the
the subject of mathematical discipline called Differential Geometry developed in XIX Century. Examples of highly
curved space-time are shown on Fig.1.5 and Fig.1.6.
The GR gives a very simple and natural explanation of the Principle of Equivalence: in curved space-time all bodies
move along geodesics, that is why their world lines are the same in given gravitational field. The situation is the same
as in a flat space-time when free particles move along straight lines which are geodesics in flat space-time. What is
the geodesic we will discuss in the next lectures. If we know gik , we can determine completely the motion of test
particles and the performance of all test fields. This is one of the main statements of GR. [When we say test particle
or test field we mean that gravitational field generated by these test objects is negligible.] In the next lectures we
will see that the metric tensor gik itself, and hence geometry, is determined by physical content of the space-time.
In any curved space-time (i.e in the actual gravitational field) there is no global galilean frames of reference. In flat
space-time, if we work in non-inertial frames of reference metrics look like the metric in gravitational field (because
according to the Equivalence Principle, locally, actual gravitational field is not distinguishable from corresponding
non-inertial frame of reference), nevertheless local (not global) galilean frames of reference do exist. The local galilean
frame of reference is equivalent to the freely falling frame of reference in which locally gravitational field is eliminated.
From geometrical point of view to eliminate gravitational field locally means to find such frame of reference in which
gik → ηik ≡ diag(1, −1, −1, −1). (I.9)
D. The principle of covariance
If space-time is flat and one works with inertial frames of reference then the world lines of free particles are straight
lines. For particles moving with acceleration the world lines are curved (see Fig.1.7). The fact that all bodies move
with the same acceleration in a given gravitational field means that this gravitational field is really a manifestation
of properties of space-time itself and that there is no way experimentally to discriminate between a gravitational
field and non-inertial frame of reference. More mathematically this statement can be formulated as the Principle of
Covariance which says: the shape of all physical equations should be the same in an arbitrary frame of reference.
Otherwise the physical equations [being different in gravitational field and in non-inertial frames of reference] would
have different solutions, in other words, these equations would predict the difference between a gravitational field and
a non-inertial frame of reference and ,hence, would contradict to the experimental data. This principle refers to the
most general case of non-inertial frames (in contrast to the SR which works only in inertial frames of reference).
E. More about the summation convention
The Einstein notation (introduced in 1916) or Einstein summation convention is a notational convention useful when
dealing with long coordinate formulae of General relativity.
According to this convention, when an index variable appears twice in a single term, once in an upper (superscript)
and once in a lower (subscript) position, it implies that we are summing over all of its possible values. In our course,
which is about the four dimensional space-time, the indices are 0,1,2,3 (0 represents the time coordinate). We will use
the Roman alphabet for such indices. For spatial indices, 1,2,3, we will use the Greek alphabet. (In other textbooks
Roman and Greek may be reversed.)
Example 1.
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X
Ai B i ≡ Ai Bi = A0 B0 + A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3 , (I.10)
i=0
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Fig. 1.5
Links: http://www.astronomynotes.com/evolutn/grwarp.gif
Fig. 1.6.
Links: http://www.astronomynotes.com/relativity/binarywaves.gif
Fig 1.7. For particles moving with acceleration the world lines
are curved
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X
Aα B α ≡ Aα B α = A1 B 1 + A2 B 2 + A3 B 3 . (I.11)
i=1
One must distinguish between superscripts and subscripts.

Example 2.
The following expressions don’t imply summation:
Ai B i , A i B i , A α B α Aα B α . (I.12)
Free indices are indices which don’t participate in summation, i.e. free indices can not appear twice in the same term.
Notation and position of free indices in left and right side of equations should be the same.
Example 3.
The following expressions are written properly:
Ai = Bi , Ai = B i , Aα = Bα Aα = B α . (I.13)
The following expressions are wrong and have no sense:
Ai = B i , Ai = Bi , An = Bi Aα = B β . (I.14)
Repeating indices should appear twice as explained before and can not appear in the same term more than twice.
Example 4.
The following expressions are written properly:
Ai B i C m P m , A i B m C m . (I.15)
The following expressions are wrong and have no sense:
Ai B i C i P m , A i B i C i P i , . (I.16)
Ai = B i , Ai = Bi , An = Bi Aα = B β . (I.17)
Summation convention saves time, chalk and helps very much if you manipulate properly.
Example 5:
The following equation
Ai Bk Cm = P v Lvnj Gnj Qikm , (I.18)
corresponds to 64 equations with 64 terms on right hand side of each equation!!!

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A. Polnarev. (SPA7019). 2014. Lecture 2. Tensors.
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II. LECTURE 2. TENSORS
The principle of covariance and tensors II A
Transformation of coordinates II B
Contravariant and covariant tensors II C
Reciprocal tensors II D
Examples II E
A. The principle of covariance and tensors
The Principle of Covariance predetermines the mathematical structure of General Relativity: all equations should
contain tensors only. By definition, tensors are objects which are transformed properly in the course of coordinate
transformations from one frame of reference to another. Taking into account that non-inertial frames of reference
in the 4-dimensional space-time correspond to curvilinear coordinates, it is necessary to develop four-dimensional
differential geometry in arbitrary curvilinear coordinates.
B. Transformation of coordinates
0 0
Let us consider the transformation of coordinates from one frame of reference (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) to another, (x 0 , x 1 ,
0 0
x 2 , x 3 ):
x0 = f 0 (x00 , x01 , x02 , x03 ), x1 = f 1 (x00 , x01 , x02 , x03 ), x2 = f 2 (x00 , x01 , x02 , x03 ), x3 = f 3 (x00 , x01 , x02 , x03 ). (II.1)
Then
∂xi 0k 0k ∂xi
dxi = dx = Sk
i
dx , i, k = 0, 1, 2, 3, where Sk
i
= (II.2)
∂x0k ∂x0k
is a transformation matrix. Remember that all repeating indices mean summation, otherwise even such a basic
transformation would be very ugly when written. To demonstrate that summation convention is really very useful, I
will write, the first and the last time, the same transformation without using the summation convention:
∂x0 ∂x0 ∂x0 ∂x0

0 00 01 02 03 0 00 0 01 0 02 0 03
 dx = ∂x001 dx + ∂x011 dx + ∂x021 dx + ∂x031 dx = S0 dx + S1 dx + S2 dx + S3 dx ,

 00 01 02 03
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
= S01 dx00 + S11 dx01 + S21 dx02 + S31 dx03 ,
 1
dx = ∂x 00 dx + ∂x 01 dx + ∂x02 dx + ∂x03 dx
2 2 2 2 (II.3)
 dx = ∂x00 dx + ∂x01 dx + ∂x02 dx + ∂x03 dx = S02 dx00 + S12 dx01 + S22 dx02 + S32 dx03 ,

2 ∂x 00 ∂x 01 ∂x 02 ∂x 03
∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3

00 01 02 03
= S03 dx00 + S13 dx01 + S23 dx02 + S33 dx03
 3
dx = ∂x 00 dx + ∂x 01 dx + ∂x02 dx + ∂x03 dx
C. Contravariant and covariant tensors
Now we can give the definition of the Contravariant four-vector: The Contravariant four-vector is the combination of
four quantities (components) Ai , which are transformed like differentials of coordinates:
Ai = Ski A0k . (II.4)
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Let ϕ is a scalar field, then
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂x0k ∂ϕ
= = S̃ik 0k , (II.5)
∂xi ∂x0k ∂xi ∂x
where S̃ik is another transformation matrix. What is the relation of this matrix to the previous transformation matrix
Ski ? If we take product of these matrices, we obtain
∂xi ∂x0n ∂xi

Sni S̃kn = = = δki , (II.6)
∂x0n ∂xk ∂xk
where δki is so called Kronneker symbol, which actually is nothing but the unit matrix:
1 0 0 0
 
i 0 1 0 0
δk =  . (II.7)
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
In other words S̃ki is inverse or reciprocal with respect to Ski . Now we can give the definition of the Covariant four-
vector: The Covariant four-vector is the combination of four quantities (components) Ai , which are transformed like
components of the gradient of a scalar field:
∂x0k 0
Ai = A . (II.8)
∂xi k
Note, that for contravariant vectors we always use upper indices, which are called contravariant indices, while for
covariant vectors we use low indices, which are called covariant indices. In General Relativity summation convention
always means that one of two repeating indices should be contravariant and another should be covariant.For example,
Ai B i = A0 B 0 + A1 B 1 + A2 B 2 + A3 B 3 (II.9)
is the scalar product. There is no summation if both indices are, say, covariant, for example:
A0 B 0 , if i = 0,
A B , if i = 1,
Ai B i = 1 1 (II.10)
A2 B 2 , if i = 2,
A3 B 3 , if i = 3.
Now we can generalize the definitions of vectors and introduce tensors entirely in terms of transformation laws.
Scalar, A, is the tensor of the 0 rank. It has only 40 = 1 component and 0 number of indices. Transformation
law is
A = A0 , (II.11)
we see that transformation matrices appear in transformation law 0 times.

Contravariant and covariant vectors are tensors of the 1 rank. They have 41 = 4 components and 1 index.
Corresponding transformation laws are
Ai = Sni A0n , (II.12)
Ai = S̃in A0n , (II.13)
we see only 1 transformation matrix in each transformation law.
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Contravariant tensor of the 2 rank has 42 = 16 components and 2 contravariant indices. Corresponding trans-
formation law is
k 0nm
Aik = Sni Sm A , (II.14)
we see 2 transformation matrices in the transformation law.
Covariant tensor of the 2 rank has 42 = 16 components and 2 covariant indices. Corresponding transformation
law is
Aik = S̃in S̃km A0nm , (II.15)
Mixed tensor of the 2 rank has 42 = 16 components and 2 indices, 1 contravariant and 1 covariant. Corresponding
transformation law is
Aik = Sni S̃km A0n
m, (II.16)
Covariant tensor of the 3 rank has 43 = 64 components and 3 covariant indices. Corresponding transformation law
is...and so on.
The most general definition: Mixed tensor of the N + M rank with N contravariant and M covariant indices,
has 4N +M = 22(N +M ) components and N + M indices. Corresponding transformation law is
mM 0n1 n2 ... nN
Aik11 ik22......iN i1 i2 iN m1 m2
kM = Sn1 Sn2 ...SnN S̃k1 S̃k2 ...S̃kM Am1 m2 ...mM , (II.17)
we see N + M transformation matrices in the transformation law.
D. Reciprocal tensors
Two tensors Aik and B ik are called reciprocal to each other if

Aik B kl = δil . (II.18)
Now we can introduce a contravariant metric tensor g ik which is reciprocal to the covariant metric tensor gik :
gik g kl = δil . (II.19)
With the help of the metric tensor and its reciprocal we can form contravariant tensors from covariant tensors and
vice versa, for example:
Ai = g ik Ak , Ai = gik Ak , (II.20)
in other words we can rise and descend indices as we like, like a kind of juggling with indices. We can say that
contravariant, covariant and mixed tensors can be considered as different representations of the same geometrical
object.
For the contravariant metric tensor itself we have very important representation in terms of the transformation matrix
i
from locally inertial frame of reference (galilean frame) to an arbitrary non-inertial frame, let us denote it as S(0)k .
We know that in the galilean frame of reference
1 0 0 0
 
 0 −1 0 0 
g ik =  ≡ η ik ≡ diag(1, −1, −1, −1), (II.21)
0 0 −1 0 
0 0 0 −1
hence
g ik = S(0)n
i k
S(0)m η nm = S(0)0
i k
S(0)0 i
− S(0)1 k
S(0)1 i
− S(0)2 k
S(0)2 i
− S(0)3 k
S(0)3 . (II.22)
This means that if we know the transformation law from the local galilean frame of reference to an arbitrary frame of
reference, we know the metric at this arbitrary frame of reference and, hence, we know the gravitational field which
is identical to geometry!
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E. Examples
Problem: Given that gik is a covariant tensor of the second rank and that
ds2 = gik dxi dxk , (II.23)
prove that ds is a scalar.

Solution:
0
ds2 = gik dxi dxk = (S̃in S̃km gnm )(Spi dx0p )(Sw
k
dx0w ) = (S̃in Spi )(S̃km Sw
k 0
)(gnm dx0p dx0w ) =
m 0
= δpn δw (gnm dx0p dx0w ) = gpw
0
dx0p dx0w = gik
0
dx0i dx0k = ds02 , (II.24)
hence ds = ds0 which means that ds is a scalar.

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Problem: How many independent components in the metric tensor?
Solution: First, let us prove that the metric tensor is symmetric, i.e.
gik = gki . (II.25)
Indeed,
1 1 1
ds2 = gik dxi dxk = (gik dxi dxk + gik dxi dxk ) = (gki dxk dxi + gik dxi dxk ) = (gki + gik )dxi dxk =
2 2 2
= g̃ik dxi dxk , (II.26)
where
1
g̃ik = (gki + gik ), (II.27)
2
which is obviously a symmetric one. Then we just drop ” ˜ ”. The end of proof. Now the answer is obvious:
altogether we have 4 × 4 components, 4 components on the diagonal, 3 + 2 + 1 = 6 components above the diagonal
and 3 + 2 + 1 = 6 components under the diagonal and we know that these components are equal to components above
the diagonal. Thus the final answer is there are 4 + 6 = 10 independent components.
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A. Polnarev. (SPA7019). 2014. Lecture 3. Physical Geometry of Space-Time.
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III. LECTURE 3. PHYSICAL GEOMETRY OF SPACE-TIME
Proper time III A
Physical distance III B
Synchronization of clocks III C
Invariant 4-volume III D
A. Proper time
One of the most central problems in the geometry of 4-spacetime can be formulated as follows. If the metric tensor is
given, how is actual (measurable) time and distances related with coordinates x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 chosen in arbitrary way?
Let us consider the world line of an observer who uses some clock to measure the actual or proper time, dτ , between
two infinitesimally close events in the same place in space. How dτ is related to coordinate time dx0 ? Obviously we
should put in the interval
dx1 = dx2 = dx3 = 0. (III.1)
Let us define proper time exactly as in Special Relativity:

ds
dτ = , (III.2)
c
then we have
1√
ds2 ≡ c2 dτ 2 = gik dxi dxk = g00 (dx0 )2 , hence dτ = g00 dx0 . (III.3)
c
For the proper time between any two events which are not necessary infinitesimally close occurring at the same point
in space we have
1 √
Z
τ= g00 dx0 . (III.4)
c
B. Physical distance
Separating the space and time coordinates in ds we have
ds2 = gαβ dxα dxβ + 2g0α dx0 dxα + g00 (dx0 )2 . (III.5)
To define dl we will use a light signal according to the following procedure: from some point B with spatial coordinates
xα + dxα a light signal emitted at the moment corresponding to time coordinate x0 + dx0(1) propagates to a point
A with spatial coordinates xα . Then after reflection at the moment corresponding to time coordinate x0 the signal
propagates back over the same path and is detected at the point B at the moment corresponding to time coordinate
x0 + dx0(2) (see Fig.3.1).
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Fig. 3.1. Measurement of distance in GR
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According to both Special and General Relativity the interval between any two events which belong to the same world
line of light is always equal to zero:
ds = 0. (III.6)
Solving this equation with respect to dx0 we find two roots:

1
q
dx0(1) = −g0α dxα − (g0α g0β − gαβ g00 )dxα dxβ
g00

1
q
dx0(2) = −g0α dxα + (g0α g0β − gαβ g00 )dxα dxβ
g00
2
q
dx0(2) − dx0(1) = (g0α g0β − gαβ g00 )dxα dxβ . (III.7)
g00
Then
√
c c g00
dl = dτ = (dx0(2) − dx0(1) ) (III.8)
2 2 c
and finally
g0α g0β
dl2 = γαβ dxα dxβ , where γαβ = −gαβ + . (III.9)
g00
C. Synchronization of clocks
If we want to determine the distance between

R two not infinitesimally closed points, but points separated by some
finite distance we should take an integral dl along some path connecting the two points. Obviously, we should take
dl over the path at the simultaneous moment of time. Hence, we should first define what are simultaneous events and
then we should synchronize clocks (again using light signals) over finite volume in space along the path of integration.
The moment at the point B, corresponding to the time coordinate x0 + ∆x0 , is simultaneous to the moment at the
point A, corresponding to the time coordinate x0 , if
1
x0 + ∆x0 = x0 + (dx0(2) + dx0(1) ), (III.10)
2
i.e. the reading of clock in B is halfway between the moments of departure and return of the signal to that point,
hence
g0α α
∆x0 = − dx . (III.11)
g00
We are able now to define simultaneous events along any open curve, however, synchronization of clocks along a closed
contour is impossible in general, since
I
g0α α
− dx 6= 0, (III.12)
g00
which means that starting synchronization in some point we return back with
∆x0 6= 0. (III.13)
In other words, in an arbitrary reference system the synchronization of clocks in a whole space-time is impossible,
but this is not the property of the space-time itself, but the property of the given frame of reference. We always can
choose such a frame of reference in which all
g0α = 0 (III.14)
and hence the synchronization of clocks in a whole space-time is possible. For that we should write 3 equations for 4
arbitrary functions, which is always possible.
14
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D. Invariant 4-volume
To derive EFEs we should be able to calculate integrals over the all space and over the time coordinate
Z
Sg = GdΩ̃, (III.15)
where dΩ̃ is invariant, i.e. not depending on the frame of reference, the element of 4-volume and G is some scalar
function. Thus we should understand what the invariant volume is. Let us prove that the invariant volume is
√
dΩ̃ = −gdΩ, (III.16)
where
dΩ = dx0 dx1 dx2 dx3 (III.17)
and g is the determinant of the metric tensor. Let us first introduce the Jacobian, J, of the transformation from the
Galilean (locally inertial) frame of reference, (x00 , x01 , x02 , x03 ), to the curvilinear coordinates (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 )
∂(x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∂xi
J= = | | = |Sni |, (III.18)
∂(x00 , x01 , x02 , x03 ) ∂x0n
where |Ain | means the determinant of a matrix Ain . Then let us write the formula for the transformation of the
contravariant metric tensor
g ik = Sli Sm
k lm(0)
g = Sli Sm
k lm
η , (III.19)
where
1 0 0 0
 
0 −1 0 0 
η= . (III.20)
0 0 −1 0 
0 0 0 −1
Taking into account that the determinant of the reciprocal tensor g ik is the inverse of the determinant of the tensor
gik , we have
1 1
|g ik | = = . (III.21)
|gik | g
Taking into account that the determinant of the product of matrices is equal to the product of their determinants
(the fact known from any textbook on Linear Algebra), we obtain
|g ik | = |Sli | × |Sm
k
| × |η lm | = J × J × (−1) = −J 2 , (III.22)
hence
1 1
= −J 2 and J = √ . (III.23)
g −g
From the definition of J we have
1 1
dΩ ≡ dx0 dx1 dx2 dx3 = Jdx00 dx01 dx02 dx03 = √ dx00 dx01 dx02 dx03 = √ dΩ0 , (III.24)
−g −g
hence in all curvilinear coordinates
√ √
−gdΩ = dΩ0 , thus dΩ̃ = −gdΩ (III.25)
is invariant 4-volume.
————————————————————————————————————————————-
15
A. Polnarev. (SPA7019). 2014. Lecture 4. Covariant differentiation.
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
IV. LECTURE 4. COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION
Parallel translation IV A
Covariant derivatives and Christoffel symbols IV B
The Christoffel symbols and the metric tensor IV C
Physical applications IV D
A. Parallel translation
In Special Relativity if Ai is a vector dAi is also a vector ( the same is valid for any tensor). But in curvilinear
coordinates this is not the case:
∂x0k 0
Ai = A (IV.1)
∂xi k
∂x0k 0 ∂ 2 x0k
dAi = i
dAk + A0k i l dxl , (IV.2)
∂x ∂x ∂x
thus dAi is not a vector unless x0k are linear functions of xk ( like in the case of Lorentz transformations). Let us
introduce the following very useful notation:
∂
,i = (IV.3)
∂xi
According to the principle of covariance only tensors are allowed to appear in any physical equations, thus we should
replace all differentials like
∂Ai
dAi and ≡ Ai,k (IV.4)
∂xk
by some corrected values which we will denote as
DAi and Ai;k (IV.5)
correspondingly. In arbitrary coordinates to obtain a differential of a vector which forms a vector we should subtract
vectors in the same point, not in different as we have done before. Hence, we need to produce a parallel transport
or a parallel translation. Under a parallel translation of a vector in galilean frame of reference its components don’t
change, but in curvilinear coordinates they do and we should introduce some corrections:
DAi = dAi − δAi . (IV.6)
These corrections obviously should be linear with respect to all components of Ai and independently they should be
linear with respect to dxk , hence we can write these corrections as
δAi = −Γikl Ak dxl , (IV.7)
where Γikl are called Christoffel Symbols which obviously don’t form any tensor, because DAi is the tensor while as
we know dAi is not a tensor.
16
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B. Covariant derivatives and Christoffel symbols
In terms of the Christoffel symbols

∂Ai
DAi = ( + Γikl Ak )dxl = (Ai,l + Γikl Ak )dxl , (IV.8)
∂xl
∂Ai
DAi = ( − Γkil Ak )dxl = (Ai,l − Γkil Ak )dxl , (IV.9)
∂xl
∂Ai
Ai;l = + Γikl Ak = Ai,l + Γikl Ak , (IV.10)
∂xl
∂Ai
Ai;l = − Γkil Ak = Ai,l − Γkil Ak . (IV.11)
∂xl
To calculate the covariant derivative of tensor let us start with contravariant tensor which can be presented as a
product of two contravariant vectors Ai B k . In this case the corrections under parallel transport are
δ(Ai B k ) = Ai δB k + B k δAi = −Ai Γklm B l dxm − B k Γilm Al dxm , (IV.12)
since these corrections are linear we have the same for arbitrary tensor Aik :
δAik = −(Aim Γkml + Amk Γiml )dxl (IV.13)
DAik = dAik − δAik ≡ Aik l

; l dx , (IV.14)
hence
Aik ik i
; l = A,l + Γml A
mk
+ Γkml Aim . (IV.15)
Similarly we can obtain that
Aik; l = Aik,l − Γm i i m m m
kl Am + Γml Ak , and Aik; l = Aik,l − Γil Amk − Γkl Am, i . (IV.16)
In the most general case when we have tensor of m + n rank with m contravariant and n covariant indices the rule
for calculation of the covariant derivative with respect to index p is the following
Aij11 ij22 ... im i1 i2 ... im i1 k i2 ... im i2 i1 k ... im im i1 i2 ... k
... jn ; p = Aj1 j2 ... jn , p + Γkp Aj1 j2 ... jn + Γkp Aj1 j2 ... jn + ... + Γkp Aj1 j2 ... jn − (IV.17)
− Γkj1 p Aki1 ji22 ...

... im k i1 i2 ... im k i1 i2 ... im
jn − Γj2 p Aj1 k ... jn − ... − Γjn p Aj1 j2 ... k . (IV.18)
C. The Christoffel symbols and the metric tensor
So far we don’t know how the Christoffel symbols depend on coordinates, however we can prove that they are
symmetric in the subscripts. Let some covariant vector Ai is the gradient of a scalar φ, i.e. Ai = φ,i . Then
Ak; i − Ai; k = φ,k,i − Γlki φ,l − φ,i,k + Γlik φ,l = Γlki − Γlik φ,l .

(IV.19)
In Galilean coordinates
Γlik = Γlki = 0, hence in Galilean coordinates Ak; i − Ai; k = 0, (IV.20)
but taking into account that Ak; i − Ai; k is a tensor we conclude that if it equals to zero in one system of coordinates
it should be equal to zero in any other coordinate system, hence
Γlik = Γlki in any coordinate system. (IV.21)
17
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This is a typical example of the proof widely used in General Relativity: if some equality between tensors is valid in
one coordinate system then this equality is valid in arbitrary coordinate system. Then we can show that covariant
derivatives of gik are equal to zero. Indeed,
DAi = gik DAk DAi = D(gik Ak ) = gik DAk + Ak Dgik , hence gik DAk = gik DAk + Ak Dgik , (IV.22)
which obviously means that
Ak Dgik = 0. (IV.23)
Taking into account that Ak is arbitrary vector, we conclude that
Dgik = 0. (IV.24)
This is another example of the proof in General Relativity: if the the sum Bik Ai = 0 for arbitrary vector Ai then the
tensor Bik = 0. Then taking into account that
Dgik = gik;m dxm = 0 (IV.25)
for arbitrary infinitesimally small vector dxm we have
gik;m = 0. (IV.26)
Now we are ready to relate the Christoffel symbols to the metric tensor. Introducing useful notation
Γk, il = gkm Γm
il , (IV.27)
we have
∂gik ∂gik
gik; l = − gmk Γm m
il − gim Γkl = − Γk, il − Γi, kl = 0. (IV.28)
∂xl ∂xl
Permuting the indices i, k and l twice as i → k, k → l, l → i,we obtain
∂gik ∂gli ∂gkl
= Γk, il + Γi, kl , = Γi, kl + Γl, ik and − = −Γl, ki − Γk, li . (IV.29)
∂xl ∂xk ∂xi
Taking into account that Γk, il = Γk, li , after summation of these three equation we have
gik,l + gli,k − gkl,i = 2Γi, kl , (IV.30)
and finally

1 im ∂gmk ∂gml ∂gkl
Γikl = g + − . (IV.31)
2 ∂xl ∂xk ∂xm
Now we have expressions for the Christoffel symbols in terms of the metric tensor and hence we know their dependence
on coordinates.
18
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D. Physical applications
The previous material can be summarized as follows:

Gravity is equivalent to curved space-time, hence in all differentials of tensors we should take into account the change
in the components of a tensor under an infinitesimal parallel transport. Corresponding corrections are expressed in
terms of the Cristoffel symbols and are reduced to replacement of any partial derivative by corresponding covariant
derivative. In other words we can say that if one wants to take into account all effects of Gravity on any local physical
process, described by the corresponding equations written in framework of Special Relativity, one should just replace
all partial derivatives by covariant derivatives in these equations according to the following very nice and simple but
actually very strong and important formulae:
d → D and , → ;. (IV.32)
Let us consider only a few examples.
1. Application of (IV.32) to the metric tensor itself
In special Relativity
dgik = 0 and gik,l = 0, (IV.33)
while in General Relativity
Dgik = 0 and gik;l = 0. (IV.34)
2. Application of (IV.32) to the motion of a test particle
Let us apply above formulae to Let

dxi
ui = (IV.35)
ds
is the four-velocity. Then the equation for motion of a free particle in absence of gravitational field is
dui
=0 (IV.36)
ds
is generalized to the equation
Dui
= 0, (IV.37)
ds
which gives
Dui dui dxn d2 xi
= + Γikn uk = + Γikn uk un = 0. (IV.38)
ds ds ds ds2
Thus from physical point of view the equation
d2 xi k
i dx dx
l
+ Γ kl =0 (IV.39)
ds2 ds ds
describes the motion of free particle in a given gravitational field and
d2 xi k
i dx dx
l
= −Γ kl (IV.40)
ds2 ds ds
is the four-acceleration, while from geometrical point of view this equation is the equation for geodesics in a curved
space-time. That is why all particles move with the same acceleration and now this experimental fact is not coincidence
anymore but consequence of geometrical interpretation of gravity.
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19
A. Polnarev. (SPA7019). 2014. Lecture 5. Test Particles in a Gravitational Field.
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
V. LECTURE 5. TEST PARTICLES IN A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
Hamilton-Jacobi equation VA
Eikonal equation VB
The motion in a spherically symmetric static gravitational field V C
A. Hamilton-Jacobi equation
Any object of a small enough mass is called a test particle. Small mass means that gravitational field generated by
this object is negligible in comparison with the external gravitational field generated by other, much more massive,
objects. The role of such test particle can be played by a planet around a star or a star around a massive black hole,
or by photon propagating around a neutron star or black hole.
From the previous lecture we know that the motion of particles and photons in a given gravitational field is described by
the space-time geodesics. The geodesic equations are very useful for physical understanding of the motion of particles
and propagation of photons; however, it is easier to work with the Hamilton−Jacobi equation. The advantage of this
approach is that it equates the motion of particles with the propagation of waves.
The derivation of Hamilton−Jacobi equation is really very simple. From the definition of the four-velocity
dxi
ui = , (V.1)
ds
we have
ds2 = gik dxi dxk = gik ui uk ds2 = ui ui ds2 , (V.2)
hence
ui ui = 1. (V.3)
Four-momentum of the particle is defined as
pi = mcui , hence pi pi = g ik pi pk = m2 c2 . (V.4)
Taking into account that a covariant vector transforms as the gradient of a scalar, we can introduce such a scalar
function that
∂S
pi = − i , (V.5)
∂x
then we immediately obtain the Hamilton−Jacobi Equation for a particle in a gravitational field
∂S ∂S
g ik − m2 c2 = 0. (V.6)
∂xi ∂xk
B. Eikonal equation
The equation for the geodesic obtained in Lecture 4 is not applicable to the propagation of light since ds = 0. However,
we can introduce some scalar parameterλ varying along world line of the light signal and then introduce a vector
dxi
ki = , which is tangent to the word line. (V.7)
dλ
20
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This vector is called the four- dimensional wave vector. In the absence of a gravitational field according to the
geometrical optics the propagation of light is given by the equation
dk i = 0. (V.8)
We know that the generalization of this equation in General Relativity is straightforward: d → D. Then from Dk i = 0
we obtain
dk i
+ Γikl k k k l = 0. (V.9)
dλ
From the definition of the four-vector for light (V.7) we have
ds2 = gik dxi dxk = gik k i k k dλ2 , (V.10)
then taking into account that ds = 0, we obtain
ki k i = g ik ki kk = 0. (V.11)
We know that any covariant vector can be presented as the gradient of a scalar
∂Ψ
ki = − , (V.12)
∂xi
were Ψ is a scalar. And we immediately obtain the Eikonal Equation in gravitational field
∂Ψ ∂Ψ
g ik = 0. (V.13)
∂xi ∂xk
The physical meaning of Ψ, which is called the Eikonal, follows from the obvious relationship
Z
Ψ = − ki dxi , (V.14)
which looks like the phase of the electromagnetic wave. We can see that the General Relativity can easily solve the
problem of propagation of electromagnetic signals in the presence of a gravitational field, while the Newtonian gravity
can not even offer more or less self consistent approach to the problem. The shortest way to obtain the Eikonal
equation is just to put m = 0 in the HamiltonJacobi equation and change notations.
C. The motion in a spherically symmetric static gravitational field
As an example of the motion of a test particle in a given gravitational field, let us consider a spherically symmetric
gravitational field and assume that this field does not depend on time, i.e. it is static field. Taking into account the
spherical symmetry we can choose our spherical coordinates in a such way that the plane of orbit coincides with the
equatorial plane θ = π/2 and dθ = 0. Obviously, all the components of a metric tensor are functions of the radial
coordinate only. Let us denote the radial coordinate as x1 = r. We can write the interval describing such gravitational
field as
ds2 = g00 (r)c2 dt2 + g11 (r)dr2 + g33 dφ2 . (V.15)
In this case the Hamilton−Jacobi equation can be written as

2 2 2
∂S ∂S ∂S
g 00 (r) + g 11 (r) + g 33 (r) − m2 c2 = 0. (V.16)
c∂t ∂r ∂φ
Since all coefficients in this equation do not depend on t and φ we can say that
∂S ∂S
= −E, and = L, where E and L are the energy and angular momentum of the particle. (V.17)
∂t ∂φ
21
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Then putting
S = −Et + Lφ + Sr (r) (V.18)
into the Hamilton−Jacobi equation we have

2
E2

dSr (r)
g (r) 2 + g 11 (r)
00
+ g 33 (r)L2 − m2 c2 = 0, (V.19)
c dr
hence
2
E2

dSr (r)
g 11 (r) = −g 00 (r) − g 33 (r)L2 + m2 c2 , (V.20)
dr c2
and
s s
E2 g 00 (r) g 33 (r) 2

dSr (r) 1 1
=± − 11 g 00 (r) 2 + g 33 (r)L2 − m2 c2 = ±mc − 11 Ẽ 2 + 00 L̃ − 00 , (V.21)
dr g (r) c g (r) g (r) g (r)
where
E L
Ẽ = and L̃ = . (V.22)
mc2 mc
Then we can calculate the radial component of the 4-velocity:
r
1 dr p1 11 p1 11 ∂S 11 dSr (r)
u ≡ = = g (r) = −g (r) = −g (r) = ∓ −g 00 (r)g 11 (r) Ẽ 2 − U 2 (r)ef f , (V.23)
ds mc mc mc∂r mcdr
where
2 1 33 2

Uef f (r) = 1 − g (r)L̃ (V.24)
g 00 (r)
is the so called ”effective” potential. One can see that the condition
E
> Uef f (V.25)
mc2
determines the admissible range of the motion. The effective potential includes in the relativistic manner potential
energy plus kinetic energy of non-radial motion, this kinetic energy is determined by angular momentum L. The
radius of stable and unstable circular orbits is obtained from the simultaneous solution of the equations
dUef f
= 0. Uef f = Ẽ and (V.26)
dr
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22
A. Polnarev. (SPA7019). 2014. Lecture 6. Curvature of Space-Time.
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
VI. LECTURE 6. CURVATURE OF SPACE-TIME
The Riemann curvature tensor VI A
Symmetry properties of the Riemann tensor VI B
Bianchi Identity VI C
The Ricci tensor and the scalar curvature VI D
Geodesic deviation equation VI E
Stress-Energy Tensor VI F
Heuristic ”Derivation” of EFEs VI G
A. The Riemann curvature tensor
We know that Ai,k,l − Ai,l,k = 0. What can we say about the following commutator Ai; k; l − Ai; l; k ? Straightforward
calculations will show that this is not equal to zero in the presence of gravitational field and can be presented as
m
Ai; k; l − Ai; l; k = Am Rikl , (VI.1)
i
where the object Rklm is obviously a tensor and called the curvature Riemann tensor. We know that if at least one
component of a tensor is not equal to zero in at least one frame of reference, the same is true for any other frame of
reference. In other words, tensors (in contrast to the Christoffel symbols) can not be eliminated by transformations of
coordinates. The Riemann tensor describes an actual tidal gravitational field, which is not local and, hence, can not
be eliminated even in the locally inertial frame of reference. Let us calculate the curvature Riemann tensor directly:
Ai;k;l − Ai;l;k = Ai;k,l − Ai;l,k − Γm m m m
il Am;k − Γkl Ai;m + Γik Am;l + Γlk Ai;m =
p p
= (Ai,k − Γm m m m
ik Am ),l − (Ai,l − Γil Am ),k − Γil (Am,k − Γmk Ap ) + Γik (Am,l − Γml Ap ) =
m p m p
= Ai,k,l − Γm m m m m m
ik Am,l − Γik,l Am − Ai,l,k + Γil Am,k + Γil,k Am − Γil Am,k + Γil Γmk Ap + Γik Am,l − Γik Γml Ap =
m p m p p m p m
= −Γm m m m
ik,l Am + Γil,k Am + Γil Γmk Ap − Γik Γml Ap = −Γik,l Am + Γil,k Am + Γil Γpk Am − Γik Γpl Am =
p m p m
= −Γm m m
ik,l + Γil,k + Γil Γpk − Γik Γpl Am = Rikl Am . (VI.2)
Finally
m p m p m
Rikl = Γm m
il,k − Γik,l + Γil Γpk − Γik Γpl . (VI.3)
Similar equations can be written for tensors of higher ranks, for example
n n
Aik; l; m − Aik; m; l = Ain Rklm + Ank Rilm . (VI.4)
Let us introduce the covariant presentation of the Riemann tensor:
n
Riklm = gin Rklm . (VI.5)
By straightforward calculations one can show that
1
Riklm = (gim,k,l + gkl,i,m − gil,k,m − gkm,i,l ) + gnp (Γnkl Γpim − Γnkm Γpil ). (VI.6)
2
23
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
B. Symmetry properties of the Riemann tensor
There are several symmetry properties of the curvature tensor:

1) The Riemann tensor is antisymmetric with respect to permutations of indices within each pair
Riklm = −Rkilm = −Rikml . (VI.7)
2) The Riemann tensor is symmetric with respect to permutations of pairs of indices
Riklm = Rlmik . (VI.8)
3) The cyclic sum formed by permutation of any three indices is equal to zero
Riklm + Rimkl + Rilmk = 0. (VI.9)
C. Bianchi Identity
The most important property of the Riemann tensor is so called the Bianchi identity:
n n n
Rikl; m + Rimk; l + Rilm; k = 0. (VI.10)
It is easy to verify this identity in a locally inertial frame of reference, where
Γikl = 0, (VI.11)
hence
n n n n n n
Rikl; m + Rimk; l + Rilm; k = Rikl,m + Rimk,l + Rilm,k = (VI.12)
Γnil,m,k − Γnik,m,l + Γnik,l,m − Γnim,l,k + Γnim,k,l − Γnil,k,m = 0. (VI.13)
Taking into account that the Bianchi identity is of a tensor character, we can conclude that it valid in any other frame
of reference.
D. The Ricci tensor and the scalar curvature
Now we can introduce a second rank curvature tensor, called the Ricci tensor, as follows
Rik = g lm Rlimk = Rilk

l
. (VI.14)
We can also introduce a zero rank curvature tensor, i.e. a scalar, called the scalar curvature:
R = g ik Rik . (VI.15)
1. The important consequence of Bianchi identity
After contracting the Biancci identity

i i i
Rklm;n + Rknl;m + Rkmn;l =0 (VI.16)
over indices i and n (taking summation i = n) we obtain

i i i
Rklm;i + Rkil;m + Rkmi;l = 0. (VI.17)
24
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
According to the definition of Ricci tensor (VI.14), the second term can be rewritten as
i
Rkil;m = Rkl;m . (VI.18)
Taking into account that the Riemann tensor is antisymmetric with respect to permutations of indices within the
same pair
i i
Rkmi = −Rkim = −Rkm , (VI.19)
the third term can be rewritten as
i
Rkmi;l = −Rkm;l . (VI.20)
The first term can be rewritten as
i
Rklm;i = g ip Rpklm;i , (VI.21)
then taking mentioned above permutation twice we can rewrite the first term as
i
Rklm;i = g ip Rpklm;i = −g ip Rkplm;i = g ip Rkpml;i . (VI.22)
After all these manipulations we have
g ip Rkpml;i + Rkl;m − Rkm;l = 0. (VI.23)
km
Then multiplying by g and taking into account that all covariant derivatives of the metric tensor are equal to zero,
we have
g km g ip Rkpml;i + g km Rkl;m − g km Rkm;l = g km g ip Rkpml + g km Rkl − g km Rkm

;i ;m ;l
= 0. (VI.24)
In the first term expression in brackets can be simplified as

g km g ip Rkpml = g ip Rpl = Rli . (VI.25)
In the second term the expression in brackets can be simplified as
g km Rkl = Rlm . (VI.26)
According to the definition of the scalar curvature (VI.15), the third term can be simplified as
g km Rkm ;l = R;l = R,l .

(VI.27)
Thus
i m
Rl;i + Rl;m − R,l = 0, (VI.28)
replacing in the second term index of summation m by i we finally obtain
i i 1
2Rl;i − R,l = 0, or Rl;i − R,l = 0. (VI.29)
2
Thus the important consequence of Bianchi identity is
i 1
Rl;i − R,l = 0. (VI.30)
2
E. Geodesic deviation equation
The geodesic deviation equation is an equation involving the Riemann curvature tensor, which measures the change
in separation of neighboring geodesics. In the language of mechanics it measures the rate of relative acceleration of
two particles moving forward on neighboring geodesics. Let the 4-velocity along one geodesic is
dxi
ui = . (VI.31)
ds
25
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There is an infinitesimal separation vector between the two geodesics η i . Then the relative acceleration, ai , is
d2 η i
ai = . (VI.32)
ds2
It is possible to show that
ai = Rklm
i
uk ul η m . (VI.33)
If gravitational field is weak and all motions are slow
ui ≈ δ0i , (VI.34)
and the above equation is reduced to the Newtonian equation for the tidal acceleration.
F. Stress-Energy Tensor
The stress-energy tensor (sometimes stress-energy-momentum tensor), Tik , describes the density and flux of energy
and momentum. In general relativity this tensor is symmetric and contains ten independent components:
The component T00 represents the energy density (1 component).
The components T0α (α = 1, 2, 3) represent the flux of energy across the surface which is normal to the xα -axis. These
components are equivalent to the components Tα0 which describe the density of the αth momentum (3 components).
The components Tαβ (α, β = 1, 2, 3) represent flux of αth momentum across the surface which is normal to the xβ -axis.
In particular, the diagonal components Tαα represents a pressure-like quantity, normal stress (3 components).
Non-diagonal components Tαβ (α 6= β), represent shear stress (3 components).
All these ten components participate in the generation of a gravitational field, while in Newton gravity the only source
of gravitational field is the mass density.
1. Conservation of energy-momentum in gravitational field
According to physics in absence of gravitational field the stress-energy tensor satisfies the following conservation law:
i
Tk,i = 0. (VI.35)
In the presence of gravitational field, as we know from previous lectures (see [IV.32]) this should be rewritten as
i
, → ; and Tk;i = 0. (VI.36)
G. Heuristic ”Derivation” of EFEs
It seems like a good idea to relate the Ricci tensor to the stress-energy tensor. The most general form of the second
rank tensor formed from the metric tensor gik and containing second derivatives of the metric tensor gik , let us call
it the Einstein tensor, is
Gik = Rik + αgik R. (VI.37)
As follows from the the previous section
1
Gik;i = (g in Gnk );i = Rk;i
i
+ αδki R,i = ( + α)R,k . (VI.38)
2
Let us assume that the EFEs have the following form
Gik = κTik , (VI.39)
where the constant κ is called the Einstein constant. Multiplying this by g mk we obtain
Rim + αδim R = κTim . (VI.40)
26
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Taking covariant divergence of LHS and RHS of this equation we obtain
1 m
(α + )R;k = κTk; m = 0, (VI.41)
2
hence
1
α=− , (VI.42)
2
and final EFEs are
1
Rki − δki R = κTki . (VI.43)
2
To determine κ we can use the so called the correspondence principle, which says that the EFEs in weak-field and
the slow-motion approximation should be reduced to Newton’s law of gravity, i.e. to the Poisson’s equation
∆φ = 4πGρ. (VI.44)
By straightforward calculations one can prove that such reduction is possible only if
8πG
κ= . (VI.45)
c4
Finally, EFEs can be written as
1 8πG
Rik − gik R = 4 Tik . (VI.46)
2 c
Despite the simple appearance of this equation it is, in fact, quite complicated. Given a specified distribution of
matter and energy in the form of a stress-energy tensor, the EFE are understood to be equations for the metric tensor
gik , as both the Ricci tensor and Ricci scalar depend on the metric (in a complicated nonlinear manner). In fact, when
fully written out, the EFEs are the system of 10 coupled, nonlinear, hyperbolic-elliptic partial differential equations.
In other words, Despite the simple appearance of the EFEs they are, in fact, rather complicated. Solutions of the
Einstein field equations model an extremely wide variety of gravitational fields, including gravitational waves and
black holes.
————————————————————————————————————————————-
27
A. Polnarev. (SPA7019). 2014. Lecture 7. Rigorous Derivation of EFEs .
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
VII. LECTURE 7. RIGOROUS DERIVATION OF EFES
The principle of the least action VII A
The action function for the gravitational field VII B
The action function for matter VII C
The stress-energy tensor and the action density VII D
The final EFEs VII E
A. The principle of the least action
The derivation of EFEs is very important material for understanding GR. In this lecture we will derive rigorously the
Einstein Field equations (EFEs) from the principle of the least action. This principle says that
δ(Sg + Sm ) = 0, (VII.1)
where Sg and Sm are the actions of gravitational field and matter respectively. Taking into account that we are going
to derive EFEs, the subject of variations is all components of the metric tensor. To derive EFEs we should understand
what are Sg and Sm .
B. The action function for the gravitational field
First of all Sg should depend on configuration of gravitational field, or geometry, in the whole space-time, hence it
should be expressed in terms of a scalar integral over the all space and over the time coordinate between two given
moments of time
Z
Sg = GdΩ̃, (VII.2)
where dΩ̃ is invariant element of 4-volume (see Lecture 3) and G is some scalar function called the action density. We
know that the final equations should contain derivatives of gik no higher than the second. Otherwise we could not
obtain Newtonian Poisson’s equation (see the previous lecture). In other words, G must contain only gik and Γlmn , i.e
G = G(gik , Γikl ). (VII.3)
Immediately we confront with the following problem : this is impossible to construct the scalar from gik and Γlmn .
The only scalar in gravitational field, the scalar curvature R, contains the second derivatives of gik . Fortunately, there
is rather simple resolution of this paradox: R is linear with respect to the second derivatives and for this reason, as
we will see later, all terms containing second derivatives don’t contribute to the variations of the action. Let us write
the action function in the following form
√
Z
Sg = α R −gdΩ, (VII.4)
where α is a constant which will be determined later.
28
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Because of the linearity of R with respect to the second derivatives, the invariant action function can be transformed
in the following way
√ √
Z Z Z
Sg = α R −gdΩ = α G −gdΩ + α w,ll dΩ, (VII.5)
where G contains only gik and gik,n , w is a function which can be obtained by straightforward calculations:
√ √ √
−gR = −gg ik Rik = −g g ik Γlik,l − g ik Γlil,k + g ik Γlik Γm ik m l

lm − g Γil Γkm , (VII.6)
obviously
√ √ √
−gg ik Γlik,l = ( −gg ik Γlik ),l − Γlik ( −gg ik ),l (VII.7)
and
√ √ √ √ √
−gg ik Γlil,k = ( −gg ik Γlil ),k − Γlil ( −gg ik ),k = ( −gg il Γkik ),l − Γkik ( −gg il ),l . (VII.8)
Then we obtain
√ √ √ √ √
−gR = ( −gg ik Γlik − −gg il Γkik ),l + −gG = wl , l + −gG, (VII.9)
where
√
wl = −g(g ik Γlik − g il Γkik ) (VII.10)
and
√ √ l √ m √
−gG = Γm ik ik m l l
im ( −gg ), k − Γik ( −gg ),l − (Γil Γkm − Γik Γlm ) −gg
ik
(VII.11)
1 im ∂gim
Γiki = g . (VII.12)
2 ∂xk
According to the Gauss’ theorem the volume integral of a full derivative is reduced to the integral over boundary.
Taking into account that our objective is to obtain proper equations by applying the principle of the least action, we
should keep all boundary conditions fixed. Hence, w disappears after variation. As a result
√ √
Z Z
δ R −gdΩ = δ G −gdΩ. (VII.13)
Thus we don’t need G any more, because we proved that the variation of the integral with R is the same as the
variation of the integral with G, hence we can work with R only.
√ √ √ √ √
Z Z Z
δ R −gdΩ = δ g ik Rik −gdΩ = {Rik −gδg ik + g ik Rik δ( −g) + g ik −gδRik }dΩ. (VII.14)
There are three terms in the variation of the action function. Let us first calculate the second term.
√ 1 1 ∂g 1
δ( −g) = − √ δg = − √ δgik = − √ M ik δgik , (VII.15)
2 −g 2 −g ∂gik 2 −g
where M ik is the minor of the determinant g corresponding to the component gik . Indeed, the determinant g depends
on all components gik . Calculating g with the help, say the first raw, one can write g = M 1i g1i , where M 1i are minors
of the components in the first row. Obviously M 1i do not contain g1i . Hence
∂g
= M 1i . (VII.16)
∂g1i
This is true for any row in determinant:
∂g
= M ni . (VII.17)
∂gni
29
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Taking into account that g ik is reciprocal to gik , i.e. gik g kn = δin , (g ik is inverse matrix of gik ), one can write
g ik = M ik /g, i.e. M ik = gg ik . Thus
∂g
dg = dgik = M ik dgik = gg ik dgik , (VII.18)
∂gik
hence
dg √
g ik dgik = = d ln |g| = d ln(−g) = 2 ln −g. (VII.19)
g
Then
g ik dgik = d(g ik gik ) − gik dg ik = dδii − gik dg ik = −gik dg ik . (VII.20)
Thus
√ 1 1 1√
δ( −g) = − √ gg ik δgik = √ ggik δg ik = − −ggik δg ik . (VII.21)
2 −g 2 −g 2
Now we can rewrite the variation of action as
√ √ √
Z Z
1
δ R −gdΩ = [(Rik − gik R) −gδg ik + g ik −gδRik ]dΩ. (VII.22)
2
Let us consider now the last term in the variation. For the calculation of δRik we can use the fact that although Γikn
is not a tensor, its variation, δΓikn , is a tensor.
Proof: Let Ai is an arbitrary vector at the point xi . After the parallel transport From the point xi to the point
xi + dxi , as we know, its components are
Ai (xn + dxn ) = Ai (xn ) + (Ai,m (xn ) + Γimp (xn )Ap (xn ))dxm . (VII.23)
Then
δAi (xn + dxn ) = δΓimp (xn )Ap (xn ))dxm . (VII.24)
The left side is a vector because it is the difference between two vectors in the same point, hence the right side is also
a vector. Thus δΓimp (xn ) is a tensor. In a locally galilean frame of reference
g ik δRik = g ik δΓlik,l − δΓlil,k = g ik δΓlik,l − g il δΓkik,l = W,ll ,

(VII.25)
where
W l = g ik δΓlik − g il δΓkik , (VII.26)
obviously W l is a vector. Now let us prove that the covariant divergence of an arbitrary vector can be written as
follows
1 √
An; n = √ ( −gAn ),n . (VII.27)
−g
Proof:
1 1
An;n = An,n + Γnni Ai = An,n + g nm (gnm,i + gmi,n − gin,m )Ai = An,n + (g nm gnm,i + g nm gmi,n − g nm gni,m )Ai =
2 2
1
= An,n + g nm gnm,i Ai . (VII.28)
2
Taking into account (VII.18), one obtains
g,n n 1 √ √ 1 √
Ai;i = An,n + A = √ [ −gAn,n + ( −g),n An ] = √ ( −gAi ),i . (VII.29)
2g −g −g
30
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As follows from the proof above, in local galilean frame of reference, where g = −1
Ai;i = Ai,i , (VII.30)
hence, returning back to δRik , in local galilean frame of reference we have
g ik δRik = W,ll = W;ll . (VII.31)
Since this is a relation between two tensors (of 0-rank), once this is valid in one frame of reference it is valid in an
arbitrary frame of reference. Hence
√ √ √
−gg ik δRik = −gW;ll = ( −gW l ),l , (VII.32)
this means that according to the Gauss theorem the contribution of the third term in the variation of the action
function is equal to zero. Finally we obtain
√
Z
1
δSg = α (Rik − gik R)δg ik −gdΩ. (VII.33)
2
C. The action function for matter
Similar to the action function for gravitational field, the action function for matter can be written as
√
Z
Sm = Ψ −gdΩ, (VII.34)
where Ψ is a scalar action density (by matter we mean any substance including all physical fields, for example,
electromagnetic field). Let us calculate the variation of Sm . Immediately the following problem arises. Obviously Ψ
can depend on many physical parameters describing the physical system to which we are trying to apply the least
action method. let us denote all of them as qa , a = 1, 2, 3, 4, ........ Should we take into account the variations of all
these qa ? The answer is no, all these variations should cancel each other by virtue of the ”equations of motion” of
the physical system under consideration, since these equations are obtained, according to the principle of the least
action, from the condition that the variations of Sm , related with the variations of qa , are equal to zero. Thus it is
enough to take into account the variations of the metric tensor only. Then we have
Z ( √ √ )
∂ −gΨ ik ∂ −gΨ ik
δSm = δg + δ(g,l ) dΩ. (VII.35)
∂g ik ∂(g,lik )
Then taking into account that
δ(g,lik ) = (δg ik ),l , (VII.36)
which means that the partial differentiation, obviously, commutates with the procedure of taking variations, we can
integrate the second term in the previous formula by parts, as a result we obtain
Z ( √ √ )
∂ −gΨ ∂ ∂ −gΨ
δSm = − δg ik dΩ. (VII.37)
∂g ik ∂xl ∂(g,lik )
Let us introduce the following notation

√ √
√ ∂ −gΨ ∂ ∂ −gΨ
−g Aik = − . (VII.38)
∂g ik ∂xl ∂(g,lik )
Then δSm takes the following form

√
Z
δSm = Aik δg ik −gdΩ. (VII.39)
31
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D. The stress-energy tensor and the action density
One can prove that the tensor Aik introduced in the previous section, is proportional to the stress-energy tensor Tik
introduced in the previous lecture.
Proof: Let us carry out infinitesimally small translation from the coordinates xi to the coordinates x0i = xi + ξ i ,
where ξ i are infinitesimally small quantities. Considering this translation as a transformation of coordinates, we can
see that the contravariant metric tensor is transformed under these translations as
∂x0i ∂x0k ∂ξ i l ∂ξ k
g 0ik (x0l ) = g lm (xl ) = g lm i
(δ l + )(δ + ) = g ik (xl ) + g im ξ,m
k
+ g kl ξ,li . (VII.40)
∂xl ∂xm ∂xl m ∂xm
On other hand, using the usual Tailor expansion we have
∂g ik
g 0ik (x0l ) = g ik (xl + ξ l ) = g 0ik (xl ) + ξ l = g 0ik (xl ) + ξ l g,lik , (VII.41)
∂xl
hence
g ik (xl ) + g im ξ,m
k
+ g kl ξ,li = g 0ik (xl ) + ξ l g,lik . (VII.42)
We obtain that
g 0ik (xl ) = g ik (xl ) − ξ l g,lik + g il ξ,lk + g kl ξli or g 0ik = g ik + δg ik , (VII.43)
where
δg ik = −ξ l g,lik + g il ξ,lk + g kl ξli . (VII.44)
It easy to show that
δg ik = g il ξ;lk + g kl ξ;li ≡ ξ i;k + ξ k;i . (VII.45)
Indeed,
δg ik = −ξ l (g;lik − Γinl g nk − Γknl g in ) + g il (ξ;lk − Γkln ξ n ) + g kl (ξ;li − Γiln ξ n ) =
= ξ l (Γinl g nk + Γknl g in ) + g il ξ;lk + g kl ξ;li − ξ n (Γkln g il + Γiln g kl ) =
= ξ l (Γinl g nk + Γknl g in − Γknl g in − Γinl g kn ) + g il ξ;lk + g kl ξ;li =
= g il ξ;lk + g kl ξ;li ≡ ξ i;k + ξ k;i . (VII.46)

Now we know what is the variation of the contravariant metric tensor under infinitesimally small translation. If we
substitute this variation into Eq.(VII.39), we obtain
√
Z
δSm = Aik (ξ i; k + ξ k; i ) −gdΩ. (VII.47)
From the definition of Aik follows that it is a symmetric tensor. From the fact that Sm is scalar follows that the
variation of Sm under translation (which is the sort of transformation of coordinates) is equal to zero, hence, we
obtain
√ √ √
Z Z Z
0 = Aik ξ i; k −gdΩ = (Aki ξ i ); k −gdΩ − Aki; k ξ i −gdΩ. (VII.48)
The first term in the last expression can be written as

√ √
(Aki ξ i ); k −g = −gAk;k , where Ak = Aki ξ i . (VII.49)
32
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As follows from Eq. (VII.27)
√ √
−gAk; k = ( −gAk ),k , (VII.50)
and gives zero contribution to the variation. As a result we obtain that
√
Z
Aki; k ξ i −gdΩ = 0 (VII.51)
nd because of arbitrariness of ξ i we conclude that

Aki; k = 0. (VII.52)
Taking into account that the covariant divergence of the stress-energy tensor Tki (see the previous lecture) is also equal
to zero, one can identify Aki with the physical stress energy tensor within a constant factors, β and Λ:
Aik = β(Tki + Λδki ). (VII.53)
E. The final EFEs
Finally, from the principle of least action we have

δ(Sg + Sm ) = 0, (VII.54)
or
√
Z
1
α Rik − gik R + β(T(phys)ik + Λgik ) δg ik −gdΩ = 0. (VII.55)
2
Taking into account the arbitrariness of δ and dropping label ”(phys)” and putting Λ = 0 [because discussion of this
famous Λ-terms is out of the scope of this course] we obtain
1
Rik − gik R = κTik , (VII.56)
2
where
β
κ=− . (VII.57)
α
The value of κ called the Eistein constant, can be easily obtained from the weak field and slow motion limit. As we
will see later
8πG
κ= . (VII.58)
c4
This is the end of the rigorous derivation of the EFEs. One can see that the EFEs can be rewritten in mixed
components as
1
Rki − δki R = κTki . (VII.59)
2
Contracting indices one can obtain
1
R − 4R = κT, R = −κT, T = Tki . (VII.60)
2
Hence
1
Rik = κ(Tik − gik T ). (VII.61)
2
In empty space-time
Tki = 0, hence Rki = 0. (VII.62)
33
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However, it could happen that
Riklm 6= 0. (VII.63)
The tidal accelerations related with non zero components of the Riemann tensor in empty space are produced by
gravitational waves. From
T;ii = 0 (VII.64)
follows that
1 1
(Rki − δki R);i = Rk;i
i
− R,k = 0. (VII.65)
2 2
This is actually the case as it follows from the Bianchi identity. And vice versa, from pure geometrical Bianchi identity
one can obtain the full description of motion of all forms of matter and fields. This means that the EFEs is complete
and self-consistent description of the interaction between matter and geometry, i.e. gravitational field.
————————————————————————————————————————————-
34
A. Polnarev. (SPA7019). 2014. Lecture 8. Solving EFEs.
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
VIII. LECTURE 8. SOLVING EFES
Weak field and slow motion approximation VIII A
The Schwarzschild metric as an exact solution of EFEs VIII B
Physical singularity versus coordinate singularity in the Schwarzschild metric VIII C
A little bit about Relativistic Cosmology (not examinable) VIII D
A. Weak field and slow motion approximation
In small velocity approximation

Tik ≈ ρc2 ui uk , (VIII.1)
where ρ is the mass density, i.e., T00 = ρc2 and all other components are small, i.e., |Tα0 | T00 and |Tαβ | T00 . This
means that T ≡ Tii ≈ T00 . In weak field approximation one can neglect by the non-linear part in the Ricci tensor:
1 αβ 1
R00 = R00 ≈ Γα
00,α = − η g00,α,β = 2 φ,α,β , (VIII.2)
2 c
where φ is defined by
2φ
g00 = 1 − . (VIII.3)
c2
Following usual notations
η αβ g00,α,β = 4g00 , (VIII.4)
where 4 is the Laplace operator. From EFEs we obtain
1 8πG 1 8πG 1 4πG
R00 = 4φ = 4 (T00 − T ) ≈ 4 (T00 − T00 ) = 4 T00 . (VIII.5)
c2 c 2 c 2 c
Hence,
4φ = 4πGρ. (VIII.6)
This is the Poisson equation, hence, as one can see, in this approximation EFEs give the Newtonian gravity and φ is
the Newtonian gravitational potential.
B. The Schwarzschild metric as an exact solution of EFEs
Let r, θ, φ are spherical space coordinates. The most general spherically symmetric gravitational field can be described
by the interval in the following form
ds2 = h(r, t)dr2 + k(r, t)(sin2 θdφ2 + dθ2 ) + l(r, t)dt2 + a(r, t)drdt. (VIII.7)
By transformations of coordinates
r = f1 (r0 , t0 ), t = f2 (r0 , t0 ), we always can make a(r, t) = 0 and k(r, t) = −r2 . (VIII.8)
35
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Thus
ds2 = eν c2 dt2 − r2 (sin2 θdφ2 + dθ2 ) − eλ dr2 . (VIII.9)
Taking into account that g00 > 0 and g11 < 0, we can see that
g00 = eν , g11 = −eλ , g22 = −r2 , and g33 = −r2 sin2 θ (VIII.10)
g 00 = e−ν , g 11 = −e−λ , g 22 = −r−2 and g 33 = −r−2 sin−2 θ. (VIII.11)
Now we can calculate the Christoffell symbols:
λ0 ν0 λ̇
Γ111 = , Γ010 = , Γ233 = − sin θ cos θ, Γ011 = eλ−ν , (VIII.12)
2 2 2
ν̇ ν−λ 1
Γ122 = −re−λ , Γ100 = e , Γ212 = Γ313 = , Γ323 = cot θ, (VIII.13)
2 r
ν̇ λ̇
Γ000 = , Γ110 = , Γ133 = −r sin2 θe−λ , (VIII.14)
2 2
where 0 means partial derivative with respect to r. Then after straightforward calculations of the components of the
Ricci tensor we obtain the Einstein’s equations:
0
8πG 1 −λ ν 1 1
4
T1 = −e + 2 + 2, (VIII.15)
c r r r
!
ν 02 ν 0 − λ0 ν 0 λ0 λ̇2

8πG 2 8πG 3 1 −λ 00 1 λ̇ν̇
T = T == − e ν + + − + e−ν λ̈ + − , (VIII.16)
c4 2 c4 3 2 2 r 2 2 2 2
λ0

8πG 0 1 1
T = −e−λ − + , (VIII.17)
c4 0 r2 r r2
8πG 1 λ̇
4
T0 = −e−λ . (VIII.18)
c r
In vacuum, where all Tki = 0, we have
0 0
−λ ν 1 1 −λ λ 1 1
−e + 2 + 2 = 0, e − 2 + 2 = 0, (VIII.19)
r r r r r r
λ̇ = 0, (VIII.20)
The most unpleasant equation fortunately is not independent and follows from other three equations. One can proove
this by straightforward calculations or by using the Bianchi identity. From equation (VIII.20) follows that λ = λ(r),
i.e. does not depend on t. From equations (VIII.19) follows that
λ0 + ν 0 = 0, hence λ + ν = f (t). (VIII.21)
Now we can use our last freedom in coordinate transformation, namely we can transform the time coordinate, t = f (t0 )
to make f (t) = 0. As a result we obtain
e−λ = eν . (VIII.22)
36
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Thus we actually proved a very important theorem: If a gravitational field is spherical symmetric then this field is
static! Now the system has been reduced to the single equation (VIII.19), which after multiplying by r2 can be written
as
0
e−λ (rλ0 − 1) + 1 = 0 or − e−λ r + 1 = 0. (VIII.23)
Finally
A
e−λ = eν = 1 + , (VIII.24)
r
where A is a constant of integration. One can see that if r → ∞, then
e−λ = eν → 1, (VIII.25)
which corresponds to the Minkowskian space-time. In order to determine the constant A let consider a test particle
far from the centre of gravitating object. It’s radial acceleration is given by the geodesic equation:
d2 r
+ Γ1ik ui uk = 0. (VIII.26)
ds2
If we assume that the particle moves slowly, i.e. four-velocity ui ≈ δ0i and ds ≈ cdt we obtain
d2 r
≈ −c2 Γ1ik δ0i δ0k = −c2 Γ100 =
dt2
c2 1n c2 c2 dg00
=− g (g0n,0 + gn0,0 − g00,n ) = − g 11 (g01,0 + g10,0 − g00,1 ) ≈ − =
2 2 2 dr
c2 de−λ c2 d A Ac2
=− =− (1 + ) = 2 . (VIII.27)
2 dr 2 dr r 2r
On other hand we know from Newtonian theory that
d2 r GM
=− 2 , (VIII.28)
dt2 r
hence the constant of integration
2Gm rg
A=− = −rg and g00 = 1 − , (VIII.29)
c2 r
where rg is the so called gravitational radius
2Gm
rg = . (VIII.30)
c2
Finally we derived the famous solution of the EFEs obtained by K. Schwarzschild in 1916, the same year when Einstein
published his equations. This solution is called the Schwarzschild metric:
rg 2 2 dr2
ds2 = 1 − c dt − r2 (sin2 θdφ2 + dθ2 ) − r . (VIII.31)
r 1 − rg
One can see that this metric describes a curved space-time. To prove, for example, that even the space itself is curved,
let us compare the physical radial distance, l, with the corresponding circumference, C.
37
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In the flat Euclidian space
C
l= , (VIII.32)
2π
while in the case of the Schwarzschild metric
dr2 2
dl2 = 2 2 2
r + r (sin θdφ + dθ ), (VIII.33)
1 − rg
hence
r2
lcircl2 − lcircl1
Z
dr
l= q > r2 − r1 = . (VIII.34)
r1 1−
rg 2π
r
One can see also that time runs at a different rate at different radii, indeed
r
√ rg
dτ = g00 dt = 1 − dt. (VIII.35)
r
C. Physical singularity versus coordinate singularity in the Schwarzschild metric
We can prove that there is no physical singularity at r = rg . For that we produce the following transformation of
coordinates
Z
f (r)dr
cτ = ±ct ± r , (VIII.36)
1 − rg
Z
dr
R = ct + rg , (VIII.37)
1− r f (r)
where f (r) is an arbitrary function. Now the interval can be written in the following form:
r
1 − rg 2 2
ds2 = (c dτ − f 2 dR2 ) − r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 ). (VIII.38)
1 − f2
To eliminate ”singularity” at r = rg , we can choose f (r) in such a way that f (rg ) = 1. For example,
r
rg
f (r) = . (VIII.39)
r
In this case
(1 − f 2 )dr 2 r3/2
Z Z r
r
R − cτ = r = dr = (VIII.40)
1 − rg f rg 3 rg1/2
and
3
r= (R − cτ )2/3 rg1/3 , (VIII.41)
2
4/3
dR2

3
2 2 2
ds = c dτ − h i2/3 − (R − cτ ) rg2/3 (dθ2 + sin2 θdϕ2 ). (VIII.42)
3 2
2rg (R − cτ )
We can see that there is now singularity at r = rg , indeed if r = rg

3
(R − cτ ) = rg . (VIII.43)
2
In other words, the formal ”singularity” ar r = rg can be removed by the transformation of coordinates. The real
physical singularity does take place at r = 0 when, say, the scalar curvature is infinite (one can easily verify this by
straightforward calculations) and this fact can not be removed by any transformation of coordinates.
38
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
D. A little bit about Relativistic Cosmology (not examinable)
1. Geometry of isotropic and homogeneous Universe
What is the space-time geometry corresponding to isotropic and homogeneous Universe? Let us write the metric in
the following form:
ds2 = gik dxi dxk = g00 (dx0 )2 + 2g0α dx0 dxα − dl2 , (VIII.44)
where
dl2 = −gαβ dxα dxβ . (VIII.45)
We will work in the so called ”co-moving” frame of reference, co-moving to the matter filling the Universe. The fact
that all directions in a isotropic Universe are equivalent to each other, means that
g0α = 0, (VIII.46)
otherwise g0α 6= 0 considered as 3-vector would lead to non-equivalence of different directions. The homogeneity of
the Universe means that g00 can depend only on time coordinate, hence we can choose time coordinate t as
c2 dt2 = g(x0 )00 (dx0 )2 , (VIII.47)
to obtain
ds2 = c2 dt2 − dl2 . (VIII.48)
2. Three-dimensional space of constant curvature
According to the cosmological principle the Universe is the same everywhere, as a consequence, The three-dimensional
space is curved in the same way everywhere, which means that at each moment of time the metric of the space is the
same at all points. To obtain such a metric let us start from the following geometrical analogy. Let us consider the
two-dimensional sphere in the flat three-dimensional space. In this case the element of length is
dl2 = (dx1 )2 + (dx2 )2 + (dx3 )2 . (VIII.49)
The equation of a sphere of radius a in the three-dimensional space has the form
(x1 )2 + (x2 )2 + (x3 )2 = a2 . (VIII.50)
The element of length on the two-dimensional sphere can be obtained if one expresses dx3 in terms of dx1 and dx2 .
From the equation for sphere we have
x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3 = 0, (VIII.51)
hence
x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 x1 dx1 + x2 dx2
dx3 = − = − . (VIII.52)
x3
p
a2 − (x1 )2 − (x2 )2
Substituting (VIII.51) into (VIII.49) we have
(x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 )2

dl2 = (dx1 )2 + (dx2 )2 + . (VIII.53)
a2 − (x1 )2 − (x2 )2
39
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
Let us introduce the ”polar” coordinates instead of x1 and x2
x1 = r cos φ, x2 = r sin φ. (VIII.54)
As a result we obtain
dl2 = (dr cos φ − r sin φdφ)2 + (dr sin φ + r cos φdφ)2 +
r cos φ(dr cos φ − r sin φdφ) + r sin φ(dr sin φ + r cos φdφ) a2 dr2 2 2 dr2 2 2
= + r dφ = 2 + r dφ . (VIII.55)
a2 − r2 a2 − r2 1 − ar 2
Now we can repeat step by step the previous derivation, by considering the geometry of the three-dimensional space
as the geometry on the three-dimensional hypersphere in some fictitious four-dimensional space ( don’t confuse with
the physical four-dimensional space-time). In this case the element of length is
dl2 = (dx1 )2 + (dx2 )2 + (dx3 )2 + (dx4 )2 . (VIII.56)
The equation of a sphere of radius a in the four-dimensional space has the form
(x1 )2 + (x2 )2 + (x3 )2 + (x4 )2 = a2 . (VIII.57)
The element of length on the three-dimensional hypersphere, which represents the three-dimensional space of constant
curvature, can be obtained, if one expresses dx4 in terms of dx1 , dx2 and dx3 . From the equation for hypersphere we
have
x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3 + x4 dx4 = 0. (VIII.58)
Hence
x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3 x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3
dx4 = − 4
= −p . (VIII.59)
x a2 − (x1 )2 − (x2 )2 − (x3 )2
Substituting (VIII.59) into (VIII.56) we have
(x1 dx1 + x2 dx2 + x3 dx3 )2

dl2 = (dx1 )2 + (dx2 )2 + (dx3 )2 + . (VIII.60)
a2 − (x1 )2 − (x2 )2 − (x3 )2
Let us now introduce the ”spherical” coordinates instead of x1 , x2 and x3
x1 = r sin θ cos φ, x2 = r sin θ sin φ, x3 = r cos θ. (VIII.61)
As a result we obtain
dl2 = (dr sin θ cos φ + r cos θdθ − r sin θ sin φdφ)2 +
+(dr sin θ sin φ + r cos θ cos φdθ + r sin θ sin φdφ)2 + (dr cos θ − r sin θdθ)2 +
1
[r sin θ cos φ(dr sin θ cos φ + r cos θdθ − r sin θ sin φdφ)+
a2 − r2
+r sin θ sin φ(dr sin θ sin φ + r cos θ cos φdθ + r sin θ sin φdφ)+
+r cos θ(dr cos θ − r sin θdθ)] =
a2 dr2 2 2 2 2 dr2 2 2 2 2
= + r (dθ + sin θdφ ) = 2 + r (dθ + sin θdφ ). (VIII.62)
a2 − r2 1 − ar 2
40
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
Taking into account that r ≤ a we can introduce instead of r the new lagrangian radial coordinate χ such that
r = a sin χ and dr = a cos χdχ, (VIII.63)
as a result dl can be rewritten as
dl2 = a2 [dχ2 + sin2 χ(dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 )]. (VIII.64)
Now we can write the metric interval for the four dimensional space time as
ds2 = c2 dt2 − a2 [dχ2 + sin2 χ(dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 )]. (VIII.65)
We can repeat all these calculation for the three-dimensional space of the negative constant curvature. For that one
should replace the equation (VIII.57) for the hypersphere by
(x1 )2 + (x2 )2 + (x3 )2 + (x4 )2 = −a2 , (VIII.66)
which is a sphere of imaginary radius. This means that to obtain the metric of three-dimensional space of constant
negative curvature one should just replace a by ia.
Obviously, when a → ∞ we obtain the case of the spatially flat space.
This method is called the method of embedding diagrams.
3. Friedman-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) metric
The fact that the Universe is expanding means that instead of constant a we should introduce a scale factor a(t)
which depends on time. Finally we obtain the famous Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) metric for
expanding Universe
ds2 = c2 dt2 − a2 (t)[dχ2 + f 2 (χ)(dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 )], (VIII.67)

where
 
 sin χ for constant positive curvatue 
f = sinh χ for constant negative curvatue . (VIII.68)
 χ for zero curvature 
The function f (χ) can be written in more elegant way as follows

sin Aχ
f (χ) = , (VIII.69)
A
where
 
 1 for constant positive curvature 
A= i for constant negative curvature . (VIII.70)
0 for zero curvature 
Indeed, if A = 1, obviously f (χ) = sin χ. If A = i
sin iχ ei·iA − e−i·iA e−A − eA eA − e−A

f (χ) = = = = = sinh χ. (VIII.71)
i 2i · i −2 2
If A = 0
sin Aχ
f (χ) = lim = χ. (VIII.72)
A→0 A
Sometime it is convenient to introduce another time coordinate, η, called the conformal time and defined as
cdt = adη. (VIII.73)
In terms of this new time-coordinate (??) can be re-written as
ds2 = a(η)[dη 2 − dχ2 − f 2 (χ)(dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 )]. (VIII.74)
Using the EFEs we can obtain required equations for a(t), in other words we can obtain relativistic cosmological
models based on the EFEs.
41
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
4. Relativistic Acceleration Equation
Contracting the EFEs written in mixed form we have
m 1 m 8πG m
Rm − δm R = 4 Tm , (VIII.75)
2 c
hence
4 8πG 8πG 8πG 8πG
R − R = 4 T = 4 (ε − 3P ), R − 2R = 4 (ε − 3P ), R = − 4 (ε − 3P ). (VIII.76)
2 c c c c
Then
1 i 8πG 8πG 1 8πG 8πG 1
Rki = δ R + 4 Tki = 4 Tki − δki 4 T = 4 (Tki − δki T ). (VIII.77)
2 k c c 2 c c 2
8πG 0 1 8πG 1 4πG 4πG 3P

R00 = 4
(T0 − T ) = 4 [ε − (ε − 3P )] = 4 (ε + 3P ) = 2 (ρ + 2 ). (VIII.78)
c 2 c 2 c c c
R00 = g 0n Rn0 = R00 = Γl00,l − Γl0l,0 + Γl00 Γm m l

lm − Γ0l Γ0m . (VIII.79)
We can see that

g ln

1
Γl00 = (g0n,0 + gn0,0 − g00,n ) = g ln g0n,0 − g00,n = g ln g0n,0 = g l0 g00,0 + g lα g0α,0 = 0. (VIII.80)
2 2
Hence
β
R00 = −Γl0l,0 − Γm l α α
0l Γ0m = −Γ0α,0 − Γ0α Γ0β . (VIII.81)
Taking into account that

g αn g αn ȧ g αn ȧ
Γα
0β = (g0n,β + gβn,0 − g0β,n ) = gβn,0 = gβn = δβα . (VIII.82)
2 2 ca 2 ca
Thus
" 2 # " 2 2 #
d ȧ ȧ 3 ä ȧ ȧ 3ä
R00 = − δαα + δαβ δβα =− 2 − + = − 2. (VIII.83)
cdt ac ac c a a a ac
Hence
3ä 4πG 3P 4πG 3P
− = 2 (ρ + 2 ) and ä = − (ρ + 2 )a. (VIII.84)
ac2 c c 3 c
This is the relativistic acceleration equation. It is interesting to compare Eq. (VIII.84) with the acceleration equation
in the in the Newtonian theory:
4πGρ
a¨N = − aN . (VIII.85)
3
One can see the great difference: ä is determined not only by density, as in Newtonian theory, but also by pressure
(if P > 0) or tension (if P < 0).
————————————————————————————————————————————-
42
A. Polnarev. (SPA7019). 2014. Lecture 9. Black Holes.
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
IX. LECTURE 9. BLACK HOLES
Limit of stationarity IX A
Event horizon IX B
Schwarzschild black holes IX C
Kerr Black Holes IX D
”Ergosphere” and Penrose process IX E
A. Limit of stationarity
Let us consider ds for the test particle in rest, i.e. put dr = dθ = dφ = 0, in this case
2
ds2 = g00 dx0 , (IX.1)
If g00 = 0 then ds2 = 0, which means that the world line of the particle at rest is the world line of light, hence at
the surface g00 = 0 no particle with finite rest mass can be at rest. Thus the surface g00 = 0 is called the limit of
stationarity.
B. Event horizon
Let us consider a surface
F (r) = const (IX.2)
and let
ni = F,i (IX.3)
is its normal. If g 11 = 0 then
g ik ni nk = g 11 n1 n1 = 0, (IX.4)
which means that ni is the null vector and any particle with finite rest mass can not move outward the surface g 11 = 0,
thus this surface is the event horizon.
C. Schwarzschild black holes
Schwarzschild Black holes are described by the following metric

rg 2 2 dr2
ds2 = 1 − 2
sin2 θdφ2 + dθ2 , obtained in the previous lecture.

c dt − rg − r (IX.5)
r 1− r
43
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
One can see that both the limit of stationarity and the event horizon are located at r = rg . Let us consider the
structure of light cone in the Schwarzschild metric using the new coordinates cτ and R introduced in Lecture 8.
Putting ds = 0, we have
r
dτ 1 rg
c = ± 1/3
=± . (IX.6)
dR 3
r
2rg (R − cτ )
Thus we can see that if r > rg

dτ
|c |<1 (IX.7)
dR
and the surface r = const is inside the light cone, while for r < rg
dτ
|c |>1 (IX.8)
dR
and the surface r = const is outside the light cone, which means that all particles and even photons should propagate
inward (see Fig.9.1 ). In other words we can see that the surface r = rg is the event horizon.
D. Kerr Black Holes
The Kerr metric describing the gravitational field of rotating black holes has the following form
rg r 2 2 ρ2 2 rg ra2 2rg ra
ds2 = (1 − 2
)c dt − dr − ρ 2
dθ 2
− (r 2
+ a2
+ 2
sin2 θ) sin2 θdφ2 + sin2 θcdφdt, (IX.9)
ρ ∆ ρ ρ2
where
J
ρ2 = r2 + a2 cos2 θ, ∆ = r2 − rg r + a2 and a = (IX.10)
mc
and J is the specific angular momentum of the black hole.
1. Limit of stationarity
The location of the limit of stationarity, rst , corresponding to g00 = 0, in the Kerr metric is determined from the
equation
rg r
1 − 2 = 0, thus r2 − rg r + a2 cos2 θ = 0. (IX.11)
ρ
Solving this equation we obtain that
r
1 q rg rg
rst = (rg ± rg2 − 4a2 cos2 θ) = ± ( )2 − a2 cos2 θ. (IX.12)
2 2 2
2. Event horizon
The location of the event horizon, rhor is determined by g 11 = 0. In the Kerr metric this corresponds to g11 = ∞, i.e.
corresponds to
∆ = r2 − rg r + a2 = 0, (IX.13)
hence,
r
rg r 2g
rhor = ± − a2 . (IX.14)
2 2
44
Fig. 9.1. Light cones around the Schwarzschild Black Hole
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
E. ”Ergosphere” and Penrose process
1. Ergosphere
The region between the limit of stationarity and the event horizon is called the ”ergosphere”
(see Fig.9.2 and Fig.9.3).
2. Penrose process
The Penrose process is a process wherein energy can be extracted from a rotating black hole. That extraction is
made possible because the rotational energy of the black hole is located not inside the event horizon, but outside in
a curl gravitational field. Such field is also called gravi-magnetic field. All objects in the ergosphere are unavoidably
dragged by the rotating spacetime. Imagine that some body enters into the black hole and then it is split there into
two pieces (see Fig.9.4 ). The momentum of the two pieces of matter can be arranged so that one piece escapes to
infinity, whilst the other falls past the outer event horizon into the black hole. The escaping piece of matter can have
a greater mass-energy than the original infalling piece of matter. In other words, the captured piece has negative
mass-energy. The Penrose process results in a decrease in the angular momentum of the black hole, and that reduction
corresponds to a transference of energy whereby the momentum lost is converted to energy extracted. As a result of
the Penrose process a rotating black hole can eventually lose all of its angular momentum, becoming a non-rotating
(i.e. the Schwarzschild) black hole.
————————————————————————————————————————————-
45
Fig. 9.2. Kerr Black Hole
Fig. 9.3. Light cones around the Kerr Black Hole
Fig. 9.4. Penrose process
A. Polnarev. (SPA7019). 2014. Lecture 10. In the vicinity of the Schwarzschild Black Hole.
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
X. LECTURE 10. IN THE VICINITY OF THE SCHWARZSCHILD BLACK HOLE
Test particles in the Schwarzschild Metric XA
Stable and Unstable Circular Orbits XB
Propagation of light in the Schwarzschild metric X C
A. Test particles in the Schwarzschild Metric
Taking into account the spherical symmetry of the Schwarzschild metric we can choose our spherical coordinates in
such a way that the plane of orbit coincides with the equatorial plane θ = π/2. Then the Hamilton−Jacobi equation
in the Schwarzschild metric can be written as
2 2 2
rg −1 ∂S rg ∂S 1 ∂S
1− − 1− − 2 − m2 c2 = 0. (X.1)
r c∂t r ∂r r ∂φ
Since all coefficients in this equation do not depend on t and φ we can say that
∂S ∂S
= −E, and = L, and S = −Et + Lφ + Sr (r), (X.2)
∂t ∂φ
where E and L are the energy and angular momentum of the particle. Then putting (X.2) into the Hamilton−Jacobi
equation we have
2
rg −1 E 2 L2

rg dSr (r)
1− − 1 − − − m2 c2 = 0, hence, (X.3)
r c2 r dr r2
r
dSr (r) rg −1/2 rg −1 E 2 L2
= 1− 1− 2
− 2 − m2 c2 =
dr r r c r
s
E2 L2

rg −1 rg 2 c2 .
= 1− − 1 − + m (X.4)
r c2 r r2
Then the contravariant components of the four-momentum are

dx0 cdt rg −1 ∂S E rg −1
p0 ≡ mc = mc = g 00 p0 = 1 − =− 1− , (X.5)
ds ds r c∂t c r
dx1 dr rg ∂S
p1 ≡ mc = mc = g 11 p1 = − 1 − =
ds ds r ∂r
r s
rg −1 E 2 L2 E2 rg L2

rg 1/2
2 2 2 c2 ,
=− 1− 1− − − m c = − − 1 − + m (X.6)
r r c2 r2 c2 r r2
dx3 dφ 1 ∂S L
p3 ≡ mc = mc = g 33 p3 = − 2 = − 2. (X.7)
ds ds r ∂φ r
46
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
Then we can rewrite above equations as
dt E rg −1
=− 3 1− , (X.8)
ds mc r
dr 1 q 2 ,
= − 2 E 2 − Uef f (X.9)
ds mc
dφ L
=− , (X.10)
ds mcr2
where
s
L2

2 rg
Uef f = mc 1+ 2 2 2 1− (X.11)
m c r r
is called the ”effective potential energy”. For given radius Uef f is equal to the energy of a particle which has the turn
dr
point ( dφ = 0), i.e. Apastron or Periastron, for this r. Indeed
dr mc q 2 2 ,
= E − Uef f (X.12)
dφ Lr2
hence, if
dr
= 0, then Uef f = E. (X.13)
dφ
Thus the condition
E > Uef f (X.14)
determines the admissible range of motion (see Fig.10.1). The effective potential includes potential energy plus kinetic
energy of non-radial motion, in the relativistic manner; this kinetic energy is determined by angular momentum L.
B. Stable and Unstable Circular Orbits
The radius of the stable circular orbit is obtained from the simultaneous solution of the equations
dUef f
Uef f = E and = 0. (X.15)
dr
From Eq.(X.15) we have
2
dUef f /du = 0, where u = 1/r. (X.16)
Hence,
2 2
L2 u2 2L2 u

2 L L
− rg 1 + 2 2 + (1 − rg u) 2 2 = 0, or rg r + 3rg −2 r = 0. (X.17)
m c m c mc mc
Solving this equation we have
s 2 r !
L2 L2 3L2 L2 3rg2 m2 c2
r± = 2 2 ± − 2 2 = 2 2 1± 1− . (X.18)
m c rg m2 c2 rg m c m c rg L2
The larger root corresponds to the stable orbit. One can see that
3rg2 m2 c2 √ √
1− 2
> 0, hence, − 3mcrg ≤ L ≤ 3mcrg . (X.19)
L
47
Fig 10.1. Effective potential energy (here V is the effective potential energy)
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
Substituting
√
L = 3mcrg (X.20)
into equation for the radius of circular orbits (X.18), we have for the radius of the last stable orbit
rlso = 3rg . (X.21)
C. Propagation of light in the Schwarzschild metric
Let me remind you that for photons ds = 0. We can introduce some scalar parameter λ varying along world line of
the light signal and introduce then a vector
dxi
ki = , (X.22)
dλ
which is tangent to the word line. This vector is called four- dimensional wave vector. Then
ds2 = gik dxi dxk = gik k i k k dλ2 = 0 and we have ki k i = g ik ki kk = 0. (X.23)
Substituting covariant vector
∂ψ
ki = − , (X.24)
∂xi
where ψ is a scalar, we obtain the Eikonal Equation in gravitational field
g ik Ψ,i Ψ,k = 0. (X.25)
The physical meaning of Ψ (called the Eikonal follows from
Z
Ψ = − ki dxi , (X.26)
which looks like the phase of electromagnetic wave. If the Eikonal equation is solved, one can obtain the world line
of photon:
dxi
≡ k i = g in kn = −g in Ψ,n . (X.27)
dλ
In the equatorial plane of a Schwarzschild black hole the solution of the Eikonal equation can be written in the form
bω
Ψ = −ωt + φ + Φr (r), (X.28)
c
whereω is the frequency of the photon and b is its impact parameter. Substituting this expression to the Eikonal
equation we obtain
2
1 ω2 1 bω rg 2
rg 2 − 2
− 1− (−p1 ) = 0, (X.29)
1− r c r c r
where
s
1 ω2 b2 ω 2

dΦr (r) 1
p1 ≡ pr = −Ψ,1 = − =± r r − . (X.30)
dr 1 − rg 1 − rg c2 c2 r2
One can easily show that photons can move along unstable circular orbits given by
dUef f (ph)
Uef f (ph) = 1, and = 0, (X.31)
dr
where Uef f (ph) plays the role of the effective potential for photons and is given by
b2 rg
Uef f (ph) = 2 1 − . (X.32)
r r
————————————————————————————————————————————-
48
A. Polnarev. (SPA7019). 2014. Lecture 11. Experimental Confirmation of GR and Gravitational Waves (GWs).
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
XI. LECTURE 11. EXPERIMENTAL CONFIRMATION OF GR AND GRAVITATIONAL WAVES (GWS)
Relativistic experiments in the Solar system and Binary pulsar XI A
Propagation of GWs XI B
Detection of GWs XI C
Relativistic experiments in the Solar system and Binary pulsar XI D
Propagation of GWs XI E
A. Relativistic experiments in the Solar system and Binary pulsar
General relativity is currently the most successful gravitational theory, being almost universally accepted and well-
supported by observations. General relativity’s first success was in explaining the anomalous perihelion precession
of Mercury, then observations of stars near the eclipsed Sun quantitatively confirmed general relativity’s prediction
that massive objects bend light. Other observations and experiments have since confirmed many of the predictions of
general relativity, including the gravitational redshift of light and the gravitational time dilation. All these effects in
the Solar System were then observed in tremendously magnified version in binary pulsars. In 1916 Einstein proposed
three famous tests of general relativity, subsequently called the classical tests of general relativity.
1. The perihelion precession of Mercury’s orbit
In Newtonian physics, an object orbiting a spherical mass would trace out an ellipse with the spherical mass at a
focus.There are a number of solar system effects that cause the perihelion of a planet to precess, or rotate around the
sun. These are mainly because of the presence of other planets, which perturb orbits. Another effect is solar oblateness,
which produces only a minor contribution. The precession of the perihelion of Mercury was a longstanding problem
in celestial mechanics. Careful observations of Mercury showed that the actual value of the precession disagreed with
that calculated from Newton’s theory by 43 seconds of arc per century, which was much larger than the experimental
error at the time. In general relativity, this orbit will precess, or change orientation within its plane, due to the
curvature of spacetime (see Fig.11.1).
2. Deflection of Light by the Sun
The first observation of light deflection was performed by noting the change in position of stars as they passed near the
Sun on the celestial sphere. The observations were performed by Sir Arthur Eddington who traveled to the island of
Principe near Africa to watch the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919.According to GR, stars near the Sun would appear to
have been slightly shifted because their light had been curved by its gravitational field. This effect is noticeable only
during an eclipse, since otherwise the Sun’s brightness obscures the stars.Prediction of Newtonian theory is exactly
two times smaller than predicted by GR. Eddington’s 1919 measurements of the bending of star-light by the Sun’s
gravity confirmed GR (see Fig.11.2).
49
Fig 11. 1. The perihelion precession of Mercury's orbit, 0.43’’ per century (very
exaggerated)
a) b)
c)
Fig 11. 2. Deflection of Light by the Sun

————————————————————————————————————————————————-
3. Gravitational Redshift
Einstein predicted the gravitational redshift of light in 1907. This prediction was confirmed by Pound and Rebka
in 1959. They measured the relative redshift of two sources situated at the top and bottom of Harvard University’s
Jefferson tower. The result was in excellent agreement with GR.
4. Examples of other experiments in Solar System
There were a lot of other precision tests of general relativity, which are not discussed here. I will give you just two
examples:
Example 1. Gravity Probe A was launched in 1976. This experiment showed that gravity and velocity affect the
ability to synchronize the rates of clocks orbiting a central mass.
Example 2. Current experiment Gravity Probe B. is testing the prediction of GR which says that rotating bodies
drag spacetime around themselves in a phenomenon referred to as frame-dragging (or gravimagnetism). This is the
same effect as in the vicinity of rotating black holes (see notes to Lecture 9), but extremely small about one part in
a few trillion.
The Gravity Probe B satellite, launched in 2004, is currently attempting to detect frame dragging.
5. Binary Pulsar.
General relativity has been extremely well tested after 1974, when Hulse and Taylor discovered the first binary pulsar.
Pulsar is a highly magnetized rotating neutron star. A neutron star is formed from the collapsed remnant of a massive
star and consists mostly of neutrons. A typical neutron star has a mass between 1.35 and about 2.1 solar masses,
with a corresponding radius of order 10 km. The density of a neutron star, ρns , is comparable with the density of an
atomic nucleus, i.e. ρns ∼ 1017 ÷ 1018 kgm−3 . Pulsars emit a beam of radio waves (see Fig.11.3). Their observed
periods range from 1 ms to 10 s. The radiation can only be observed when the beam of emission is pointing towards
the Earth. Because neutron stars are very dense objects, the rotation period and thus the interval between observed
pulses are very regular. For some pulsars, the regularity of pulsation is as precise as an atomic clock.
A binary pulsar is a pulsar with a binary companion, often another pulsar, white dwarf or neutron star (see Fig.11.4).
The first binary pulsar, PSR 1913+16 or the ”Hulse-Taylor binary pulsar” was discovered in 1974 at Arecibo by Joseph
Taylor, Jr. and Russell Hulse, for which they won the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics.
The binary pulsars allow astrophysicists to test general relativity in the case of a strong gravitational field. The timing
of the pulses from the pulsar can be measured with an extraordinary accuracy.
The orbit of the pulsar in binary system experiences periastron advance, the radiation is gravitationally redshifted
and the orbital period decreases with time due to gravitational radiation.Binary pulsar timing has thus indirectly
confirmed the existence of gravitational radiation and verified GR.
The rotation of the pulsar’s periastron is analogous to the advance of the perihelion of Mercury in its orbit. The
observed advance for PSR 1913+16 is about 4.2 degrees per year: the pulsar’s periastron advances in a single day by
the same amount as Mercury’s perihelion advances in a century!
B. Propagation of GWs
A gravitational wave is a fluctuation in the curvature of spacetime which propagates as a wave, traveling outward
from a moving object or system of objects (see Fig.11.5). A weak gravitational field is a small perturbation of the
Galilean metric:
gik = ηik + hik . (XI.1)
It is easy to show that
g ik = η ik − η in η km hnk . (XI.2)
50
Fig 11. 3. Pulsars emit a beam of electromagnetic radiation
Fig 11. 4. A binary pulsar is a pulsar with a binary companion
Fig 11. 5. Gravitational waves
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
The gravitational wave is a transverse and traceless part of these perturbations and the plane wave has two independent
states of linear polarization. Using a linear coordinate transformation
0
x i = xi + ξ i , (XI.3)
i i
where ξ are small functions of x , we can impose on hik the following four supplementary conditions:
1
η km hmi,k − δik η nm hnm,k = 0. (XI.4)
2
After such transformation the Ricci tensor is reduced to
1 ∂ 2 hik
Rik = − η lm l m . (XI.5)
2 ∂x ∂x
According to the Einstein equations in empty space-time Rik = 0, hence gravitational waves satisfy the wave equation
1 ∂2
(∇2 − )hik = 0, (XI.6)
c2 ∂t2
where ∇2 is the 3-dimensional Laplacian operator.
C. Detection of GWs
So far the bulk of information about the Universe comes in the form of electromagnetic waves generated by electri-
cally charged particles. Gravitational waves have a totally different nature in comparison to electromagnetic waves,
being generated by the motion of massive gravitating objects. The observation of gravitational waves will therefore
significantly complement the observation of electromagnetic waves (light, radio, micro-waves, X and gamma rays)
and of astro-particles (cosmic rays, neutrinos). It will reveal aspects of the Universe not reachable by these means
and will extend the observable domain even in the cosmic zones darkened by dust and masked by other phenomena.
Fig.11.6 shows the map with location of the gravitational wave detectors which are in operation or in preparation
at the present moment. Gravitational Wave Astronomy, which can be considered as a new window on the Universe,
has already started.
Let us consider a ring of test particles initially at rest in the (y − z) plane, perturbed by a plane monochromatic
gravitational wave propagating in x-direction with frequency ω and amplitude h0 . Then it is possible to show that
all components of hik can be eliminated by the transformation of coordinates except
h22 = −h33 ≡ h+ and h23 = h32 ≡ h× , (XI.7)
corresponding to “+” and “×” polarizations. By calculating the physical distances between the test particles on the
ring and its center we can determine distortions in shape and in orientation of the ring produced by a gravitational
wave at different moments of time and for different polarizations of the gravitational wave:
(i) h+ = h0 sin ω(t − x/c), h× = 0 and (ii) h+ = 0, h× = h0 sin ω(t − x/c). (XI.8)
The distortions of the originally circular ring for these two states of polarization of the wave at t = 0, t = T /4,
t = T /2, t = 3T /4 and t = T , where T is the period of the wave, are shown on Fig.11.7(see also Fig.11.8).
Without loss of generality we can assume that the ring is located at x = 0.
If h+ = h0 sin ωt and h× = 0, we have
1
δl(θ) = − l0 h0 sin ωt cos 2θ. (XI.9)
2
If h+ = 0 and h× = h0 sin ωt, we have
1
δl(θ) = − l0 h0 sin ωt sin 2θ. (XI.10)
2
If h+ = h0 sin ωt and h× = h0 cos ωt (his polarization can be called circular polarization), we have
1 1 1
δl(θ) = − l0 h0 (sin ωt cos 2θ + cos ωt sin 2θ) = − l0 h0 sin(ωt + 2θ) = − l0 h0 sin 2(θ − θ0 (t)), (XI.11)
2 2 2
51
Fig 11. 6. Location of the gravitational wave detectors
Fig 11. 7. A circle made of free masses in a gravitational wave
(c)
Fig 11. 8. Polarization of gravitational waves

————————————————————————————————————————————————-
where
1
θ0 (t) = − ωt. (XI.12)
2
A laser interferometer is very sensitive to differential length variations between its two arms and is ideally suited to
the detection of gravitational waves. Because of the extremely high sensitivity required, the length of the arms must
be hundreds of kilometers. Since this cannot be practically achieved on earth, one uses multiple reflections between
two mirrors to increase the measuring length.
Laser Interferometric Gravitational Observatory (LIGO) is currently working gravitational wave detector with base-
line 4 km (see Fig.11.9).
Laser Interferometric Space Antenna (LISA) ((see Fig.11.10) is future space gravitational detector with base-line
5 × 106 km.
At the present time gravitational waves have not yet been detected directly. However, we already have indirect
evidence of the existence gravitational waves. Binary pulsars are one of the few tools scientists have to detect evidence
of gravitational waves; Einsteins theory of general relativity predicts that two neutron stars would emit gravitational
waves as they orbit a common center of mass, which would take away the orbital energy and cause the two stars to
draw closer together. The data collected by Taylor and his colleagues of the orbital period of PRS 1913+16 supported
this relativistic prediction. In decades following its discovery the orbital period has been decreasing by about 76
millionths of a second per year. Subsequent observations continue to show this decrease (see Fig.11.11)).
D. Generation of GWs
Starting from the Einstein equations we can linearize them by taking into account that gravitational waves are
characterized by small amplitudes. Then in approximation of slow motions and small separations we can use the
Quadrupole formula for gravitational waves:
2G d2 Dαβ
hαβ = − (t − R/c), (XI.13)
3c4 R dt2
where R is the distance to the source of gravitational radiation and
Z
Dαβ = (3xα xβ − r2 δαβ )dM is the quadrupole tensor. (XI.14)
E. Example of of the source of gravitational radiation
Problem: A white dwarf (or neutron star, or black hole) of mass m moves around a black hole of mass M m on
a circularAssume that the orbital period is T .
(i) What is the frequency of gravitational radiation?
(ii) Estimate also the amplitude of gravitational wave.
Solution:
(i. Taking into account that
xα = δαβ xβ = eα cos ω0 t, (XI.15)
where eα is some constant unit vector in the orbital plane. Using (XI.14), we have
·· ·· ·· 1 α β ··
hαβ ∝ D̈αβ ∼ (3xα xβ − r2 δαβ ) ∼ (xα xβ ) ∼ eα eβ (cos2 ω0 t) ∼ e e (1 + cos 2ω0 t) ∼ cos ω, (XI.16)
2
where
ω = 2ω0 = 4π/T. (XI.17)
Thus the frequency of gravitational radiation is
4π
2ω = . (XI.18)
T
52
Fig 11. 9. LIGO
Fig 11. 10. LISA
Fig 11. 11. Indirect evidence of gravitational waves
————————————————————————————————————————————————-
(ii) Using (XI.13)we can estimate to an order of magnitude, h0 , the amplitude of the gravitational wave.Omitting
indices we have
2G 2G 3 2 2 4Gmr2 ω02 4Gmr2 GM m rg2 m rg rg

h∼
D̈ ∼ (2ω0 ) mr = = == = . (XI.19)
3c4 R 3c4 R 2 c4 R c4 R r 3 M rR M r R
————————————————————————————————————————————-
53

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Relativity and Gravitation (SPA7019) 2014

Last updated 02.10.14

1. Content of lecture notes

Lecture 3. Physical Geometry of Space-Time III 13

Lecture 4. Covariant differentiation IV 16

Lecture 5. Test Particles in a Gravitational Field V 20

Lecture 6. Curvature of Space-Time VI 23

Lecture 7. Rigorous Derivation of EFEs VII 28

Lecture 8. Solving EFEs VIII 35

Lecture 9. Black Holes IX 43

Lecture 10. In the vicinity of the Schwarzschild Black Hole X 46

Lecture 11. Experimental Confirmation of GR and Gravitational Waves (GWs) XI 49

This course is an introduction to General Relativity and includes:

About this course IA

The principle of equivalence IB

Gravity as a space-time geometry IC

The principle of covariance ID

More about the summation convention I E

A. About this course

This course is an introduction to General Relativity (GR) and includes:

B. The principle of equivalence

1. The Principle of Equivalence in Newtonian Gravity

Links: Author of original picture is Nick Strobel

min~a = −mgr ∇φ, (I.1)

i.e. inertial mass min is equal to gravitational mass mgr .

2. The Principle of Equivalence in GR

ds2 = c2 dt2 − dx2 − dy 2 − dz 2 . (I.3)

where repeating indices mean summation. In inertial frames of reference

g00 = 1, g11 = g22 = g33 = −1, and gik = 0, if i 6= k. (I.5)

3. Example: non-inertial rotating frame of reference

Transformation to a uniformly rotating frame is

x = x0 cos Ωt − y 0 sin Ωt, y = x0 sin Ωt + y 0 cos Ωt, z = z 0 , (I.6)

C. Gravity as a space-time geometry

D. The principle of covariance

E. More about the summation convention

One must distinguish between superscripts and subscripts.

The following expressions are wrong and have no sense:

The following expressions are wrong and have no sense:

Ai Bk Cm = P v Lvnj Gnj Qikm , (I.18)

corresponds to 64 equations with 64 terms on right hand side of each equation!!!

II. LECTURE 2. TENSORS

The principle of covariance and tensors II A

Contravariant and covariant tensors II C

A. The principle of covariance and tensors

C. Contravariant and covariant tensors

∂xi ∂x0n ∂xi

we see that transformation matrices appear in transformation law 0 times.

Ai = Sni A0n , (II.12)

Ai = S̃in A0n , (II.13)

we see only 1 transformation matrix in each transformation law.

Two tensors Aik and B ik are called reciprocal to each other if

ds2 = gik dxi dxk , (II.23)

prove that ds is a scalar.

hence ds = ds0 which means that ds is a scalar.

gik = gki . (II.25)

= g̃ik dxi dxk , (II.26)

III. LECTURE 3. PHYSICAL GEOMETRY OF SPACE-TIME

Proper time III A

Physical distance III B

Synchronization of clocks III C

Invariant 4-volume III D