What is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative Research Definition: Quantitative research, is defined as a the systematic investigation of

phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical or computational
techniques. Quantitative research gathers information from existing and potential customers using
sampling methods and sending out online surveys, online polls, questionnaires etc., the results of which
can be depicted in the form of numericals. After careful understanding of these numbers to predict the
future of a product or service and make changes accordingly.

An example of quantitative research is, the survey conducted to understand the amount of time a
doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the hospital. A patient satisfaction survey
template can be administered to ask questions like how much time did a doctor take to see a patient,
how often does the patient walk into a hospital and other such questions.

Quantitative research is mostly conducted in social sciences using the statistical methods used above to
collect quantitative data from the research study. In this research method, researchers and statisticians
deploy mathematical frameworks and theories that pertain to the quantity under question.

Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate and many a times, are investigational in
nature. The results achieved from this research method are logical, statistical and unbiased. Data
collection happens using a structured method and conducted on larger samples which represent the
entire population.

Learn more: Quantitative Market Research

Quantitative Research Methods: Types with Examples

As mentioned above, quantitative research is data oriented. There are two methods to conduct
quantitative research. They are:

Primary Quantitative Research Methods

There are four different types of quantitative research methods:

Primary quantitative research is the most widely used method of conducting market research. The
distinct feature of primary research is that the researcher focuses on collecting data directly rather than
depending on data collected from previously done research. Primary quantitative research can be
broken down into 3 further distinctive tracks as well as the process flow. They are:

A. Techniques and Types of Studies

There are multiple types of primary quantitative research. They can be distinguished into the four
following distinctive methods, which are:

1. Survey Research:
Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative research methodologies and studies.
Surveys used to ask questions to a sample of respondents, using various types such as such as online
polls, online surveys, paper questionnaires, web-intercept surveys etc. Every small and big organization
intends to understand what their customers think about their products and services, how well are new
features faring in the market and other such details.

By conducting survey research, an organization can ask multiple survey questions, collect data from a
pool of customers and analyze this collected data to produce numerical results. It is the first step
towards collecting data for any research.

Learn More: 300+ Sample Survey Research Templates

This type of research can be conducted with a specific target audience group and also can be conducted
across multiple groups along with comparative analysis. A prerequisite for this type of research is that
the sample of respondents must have randomly selected members. This way, a researcher can easily
maintain the accuracy of the obtained results as a huge variety of respondents will be addressed using
random selection. Traditionally, survey research was conducted face-to-face or via phone calls but with
the progress made by online mediums such as email or social media, survey research has spread to
online mediums as well.

Traditionally, survey research was conducted face-to-face or via phone calls but with the progress made
by online mediums such as email or social media, survey research has spread to online mediums as well.

There are two types of surveys, either of which can be chosen on the basis of the time in-hand and the
type of data required:

Cross-sectional surveys: Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys, conducted in situations

where the researcher intends to collect data from a sample of the target population at a given point in
time. Researchers can evaluate various variables at a particular time. Data gathered using this type of
survey is from people who depict similarity in all variables except the variables which is considered for
research. All throughout the survey, this one variable will stay constant.

Cross-sectional surveys are popular with retail, SMEs, healthcare industries. Information is garnered
without modifying any parameters in the variable ecosystem.

Using cross-sectional survey research method, multiple samples can be analyzed and compared.

Multiple variables can be evaluated using this type of survey research.

The only disadvantage of cross-sectional surveys is that the cause-effect relationship of variables cannot
be established as it usually evaluates variables at a particular time period and not across a continuous
time frame.

Longitudinal surveys: Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys but, unlike cross-sectional
surveys, longitudinal surveys are conducted across various time durations in order to observe a change
in respondent behavior and thought-processes. This time period can be days, months, years or even
decades. For instance, a researcher planning to analyze the change in buying habits of teenagers over a
period of 5 years will conduct longitudinal surveys.
In cross-sectional surveys, the same variables were evaluated at a given point in time and in longitudinal
surveys, different variables can be analyzed at different intervals of time.

Longitudinal surveys are extensively used in the field of medicine and applied sciences. Apart from these
two fields, they are also used to observe a change in market trend, analyze customer satisfaction or gain
feedback on products/services.

In situations where the sequence of events is highly important, longitudinal surveys are used.

Researchers say that when there are research subjects that need to be thoroughly inspected before
drawing conclusions, they rely on longitudinal surveys.

2. Correlational Research:

Comparison between two entities is invariable. Correlation research is conducted to establish a

relationship between two closely knit entities and how one impacts the other and what are the changes
that are eventually observed. This research method is carried out to give value to naturally occurring
relationships and a minimum of two different groups are required to successfully conduct this
quantitative research method. Without assuming different aspects, a relationship between two groups
or entities must be established.

Researchers use this quantitative research method to correlate two or more variables using
mathematical analysis methods. Patterns, relationships, and trends between variables are concluded as
they exist in their natural set up. The impact of one of these variables on the other is observed along
with how it changes the relationship between the two variables. Researchers tend to manipulate one of
the variables to attain the desired results.

Ideally, it is advised to not make conclusions merely on the basis of correlational research. This is
because it is not mandatory that if two variables are in sync that they are interrelated.

Example of Correlational Research Questions:

The relationship between stress and depression.

The equation between fame and money.

The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its students.

3. Causal-Comparative Research:

This research method mainly depends on the factor of comparison. Also called the quasi-experimental
research, this quantitative research method is used by researchers to draw conclusions about cause-
effect equation between two or more variables, where one variable is dependent on the other
independent variable. The independent variable is established but not manipulated and its impact on
the dependent variable is observed. These variables or groups must be formed as they exist in the
natural set up. As the dependent and independent variables will always exist in a group, it is advised
that the conclusions are carefully established by keeping all the factors in mind.
Causal-comparative research is not restricted to the statistical analysis of two variables but extends to
analyzing how various variables or groups change under the influence of the same changes. This
research is conducted irrespective of the type of relation that exists between two or more variables.
Statistical analysis is used to distinctly present the outcome of obtained using this quantitative research
method.

Example of Causal-Comparative Research Questions:

The impact of drugs on a teenager.

The effect of good education on a freshman.

The effect of substantial food provision in the villages of Africa.

4. Experimental Research: Also known as true experimentation, this research method is reliant on a
theory. Experimental research, as the name suggests, is usually based on one or more theories. This
theory has not be proved in the past and is merely a supposition. In an experimental research, an
analysis is done around proving or disproving the statement. This research method is used in natural
sciences.

There can be multiple theories in experimental research. A theory is a statement which can be verified
or refuted.

After establishing the statement, efforts are made to understand whether it is valid or invalid. This type
of quantitative research method is mainly used in natural or social sciences as there are various
statements which need to be proved right or wrong.

Traditional research methods are more effective than modern techniques.

Systematic teaching schedules help children who find it hard to cope up with the course.

It is a boon to have responsible nursing staff for ailing parents.

B. Data Collection Methodologies

The second major step in primary quantitative research is the data collection. Data collection can be
divided into sampling methods and data collection with the use of surveys and polls.

Step 1: Sampling Methods

There are two main sampling methods for quantitative research: Probability and Non-probability
sampling.

Probability sampling: A theory of probability is used to filter individuals from a population and create
samples in probability sampling. Participants of a sample are chosen random selection processes. Each
member of the target audience has an equal opportunity to be a selected in the sample.
There are four main types of probability sampling-

Simple random sampling: As the name indicates, simple random sampling is nothing but a random
selection of elements for a sample. This sampling technique is implemented where the target population
is considerably large.

Stratified random sampling: In the stratified random sampling method, a large population is divided into
groups (strata) and members of a sample are chosen randomly from these strata. The various
segregated strata should ideally not overlap one another.

Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method using which the main segment is
divided into clusters, usually using geographic and demographic segmentation parameters.

Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling is a technique where the starting point of the sample is
chosen randomly and all the other elements are chosen using a fixed interval. This interval is calculated
by dividing population size by the target sample size.

Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is where the researcher’s knowledge and

experience are used to create samples. Because of the involvement of the researcher, not all the
members of a target population have an equal probability of being selected to be a part of a sample.

There are five non-probability sampling models:

Convenience Sampling: In convenience sampling, elements of a sample are chosen only due to one
prime reason: their proximity to the researcher. These samples are quick and easy to implement as
there is no other parameter of selection involved.

Consecutive Sampling: Consecutive sampling is quite similar to convenience sampling, except for the
fact that researchers can chose a single element or a group of samples and conduct research
consecutively over a significant time period and then perform the same process with other samples.

Quota Sampling: Using quota sampling, researchers can select elements using their knowledge of target
traits and personalities to form strata. Members of various strata can then be chosen to be a part of the
sample as per the researcher’s understanding.

Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling is conducted with target audiences which are difficult to contact
and get information. It is popular in cases where the target audience for research is rare to put together.

Judgmental Sampling: Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling method where samples are
created only on the basis of the researcher’s experience and skill.

Step 2: Using Surveys & Polls

Once the sample is determined, then either surveys or polls can be distributed to collect the data for
quantitative research.

Using Surveys for Primary Quantitative Research

A Survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from a pre-defined group of
respondents to gain information and insights on various topics of interest. The ease of survey
distribution and the wide number of people it can be reached depending on the research time and
research objective make it one of the most important aspects of conducting quantitative research.
Fundamental Levels of Measurement – Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio Scales

There are four measurement scales which are fundamental to creating a multiple-choice question in a
survey. They are, nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio measurement scales without the fundamentals of
which, no multiple choice questions can be created. Hence, it is important to understand these levels of
measurement to be able to create a robust survey.

Use of Different Question Types

To conduct quantitative research, close-ended questions have to be used in a survey. They can be a mix
of multiple question types including multiple-choice questions like semantic differential scale questions,
rating scale questions etc.

Survey Distribution and Survey Data Collection

In the above, we have seen the process of building a survey along with the survey design to conduct
primary quantitative research. Survey distribution to collect data is the other important aspect of the
survey process. There are different ways of survey distribution. Some of the most commonly used
methods are:

Email: Sending a survey via email is the most commonly used and most effective methods of survey
distribution. Response rate is high in this method because the respondents are aware of your brand. You
can use the QuestionPro email management feature to send out and collect survey responses.

Buy respondents: Another effective way to distribute a survey and conduct primary quantitative
research is use a sample. Since the respondents are knowledgeable and are on the panel by their own
will, responses are much higher.

Embed survey in a website: Embedding a survey in a website increases a high number of responses as
the respondent is already in close proximity to the brand when the survey pops up.

Social distribution: Using social media to distribute the survey aids in collecting higher number of
responses from the people that are aware of the brand.

QR code: QuestionPro QR codes store the URL for the survey. You can print/publish this code in
magazines, on signs, business cards, or on just about any object/medium.

SMS survey: A quick and time effective way of conducting a survey to collect a high number of responses
is the SMS survey.

QuestionPro app: The QuestionPro App allows to quickly circulate surveys and the responses can be
collected both online and offline.

API integration: You can use the API integration of the QuestionPro platform for potential respondents
to take your survey.

Survey Example
An example of a survey is short customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey template that can quickly be built
and deployed to collect feedback about what the customer thinks about a brand and how satisfied and
referenceable is the brand.

You can also opt to use from any of over 300+ free survey templates from the QuestionPro survey
template and questionnaire repository to conduct your quantitative research.

Using Polls for Primary Quantitative Research

Polls are a method to collect feedback with the use of close-ended questions from a sample. The most
commonly used types of polls are election polls and exit polls. Both of these are used to collect data
from a large sample size but using basic question types like a multiple-choice question.

C. Data Analysis Techniques

The third aspect of primary quantitative research is data analysis. After the collection of raw data, there
has to be an analysis of this data to derive statistical inferences from this research. It is important to
relate the results to the objective of research and establish the statistical relevance of results.

It is important to consider aspects of research which were not considered for the data collection process
and report the difference between what was planned vs. what was actually executed.

It is then required select precise statistical analysis method such as SWOT, Conjoint, Cross-tabulation
etc. to analyze the quantitative data.

SWOT Analysis: SWOT Analysis stands for the acronym of Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and
Threat analysis. Organizations use this statistical analysis technique to evaluate their performance
internally and externally to develop effective strategies for improvement.

Conjoint Analysis: Conjoint Analysis is a market analysis method to learn how individuals make
complicated purchasing decisions. Trade-offs are involved in the daily activities of an individual and
these reflect their ability to decide from a complex list of product/service options.

Cross-tabulation: Cross-tabulation is one of the preliminary statistical market analysis methods which
establishes relationships, patterns, and trends within the various parameters of the research study.

TURF Analysis: TURF Analysis, an acronym for Totally Unduplicated Reach and Frequency Analysis, is
executed in situations where the reach of a favorable communication source is to be analyzed along
with the frequency of this communication. It is used for understanding the potential of a target market.

Inferential statistics methods such as confidence interval, margin of error etc. can then be used to
provide results.

Secondary Quantitative Research Methods

Secondary quantitative research or desk research is a research method that involves using already
existing data or secondary data. Existing data is summarized and collated to increase the overall
effectiveness of research.
This research method involves the collection of quantitative data from existing data sources like the
internet, government resources, libraries, research reports etc. Secondary quantitative research helps to
validate the data that is collected from primary quantitative research as well as aid to strengthening or
proving or disproving previously collected data.

Following are five popularly used secondary quantitative research methods:

Data available on the internet: With the high penetration of internet and mobile devices, it has become
increasingly easy to conduct quantitative research using the internet. Information about most research
topics is available online and this aids in boosting the validity of primary quantitative data as well as
proving the relevance on previously collected data.

Government and non-government sources: Secondary quantitative research can also be conducted with
the help of government and non-government sources that deal with market research reports. This data
is highly reliable and in-depth and hence can be used to increase the validity of quantitative research.

Public libraries: Now a sparingly used method of conducting quantitative research, it is still a reliable
source of information though. Public libraries have copies of important research that were conducted
earlier. They are a storehouse of important information and documents from which information can be
extracted.

Educational institutions: Educational institutions conduct in-depth research on multiple topics and
hence the reports that they publish are an important source of validation in quantitative research.

Commercial information sources: Local newspapers, journals, magazines, radio and TV stations are a
great source to obtain data for secondary quantitative research. These commercial information sources
have in-depth, first-hand information on economic developments, political agenda, market research,
demographic segmentation and similar subjects.

Quantitative Research Characteristics

Some distinctive characteristics of quantitative research, are:

Structured tools: Structured tools such as surveys, polls or questionnaires are used to gather
quantitative data. Using such structure methods helps in collecting in-depth and actionable data from
the survey respondents.

Sample size: Quantitative research is conducted on a significant sample size that represents the target
market. Appropriate sampling methods have to be used when deriving the sample so as to fortify the
research objective

Close-ended questions: Closed-ended questions are created in accordance with the objective of
research. These questions help collect quantitative data and hence are extensively used in quantitative
research.

Prior studies: Various factors related to the research topic are studied before collecting feedback from
respondents.

Quantitative data: Usually, quantitative data is represented by tables, charts, graphs or any other non-
numerical form. This makes it easy to understand the data that has been collected as well as prove the
validity of the market research.

Generalization of results: Results of this research method can be generalized to an entire population to
take appropriate actions for improvement.

Quantitative Research Examples

Some examples of Quantitative Research, are:

If any organization would like to conduct a customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey, a customer satisfaction
survey template can be used. Through this survey, an organization can collect quantitative data and
metrics on the goodwill of the brand or organization in the mind of the customer on the basis of
multiple parameters such as product quality, pricing, customer experience etc. This data can be
collected by asking a net promoter score (NPS) question, matrix table questions etc. that provide data in
the form of numbers that can be analyzed and worked upon.

Another example of quantitative research is an organization that conducts an event, collecting feedback
from the event attendees about the value that they see from the event. By using an event survey
template, the organization can collect actionable feedback about satisfaction levels of customers during
various phases of the event such as the sales, pre and post event, the likelihood of recommending the
organization to their friends and colleagues, hotel preferences for the future events and other such
questions.

Learn more: 300+ FREE Survey Templates and Survey Examples

Advantages of Quantitative Research

There are many advantages of quantitative research. Some of the major advantages why researchers
use this method in market research, are:

Collect reliable and accurate data: As data is collected, analyzed and presented in numbers, the results
obtained will be extremely reliable. Numbers do not lie. They present an honest picture of the
conducted research without discrepancies and is also extremely accurate. In situations where a
researcher predicts conflict, quantitative research is conducted.

Quick data collection: A quantitative research is carried out with a group of respondents who represent
a population. A survey or any other quantitative research method applied to these respondents and the
involvement of statistics, conducting and analyzing results is quite straightforward and less time-
consuming.

Wider scope of data analysis: Due to the statistics, this research method provides a wide scope of data
collection.

Eliminate bias: This research method offers no scope for personal comments or biasing of results. The
results achieved are numerical and are thus, fair in most cases.

Importance of Quantitative Research

1. More reliable and objective

2. Can use statistics to generalise a finding

3. Often reduces and restructures a complex problem to a limited number of variables

4. Looks at relationships between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly controlled
circumstances

5. Tests theories or hypotheses

6. Assumes sample is representative of the population

7. Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognised less

8. Less detailed than qualitative data and may miss a desired response from the participant
Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one thing
[an independent variable] and another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a population.
Quantitative research designs are either descriptive [subjects usually measured once]
or experimental [subjects measured before and after a treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only
associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.

Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses on
numberic and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning [i.e.,
the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner].

Its main characteristics are:

 The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.

 The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.

 The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.

 Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.

 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.

 Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other
non-textual forms.

 Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate
causal relationships.

 Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.

The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct
statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using quantiative methods:

1. Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant results in relation
to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not appropriate in this
section.

2. Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain how the actual
analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data and why any
missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis.

3. Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set.

4. Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure; provide a rationale for its use and a
reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.

5. Describe the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took to ensure that they were
not violated.

6. When using inferential statistics, provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals, and
sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction, the degrees
of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value].

7. Avoid inferring causality, particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further

experimentation.
 8. Use tables to provide exact values; use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures small in
size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever possible.

9. Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures.

NOTE: When using pre-existing statistical data gathered and made available by anyone other than
yourself [e.g., government agency], you still must report on the methods that were used to gather the
data and describe any missing data that exists and, if there is any, provide a clear explanation why the
missing datat does not undermine the validity of your final analysis.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Insights from Research

Walking in your customers’ shoes

A column by Demetrius Madrigal and Bryan McClain

September 3, 2012

33 Comments 25 Shares

Both qualitative and quantitative methods of user research play important roles in product
development.

Both qualitative and quantitative methods of user research play important roles in product
development. Data from quantitative research—such as market size, demographics, and user
preferences—provides important information for business decisions. Qualitative research provides
valuable data for use in the design of a product—including data about user needs, behavior patterns,
and use cases. Each of these approaches has strengths and weaknesses, and each can benefit from our
combining them with one another. This month, we’ll take a look at these two approaches to user
research and discuss how and when to apply them.

Quantitative Studies

Statistical analysis lets us derive important facts from research data, including preference trends,
differences between groups, and demographics.

Quantitative studies provide data that can be expressed in numbers—thus, their name. Because the
data is in a numeric form, we can apply statistical tests in making statements about the data. These
include descriptive statistics like the mean, median, and standard deviation, but can also include
inferential statistics like t-tests, ANOVAs, or multiple regression correlations (MRC). Statistical analysis
lets us derive important facts from research data, including preference trends, differences between
groups, and demographics.

Multivariate statistics like the MRC or stepwise correlation regression break the data down even further
and determine what factors—such as variances in preferences—we can attribute to differences
between specific groups such as age groups. Quantitative studies often employ automated means of
collecting data such as surveys, but we can also use other static methods—for example, examining
preferences through two-alternative, forced-choice studies or examining error rates and time on task
using competitive benchmarks.

Quantitative studies’ great strength is providing data that is descriptive—for example, allowing us to
capture a snapshot of a user population—but we encounter difficulties when it comes to their
interpretation. For example, Gallup polls commonly provide data about approval rates for the President
of the United States, as shown in Figure 1, but don’t provide the crucial information that we would need
to interpret that data.
Figure 1—Quantitative data for Gallup’s presidential approval poll

In the absence of the data that would be necessary to interpret these presidential job-approval
numbers, it’s difficult to say why people approve or disapprove of the job that President Obama is doing.
Some respondents may feel that President Obama is too liberal, while others may feel that he is too
conservative in his actions, but without the necessary data, there is no way to tell.

Only someone with a firm grasp of how they should use and interpret quantitative statistics should
conduct such a study.

In a product-development environment, this data deficiency can lead to critical errors in the design of a
product. For example, a survey might report that the majority of users like 3D displays, which may lead
to a product team’s choosing to integrate a 3D display into their product. However, if most users like
only autostereoscopic 3D displays—that is, 3D displays that don’t require their wearing glasses—or like
3D displays only for watching sports or action movies on a television, using a 3D display that requires
glasses for data visualization on a mobile device might not be a sound design direction.

Additionally, only someone with a firm grasp of how they should use and interpret quantitative statistics
should conduct such a study. For most tests, there is an overreliance on the p-value and sample size.
The p-value is a statistic that indicates the likelihood that research findings were the result of chance. If
a p-value is less than .05, the findings are said to be statistically significant—meaning there is less than a
5% chance that the results were the result of chance.

It’s possible to manipulate a p-value by the sample size, but you need a sufficient sample size to have
enough statistical power to determine whether a finding is accurate. If your study is underpowered
because of its having two small a sample size, you may fail to achieve statistical significance—even if the
finding is accurate. On the other hand, if you achieve statistical significance with a small sample size, you
don’t need to increase your sample size; the finding is true regardless. While the small sample size
makes it more difficult to determine something, if you are able to determine something with a small
sample size, it’s just as true as if you made the finding with a large sample size.

By increasing the sample size, you can increase a finding’s statistical power, but perhaps to a point
where the finding becomes less meaningful. There’s a common joke that a researcher can make any
finding statistically significant simply by increasing the sample size. The reality is not too far off.
However, it is possible to increase sample sizes to a point where statistical significance is barely
meaningful. In such a situation, it is important to look at the effect size—a statistic that tells you how
strongly your variables effect the variance.

Basically, statistical significance tells you whether your findings are real, while effect size tells you how
much they matter. For example, if you were investigating whether adding a feature would increase a
product’s value, you could have a statistically significant finding, but the magnitude of the increase in
value might very small—say a few cents. In contrast, a meaningful effect size might result in an increase
in value of $10 per unit. Typically, if you are able to achieve statistical significance with a smaller sample
size, the effect size is fairly substantial. It is important to take both statistical significance and effect size
into account when interpreting your data.

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Qualitative Studies

Qualitative research studies can provide you with details about human behavior, emotion, and
personality characteristics that quantitative studies cannot match.

Data from qualitative studies describes the qualities or characteristics of something. You cannot easily
reduce these descriptions to numbers—as you can the findings from quantitative research; though you
can achieve this through an encoding process. Qualitative research studies can provide you with details
about human behavior, emotion, and personality characteristics that quantitative studies cannot match.
Qualitative data includes information about user behaviors, needs, desires, routines, use cases, and a
variety of other information that is essential in designing a product that will actually fit into a user’s life.

While quantitative research requires the standardization of data collection to allow statistical
comparison, qualitative research requires flexibility, allowing you to respond to user data as it emerges
during a session. Thus, qualitative research usually takes the form of either some form of naturalistic
observation such as ethnography or structured interviews. In this case, a researcher must observe and
document behaviors, opinions, patterns, needs, pain points, and other types of information without yet
fully understanding what data will be meaningful.

Following data collection, rather than performing a statistical analysis, researchers look for trends in the
data. When it comes to identifying trends, researchers look for statements that are identical across
different research participants. The rule of thumb is that hearing a statement from just one participant
is an anecdote; from two, a coincidence; and hearing it from three makes it a trend. The trends that you
identify can then guide product development, business decisions, and marketing strategies.

Because you cannot subject these trends to statistical analysis, you cannot validate trends by calculating
a p-value or an effect size—as you could validate quantitative data—so you must employ them with
care. Plus, you should continually verify such data through an ongoing qualitative research program.

With enough time and budget, you can engage in an activity called behavioral coding, which involves
assigning numeric identifiers to qualitative behavior, thus transforming them into quantitative data that
you can then subject to statistical analysis. In addition to the analyses we described earlier, behavioral
coding lets you perform a variety of additional analyses such as lag sequential analysis, a statistical test
that identifies sequences of behavior—for example, those for Web site navigation or task
workflows.?However, applying behavioral coding to your observations is extremely time consuming and
expensive. Plus, typically, only very highly trained researchers are qualified to encode behavior. Thus,
this approach tends to be cost prohibitive.

Additionally, because it is not possible to automate qualitative-data collection as effectively as you can
automate quantitative-data collection, it is usually extremely time consuming and expensive to gather
large amounts of data, as would be typical for quantitative research studies. Therefore, it is usual to
perform qualitative research with only 6 to 12 participants, while for quantitative research, it’s common
for there to be hundreds or even thousands of participants. As a result, qualitative research tends to
have less statistical power than quantitative research when it comes to discovering and verifying trends.

Using Quantitative and Qualitative Research Together

While quantitative and qualitative research approaches each have their strengths and weaknesses, they
can be extremely effective in combination with one another.

While quantitative and qualitative research approaches each have their strengths and weaknesses, they
can be extremely effective in combination with one another. You can use qualitative research to identify
the factors that affect the areas under investigation, then use that information to devise quantitative
research that assesses how these factors would affect user preferences. To continue our earlier example
regarding display preferences: if qualitative research had identified display type—such as TV, computer
monitor, or mobile phone display—the researchers could have used that information to construct
quantitative research that would let them determine how these variables might affect user preferences.
At the same time, you can build trends that you’ve identified through quantitative research into
qualitative data-collection methods and, thus verify the trends.

While this might sound contrary to what we’ve described above, the approach is actually quite
straightforward. An example of a qualitative trend might be that younger users prefer autostereoscopic
displays only on mobile devices, while older users prefer traditional displays on all devices. You may
have discovered this by asking an open-ended, qualitative question along these lines: “What do you
think of 3D displays?” This question would have opened up a discussion about 3D displays that
uncovered a difference between stereoscopic displays, autostereoscopic displays, and traditional
displays. In a subsequent quantitative study, you could address these factors through a series of
questions such as: “Rate your level of preference for a traditional 3D display—which requires your using
3D glasses—on a mobile device,” with options ranging from strongly prefer to strongly dislike. An
automated system assigns a numeric value to whatever option a participant chooses, allowing a
researcher to quickly gather and analyze large amounts of data.

Conclusion

When setting out to perform user research, … it is important to understand the different applications of
these two approaches to research.

When setting out to perform user research—whether performing the research yourself or assigning it to
an employee or a consultant—it is important to understand the different applications of these two
approaches to research. This understanding can help you to choose the appropriate research approach
yourself, understand why a researcher has chosen a particular approach, or communicate with
researchers or stakeholders about a research approach and your overarching research strategy. The
examples we’ve provided here provide just a small sampling of the many ways in which can analyze and
employ qualitative and quantitative data. In what other ways do you use and combine qualitative and
quantitative research?

In User Research

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Demetrius Madrigal

VP, UX & Consumer Insights at 30sec.io

Co-Founder and VP of Research & Product Development at Metric Lab

Redwood City, California, USA

 Demetrius truly believes in the power of user research—when it is done well.
With a background in experimental psychology, Demetrius performed research within a university
setting, as well as at NASA Ames Research Center before co-founding Metric Lab with long-time
collaborator, Bryan McClain. At Metric Lab, Demetrius enjoys innovating powerful user research
methods and working on exciting projects—ranging from consumer electronics with companies like
Microsoft and Kodak to modernization efforts with the U.S. Army. Demetrius is constantly thinking of
new methods and tools to make user research faster, less costly, and more accurate. His training in
advanced communication helps him to understand and connect with users, tapping into the experience
that lies beneath the surface. Read More

Bryan McClain

President & Co-Founder at Metric Lab

Strategic UX Adviser & Head of Business Development at 30sec.io

Redwood City, California, USA

Bryan is passionate about connecting with people and understanding their

experiences and perspectives. Bryan co-founded Metric Lab with Demetrius Madrigal after doing
research at NASA Ames Research Center for five years. While at NASA, Bryan worked on a variety of
research studies, encompassing communication and human factors and interacting with hundreds of
participants. As a part of his background in communication research, he received extensive training in
communication methods, including certification-level training in police hostage negotiation. Bryan uses
his extensive training in advanced communication methods in UX research to help ensure maximum
accuracy and detail in user feedback. Bryan enjoys innovating user research methods that integrate
communication skills, working with such companies as eBay, Kodak, Microsoft, and BAE Systems. Read
More

When researching a topic such as television trends or diabetes medications, a researcher has two
research methods to choose from: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research relies on words to
explain research findings; it may use interviews or focus groups. Quantitative research involves creating
a hypothesis and identifying statistics to explain research findings. Using quantitative research has many
advantages. For example, quantitative research allows a researcher to objectively detail evidence.
However, quantitative research also has disadvantages.

Analysis

Qualitative research relies on specific evidence rather than generalized research. For example,
qualitative research allows a researcher to use a case study to illustrate a phenomenon. Data collection
is based on participants' meanings rather than a more objective collection of statistics. Qualitative
research often involves cross-case comparisons.

Objectivity
Qualitative research tends to cause a researcher to become immersed in the research topic. For
example, a researcher using qualitative research may conduct in-depth interviews, interact with
participants and rely on her own observations. A researcher using quantitative research methods
remains separated from the subject matter. The researcher remains objective when conducting
research. Instead of conducting in-depth interviews, a researcher may use analysis and questionnaires
to test a hypothesis. An advantage of using quantitative research is that the researcher remains more
objective while proving or disproving a hypothesis.

Time Consuming

Quantitative and qualitative research both encompass planning before conducting or analyzing
research. Quantitative research, however, involves more planning, which becomes a disadvantage. For
instance all aspects of a research study must be carefully designed before collecting any data. A
researcher needs a concrete hypothesis and needs to know the type of research involved---such as
questionnaires and test questions. With qualitative research, the design typically emerges as the
research study develops.

Data Driven

Quantitative research depends on data and involves testing a hypothesis, but it can miss contextual
details. For example, a researcher doesn't provide a detailed description when using quantitative
research. Instead the researcher depends on numbers and statistics to prove a hypothesis. A researcher
researching diabetes medication, for instance, might record how many times a research participant
missed the medication but not the details of what happened during a participant's day to cause him to
forget to take the diabetes medication.

What are variables in research?

This is an important question that students should know before attempting to formulate a research
problem. In general terms, variables are concepts that can be measured and operationalized. In the
research, there are concepts that the researcher deals with these concepts are highly subjective, for
example, some concepts about a community health program. There will be different concepts about the
program, say it will be successful or it will a total failure. The term success or failure can be very
subjective and judgemental. You can ask the respondents what do they think about this program and
they will say it will be effective, successful, failure, useful. These terms and other such judgemental
terms cannot be treated scientifically in the research. The reason being that their meaning can be very
different from one person to another. The context in which each person looks at success or failure can
be very different. One person might say that this particular community program benefited 50% of the
community members and so it is successful but another person might say that at least 75 % people
should benefit from this program to call it a success. This subjectivity can bring bias in the research. To
avoid this subjectivity, the concepts should be converted into variables in research. Variables are
quantifiable and hence they can be easily dealt in the research process.

Definitions of Variables in research

Very simple definitions of variables say that a variable is something that can change. Variables are
concepts that can be measured on any one of the measuring scales. Numeral values can be assigned to
the variables. There are several other definitions of variables in research like variables are those aspects
of the research that vary and this variation can be tested using different scales. These variables are
characteristics or values and hence they can change, their use is more common in psychology but in
other studies to they can be used.

Examples of variables in research

Here we take two examples of variables in research and try to understand how variables influence the
research process. Suppose you want to study the effect of permanent-press finishes on the durability
characteristics of cotton fabric. It is an experimental study and in experiments you have an independent
variable, a dependent variable and a control variable. The dependent variable, therefore, will be the
cotton fabric and the independent variables are the permanent-press finishes that are applied to cotton
fabric. There can be several other variables that can effect this study, these variables need to be
controlled. For example, the other finishes that are applied to the cotton fabric can be the extraneous
variables and they must be controlled to see the effect of independent variable on the dependent
variable in the study.

Take another example, suppose you want to study the impact of the tsunami on the religious and social
lives of the people living on the west coast of Sumatra-Indonesia. It is again a cause and effect study and
in this study you will take the lives of the people as a dependent variable and tsunami after effects as
the independent variables. Any other extraneous variable should be controlled in order to avoid bias in
the study. One thing to make sure in such researches or studies is that the control variable needs to be
controlled in the best possible manner since it can ruin the whole study. Another way is to add the other
control variables in the study and they can be taken as secondary independent variables. When more
variables are introduced in the study the study becomes more empirical and valid but it becomes
complicated. It takes more time to measure several variables than to study the impact of one variable.
When extraneous variables are difficult to control they should be added in the study.

Difference Between Discrete and Continuous Variable

Last updated on March 9, 2017 by Surbhi S

Variable refers to the quantity that changes its value, which can be measured. It is of two types, i.e.
discrete or continuous variable. The former refers to the one that has a certain number of values, while
the latter implies the one that can take any value between a given range.

Data can be understood as the quantitative information about a specific characteristic. The
characteristic can be qualitative or quantitative, but for the purpose of statistical analysis, the qualitative
characteristic is transformed into quantitative one, by providing numerical data of that characteristic.
So, the quantitative characteristic is known as a variable. Here in this article, we are going to talk about
the discrete and continuous variable.

Content: Discrete Variable Vs Continuous Variable

1. Comparison Chart

2. Definition

3. Key Differences

4. Examples

5. Conclusion

Comparison Chart
 BASIS FOR
DISCRETE VARIABLE CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
COMPARISON

Meaning Discrete variable refers to the Continuous variable alludes to the a

variable that assumes a finite number variable which assumes infinite number of
of isolated values. different values.

Range of specified Complete Incomplete

number

Values Values are obtained by counting. Values are obtained by measuring.

Classification Non-overlapping Overlapping

Assumes Distinct or separate values. Any value between the two values.

Represented by Isolated points Connected points

Definition of Discrete Variable

A discrete variable is a type of statistical variable that can assume only fixed number of distinct values
and lacks an inherent order.

Also known as a categorical variable, because it has separate, invisible categories. However no values
can exist in-between two categories, i.e. it does not attain all the values within the limits of the variable.
So, the number of permitted values that it can suppose is either finite or countably infinite. Hence if you
are able to count the set of items, then the variable is said to be discrete.

Definition of Continuous Variable

Continuous variable, as the name suggest is a random variable that assumes all the possible values in a
continuum. Simply put, it can take any value within the given range. So, if a variable can take an infinite
and uncountable set of values, then the variable is referred as a continuous variable.

A continuous variable is one that is defined over an interval of values, meaning that it can suppose any
values in between the minimum and maximum value. It can be understood as the function for the
interval and for each function, the range for the variable may vary.

Key Differences Between Discrete and Continuous Variable

The difference between discrete and continuous variable can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:

1. The statistical variable that assumes a finite set of data and a countable number of values, then
it is called as a discrete variable. As against this, the quantitative variable which takes on an
infinite set of data and a uncountable number of values is known as a continuous variable.

2. For non-overlapping or otherwise known as mutually inclusive classification, wherein the both
the class limit are included, is applicable for the discrete variable. On the contrary, for
overlapping or say mutually exclusive classification, wherein the upper class-limit is excluded, is
applicable for a continuous variable.
 3. In discrete variable, the range of specified number is complete, which is not in the case of a
continuous variable.

4. Discrete variables are the variables, wherein the values can be obtained by counting. On the
other hand, Continuous variables are the random variables that measure something.

5. Discrete variable assumes independent values whereas continuous variable assumes any value
in a given range or continuum.

6. A discrete variable can be graphically represented by isolated points. Unlike, a continuous

variable which can be indicated on the graph with the help of connected points.

Examples

Discrete Variable

 Number of printing mistakes in a book.

 Number of road accidents in New Delhi.

 Number of siblings of an individual.

Continuous Variable

 Height of a person

 Age of a person

 Profit earned by the company.

Conclusion

By and large, both discrete and continuous variable can be qualitative and quantitative. However, these
two statistical terms are diametrically opposite to one another in the sense that the discrete variable is
the variable with the well-defined number of permitted values whereas a continuous variable is a
variable that can contain all the possible values between two numbers.

What is the difference between ordinal, interval and ratio variables? Why should I care?

Last modified January 1, 2009

Many statistics books begin by defining the different kinds of variables you might want to analyze. This
scheme was developed by Stevens and published in 1946.

 A categorical variable, also called a nominal variable, is for mutual exclusive, but not ordered,
categories. For example, your study might compare five different genotypes. You can code the
five genotypes with numbers if you want, but the order is arbitrary and any calculations (for
example, computing an average) would be meaningless.

 A ordinal variable, is one where the order matters but not the difference between values. For
example, you might ask patients to express the amount of pain they are feeling on a scale of 1 to
10. A score of 7 means more pain that a score of 5, and that is more than a score of 3. But the
difference between the 7 and the 5 may not be the same as that between 5 and 3. The values
simply express an order. Another example would be movie ratings, from * to *****.

 A interval variable is a measurement where the difference between two values is meaningful.
The difference between a temperature of 100 degrees and 90 degrees is the same difference as
between 90 degrees and 80 degrees.

 A ratio variable, has all the properties of an interval variable, and also has a clear definition of
0.0. When the variable equals 0.0, there is none of that variable. Variables like height, weight,
enzyme activity are ratio variables. Temperature, expressed in F or C, is not a ratio variable. A
temperature of 0.0 on either of those scales does not mean 'no heat'. However, temperature in
Kelvin is a ratio variable, as 0.0 Kelvin really does mean 'no heat'. Another counter example is
 pH. It is not a ratio variable, as pH=0 just means 1 molar of H+. and the definition of molar is
fairly arbitrary. A pH of 0.0 does not mean 'no acidity' (quite the opposite!). When working with
ratio variables, but not interval variables, you can look at the ratio of two measurements. A
weight of 4 grams is twice a weight of 2 grams, because weight is a ratio variable. A temperature
of 100 degrees C is not twice as hot as 50 degrees C, because temperature C is not a ratio
variable. A pH of 3 is not twice as acidic as a pH of 6, because pH is not a ratio variable.

OK to compute.... Nominal Ordinal

frequency distribution. Yes Yes

median and percentiles. No Yes

add or subtract. No No

mean, standard deviation, standard error of the mean. No No

ratio, or coefficient of variation. No No

Does it matter? It matters if you are taking an exam in statistics, because this is the kind of concept that
is easy to test for. Here are some sample questions with answers.

Does it matter for data analysis? The concepts are mostly pretty obvious, but putting names on different
kinds of variables can help prevent mistakes like taking the average of a group of zip (postal) codes, or
taking the ratio of two pH values. Beyond that, I don't see how putting labels on the different kinds of
variables really helps you plan your analyses or interpret the results.

Note that the categories are not as clear cut as they sound. What kind of variable is color? In a
psychological study of perception, different colors would be regarded as nominal. In a physics study,
color is quantified by wavelength, so color would be considered a ratio variable. What about counts? If
your dependent variable is the number of cells in a certain volume, what kind of variable is that. It has
all the properties of a ratio variable, except it must be an integer. Is that a ratio variable or not? These
questions just point out that the classification scheme appears to be more comprehensive than it
is. Read more about these problems.

Variables like pH and the logEC50 don't really fall into any of these categories.

A type of variable, also called a categorical or nominal variable, which has a finite number of possible
values that do not have an inherent order. For example, hair color would be a discrete variable, because
it can only have a limited number of values, such as red, brown, and black, that does not occur in any
particular order. Different from other variable types such as continuous variables.

Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/discrete-variable.html

Dependent Variable
The variable that depends on other factors that are measured. These variables are expected to change
as a result of an experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables. It is the presumed
effect.

Independent Variable
The variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to measure. It refers to
the condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated by the investigator. It is the presumed
cause.

The independent variable and dependent variable are examined in an experimentusing the scientific
method, so it's important to know what they are and how to use them. Here are the definitions for
independent and dependent variables, examples of each variable, and the explanation for how to graph
them.

Independent Variable

The independent variable is the condition that you change in an experiment. It is the variable you
control. It is called independent because its value does not depend on and is not affected by the state of
any other variable in the experiment. Sometimes you may hear this variable called the "controlled
variable" because it is the one that is changed. Do not confuse it with a "control variable," which is a
variable that is purposely held constant so that it can't affect the outcome of the experiment.

Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is the condition that you measure in an experiment. You are assessing how it
responds to a change in the independent variable, so you can think of it as depending on the
independent variable. Sometimes the dependent variable is called the "responding variable."

Independent and Dependent Variable Examples

 In a study to determine whether how long a student sleeps affects test scores, the independent
variable is the length of time spent sleeping while the dependent variable is the test score.

 You want to compare brands of paper towels, to see which holds the most liquid. The
independent variable in your experiment would be the brand of paper towel. The dependent
variable would be the amount of liquid absorbed by a paper towel.

 In an experiment to determine how far people can see into the infrared part of the spectrum,
the wavelength of light is the independent variable and whether the light is observed (the
response) is the dependent variable.

 If you want to know whether caffeine affects your appetite, the presence/absence of the
amount of caffeine would be the independent variable. How hungry you are would be the
dependent variable.

 You want to determine whether a chemical is essential for rat nutrition, so you design an
experiment. The presence/absence of the chemical is the independent variable. The health of
the rat (whether it lives and can reproduce) is the dependent variable. If you determine the
substance is necessary for proper nutrition, a follow-up experiment would be to determine how
much of the chemical is needed. Here, the amount of chemical would be the independent
variable and the rat health would be the dependent variable.

How to Tell the Independent and Dependent Variable Apart

If you are having a hard time identifying which variable is the independent variable and which is the
dependent variable, remember the dependent variable is the one affected by a change in the
independent variable. If you write out the variables in a sentence that shows cause and effect, the
independent variable causes the effect on the dependent variable. If you have the variables in the
wrong order, the sentence won't make sense.

Independent variable causes an effect on the dependent variable.

Example: How long you sleep (independent variable) affects your test score (dependent variable).

This makes sense, but:

Example: Your test score affects how long you sleep.

This doesn't really make sense (unless you can't sleep because you are worried you failed a test, but that
would be a whole other experiment).

How to Plot Variables on a Graph

There is a standard method for graphing the independent and dependent variable. The x-axis is the
independent variable, while the y-axis is the dependent variable. You can use the DRY MIX acronym to
help remember how to graph variables:

DRY MIX

D = dependent variable
R = responding variable
Y = graph on the vertical or y-axis

M = manipulated variable
I = independent variable
X = graph on the horizontal or x-axis

Test your understanding with the scientific method quiz.

normal distribution curve

In statistics, the theoretical curve that shows how often an experiment will produce a particular result. T
he curve is symmetrical and bell shaped, showing that trials will usually give a result near the average, b
ut will occasionally deviateby large amounts. The width of the “bell” indicates how much confidence one
can have in the result of
an experiment — the narrower the bell, the higher the confidence. This curve is also called the Gaussian
curve, after the nineteenth-century German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss.

Descriptive Research: Definition

Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the population
or phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research
subject rather than the “why” of the research subject.

In other words, descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic
segment, without focusing on “why” a certain phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the
subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens.

For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York
buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data and then conduct
descriptive research on this demographic segment. The research will then uncover details on “what is
the purchasing pattern of New York buyers”, but not cover any investigative details on “why” the
patterns exits. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature
of their market is the objective of the study.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

The term descriptive research then, refers to research questions, design of the research and data
analysis that would be conducted on that topic. It is called an observational research method because
none of the variables that are part of the research study are influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to

collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is
an popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe the nature of the
demographic segment.
 2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way.
This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or
their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.

3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different

sections belonging to the same group are studied.

4. Basis for further research: The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can then
be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point towards
the types of research methods are to be used for the subsequent research.

Applications of Descriptive Research with Examples

Descriptive research can be used in multiple ways and for multiple reasons. Before getting into any kind
of survey though, the survey goals and survey design is very important. Despite following these steps
though, there is no way to know if the research outcome will be met. To understand the end objective
of research goals, below are some ways organizations currently use descriptive research today:

 Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete
conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits and
behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a respondent, their attitude
or opinion about the phenomenon in question. For example, understanding from millenials the
hours per week they spend on browsing the internet. All this information helps the organization
conducting the research make informed business decisions.

 Measure data trends: Data trends can be measured over time with statistical capabilities
provided by descriptive research. Consider if an apparel company conducts research between
different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of autumn
wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch, this provides an insight
into what clothes are like and what are not and the ones that are not, are dropped.

 Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use descriptive research to understand how different
groups respond to a certain product or service. For example, an apparel brand creates a survey
asking general questions that measure the brands image. The same survey also asks
demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical location etc. This consumer
research helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the population
and what aspects do not. It also helps in making product or marketing fixes or in some cases
even create a new product line just to cater to a high growth potential, group.

 Validate existing conditions: Descriptive research is widely used to help ascertain the prevailing
conditions and underlying patterns of the research object. Due to the non invasive method of
research and the use of quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative observation,
each variable is observed and an in-depth analysis can be concluded. It is also used to validate
any existing conditions that maybe prevalent in a population.

 Conduct research at different times: To ascertain if there are any similarities or differences, the
research can be conducted at different periods of times. This also allows any number of
variables to be evaluated. For the purpose of verification, studies on prevailing conditions can
also be repeated to draw trends.

Descriptive Research Methods

There are 3 distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

 Observational Method

The observational method is the most effective method to conduct descriptive research and both
quantitative observation and qualitative observation are used in this research method.
Quantitative observation is the objective collection of data which is primarily focused on numbers and
values – it suggests “associated to, of or depicted in terms of a quantity”. Results of quantitative
observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any
entity that can be associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale etc. For
example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand by using a simple Net
Promoter Score question.

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring
characteristics. In this case the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the
respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective. In
descriptive research, the researcher can chose to be either a complete observer, an observer as a
participant, a participant as an observer or a complete participant. For example, in a supermarket, a
researcher can from afar monitor and track the selection and purchasing trends of the customers. This
offers a deeper insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.

 Case Study Method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a
hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not be
used to determine cause and effect as they don’t have the capacity to make accurate predictions
because there could be a bias on the part of the researcher. The other reason why case studies are not
an accurate way of conducting descriptive research is because there could be an atypical respondent in
the research and describing them leads to poor generalizations and move away from external validity.

 Survey Research

In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires, or polls. They are a popular
market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. In order for a survey to gather good quality
data, it should have good survey questions, which should be a balanced mix of open-ended
questions and close ended-questions. The survey method can be conducting online or offline which is
makes it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is very large.

Learn more: Survey Questions: Survey Examples and Sample Survey Questions

Examples of Descriptive Research

Some examples of descriptive research are:

1. A speciality food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to understand what
flavors of rubs are favored by different sets of people. To understand the preferred flavor
palette, they conduct a descriptive research study using different methods like observational
methods in supermarkets. By also conducting a survey whilst collecting in-depth demographic
information, offers insights about the preference of different markets. This can also help tailor
make the rubs and spreads to different preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting a
thorough descriptive research helps the organization tweak their business model and amplify
marketing in core markets.

2. Another example of where descriptive research can be used is if a school district that wishes to
evaluate teachers attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and
observing their comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the
researcher can gauge what the can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an
issues. This also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way with this change.

Some other problems and/or research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:

 Market researchers that want to observe habits of consumers.

 A company that wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.

  A school district that wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather than
textbooks.

 An organization to understand if its wellness programs increase the overall health of the
employees

Advantages of Descriptive Research

Some of the major advantages of descriptive research are:

 Data collection: Descriptive research can be conducted by using specific methods like
observational method, case study method and survey method. Between these 3, all major
methods of data collection are covered which provides a lot of information. This can be used for
future research or even developing hypothesis of your research object.

 Varied: Since the data collected is both qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic
understanding of a research topic. This causes data that was not planned to be collected gets
tracked and the data is varied, diverse and thorough.

 Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the
natural environment of the respondent and this ensures that high-quality and honest data is
collected.

 Quick to conduct and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the
data collection is quick to conduct and is cheap.

 Forms basis for decision-making: As the data collected in descriptive research represents a
larger population and is robust, it is easy to make decisions on the basis of the statistical analysis
of that data.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research

Some of the major disadvantages of descriptive research are:

 Confidentiality: Respondents aren’t always truthful if questions are too personal or they feel
that they are being “watched”. This may negate the validity of the data.

 Halo effect: If the research observer has a potential bias towards the research topic or some
respondents in the research, the observations then maybe considered as invalid or untrue.

 Sample isn’t representative: Due to the randomness of the sample, it is very tough to validate
that the sample is an accurate representation of the whole population.

 No scope to learn cause: Since descriptive research only focuses on the “what” of an objective
or phenomenon, it does not delve into the “why or how” and that is a limitation in learning
specific causes.

Correlational Research: Definition with Example

Correlational research is a type of non-experimental research method, in which
a researcher measures two variables, understands and assess the statistical
relationship between them with no influence from any extraneous variable.

Our mind can do some brilliant things. For example, it can memorize the
jingle of a pizza truck. Louder the jingle, closer is the pizza truck to us. Who
taught us that? Nobody! We relied on our understanding and came to a
conclusion. We just don’t stop there, do we? If there are multiple pizza trucks
in the area and each one has a different jingle. We would be able to memorize
it all and relate the jingle to its pizza truck.
This is precisely what correlational research is, establishing a relationship
between two variables, “jingle” and “distance of the truck” in this particular
example. Correlational research is looking for variables that seem to interact
with each other so that when you see one variable changing, you have a fair
idea how the other variable will change.

Learn more: Youth Crime Survey Questions + Sample Questionnaire Template

Correlational Research Example

The correlation between two variables is shown through correlation coefficient
(A correlation coefficient is a statistical measure that calculates the strength of
the relationship between two variables), that is a value measured between -1
and +1. When the correlation coefficient is close to +1 then there is a positive
correlation between the two variables and the value is close to -1, then there
is a negative correlation between the two variables and when the value is
close to zero then there is no relationship between the two variables.

Let us take an example to understand correlational research.

Consider hypothetically, a researcher is studying a correlation between cancer

and marriage. In this study, there are two variables: cancer and marriage. Let
us say marriage has a negative correlation with cancer. This means that
people who are married are less likely to develop cancer.

However, this doesn’t necessarily mean that marriage directly avoids cancer.
In correlational research, it is not possible to establish the fact, what causes
what.

Learn more: Secondary Research with examples

Types of Correlational Research

Essentially there are three types of correlational research that have been
identified:

1. Positive correlation: A positive correlation between two variables is when

an increase in one variable leads to an increase in the other variable and a
decrease in one variable will see a decrease in the other variable. For
example, the amount of money a person has might positively correlate with
the number of cars he has.

2. Negative correlation: A negative correlation is quite literally the opposite

of positive correlation. This means, if there is an increase in one variable, the
second variable will show a decrease and vice versa.

For example, the level of being educated might negatively correlate with the
crime rate when an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in another
and vice versa. This means if in some ways the level of education in a country
is improved, it can lead to lowering the crime rates. Please note, that this
doesn’t mean that lack of education leads to crimes. This means lack of
education and crime is believed to have a common reason: poverty.

3. No correlation: In this third type, two variables are not correlated. This
means a change in one variable may not necessarily see a change in the
other variable. For example, being a millionaire and happiness is not
correlated. This means an increase in money doesn’t lead to happiness.

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Data Collection in Correlational Research

The distinctive feature of correlational research is that neither of the variable
involved is manipulated. It doesn’t matter how or where the variables are
measured. A researcher could observe participants in a closed environment or
in a public setting.

There are two data collection methods that are used to collect information in
correlational research.

Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation is a way of data collection in which people’s behavior

is observed in their natural environment, in which they typically exist. This
method is a type of field research. It could mean a researcher might be
observing people in a grocery store, at the cinema, playground or similar
places.

Researchers who are usually involved in this type of data collection make
observations as unobtrusively as possible so that the participants who are
involved in the study are not aware that they are being observed else they
might deviate from being their natural self.

Ethically this method is acceptable if the participants remain anonymous and if

the study is conducted in public setting, where people would not normally
have an expectation of complete privacy. As mentioned previously, taking an
example of the grocery store where people can be observed while collecting
an item from isle and putting in the shopping bags. This is ethically acceptable
and that the reason most researchers choose public settings for recording
their observation. This data collection method could be
both qualitative or quantitative.

Archival Data

Another approach to correlational data is the use of archival data. Archival

data is the data that has been previously collected by doing similar kind
of research. Archival data is usually made available through primary research.
In contrary to naturalistic observation, the information collected through
archived data can be quite straightforward. For example, counting the number
of people name Richard in the various states of America based on social
security records is quite straightforward.

Evaluation is a set of research methods and associated methodologies with a distinctive purpose. They
provide a means to judge actions and activities in terms of values, criteria and standards. At the same
time evaluation is also a practice that seeks to enhance effectiveness in the public sphere and policy
making. In order to improve as well as judge, there is a need to explain what happens and would have to
be done differently for different outcomes to be achieved. It is in this explanatory mode that evaluation
overlaps most directly with mainstream social science.

This collection offers a complete guide to evaluations research methods. It is organized in four volumes.

Volume 1 focuses on foundation issues and includes sections on the rationale for evaluation, central
methodological debates, the role of theory and applying values, criteria and standards.

Volume 2 examines explaining through evaluation and covers sections on experimentation and causal
inference, outcomes and inputs, socio-economic indicators, economics and cost benefit approaches and
realist methods.

Volume 3 addresses qualitative methods and includes sections on case studies, responsive,
developmental and accompanying evaluation, participation and empowerment, constructivism and
postmodernism and multi-criteria and classificatory methods.

Volume 4 concentrates on evaluation to improve policy with sections on performance management,

systematic reviews, institutionalization and utilization and policy learning and design.

The collection offers a unique and unparalleled guide to this rapidly expanding research method. It
demonstrates how method and theory are applied in policy and strategy and will be an invaluable
addition to any social science library.

Elliot Stern is the editor of Evaluation: the International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice, and
works both as an independent consultant. He was previously Principal Advisor for evaluation studies at
the Tavistock Institute, London.

What Is a Causal Comparative Study?

A causal comparative study examines the relationship between a difference that exists among
members of a population and the possible causes of that difference. This type of study is often
conducted when the researcher is unable to manipulate factors leading to an observed difference.

When seeking to establish a cause-and-effect relationship in a causal comparative study, the researcher
must identify two groups that are similar in every way except for the difference being studied.
Establishing a relationship between the cause and the effect involves the use of logical argument and
persuasion. The application of statistical analysis is heavily employed in these types of studies. Causal
comparative studies are also known as ex post facto studies because the events of the experiment have
already occurred before the research is conducted.

The validity of the results of causal comparative studies can be difficult to substantiate due to the
inability of the researcher to control the independent variable. Researchers must ensure that the
members of the groups to be studied are valid members of those groups. Overlooking other differences
invalidates the conclusion of the study. Once the results of causal comparative studies are analyzed,
experimental research is conducted to validate the results whenever possible.

What Is the Meaning of Experimental Research?

In experimental research, researchers use controllable variables to see if manipulation of these variables
has an effect on the experiment's outcome. Additionally, subjects of the experimental research are
randomly assigned to prevent bias or error.

How Experimental Research Works

Experimental research uses manipulation of variables in a controlled testing environment to gain an
understanding of the causal processes associated with the subject matter. In many cases, experimental
research uses randomly assigned test subjects assigned to either an experimental group or a control
group. Researchers manipulate specific variables involved with the testing to determine if changing
these variables has any affect on the experiment's outcome. Usually, but not always, researchers restrict
changes to one variable at a time. Randomization is preferred as it is thought to reduce bias so that test
subjects can't knowingly have an influence on the outcome of the experiment.

Types of Experimental Research

In experimental research, researchers use three basic experiment designs: pre-experiment, true
experiment and quasi-experiment, as explained in the section below.

 Pre-experimental research: In pre-experimental research, researchers follow basic experimental

steps but do not use a control group. Pre-experimental research serves as the precursor, or
preparation phase taking place before any true experimental research.

 True experimental research: True experimental research is the actual process of experimentally
researching a subject. In true experimental research, sample groups are randomly assigned, one
designated control group is assigned and only one variable can be manipulated at a time. In
addition, any test subjects are assigned to the control or experiment groups randomly.

 Quasi-experimental research: Used extensively in psychology and the social sciences, quasi-
experimental research is similar to true experimental research but does not use a random
allocation of test subjects to a control or experimental group. In fact, quasi-experimental
research may lack any control group at all, making analysis of the subject more difficult.

Types of Trials in Experimental Research

When conducting the randomized testing in experimental research, researchers can use either single- or
double-blind trials to further help eliminate bias.
  Single-blind trials: In a single-blind trial, test subjects do not know in which test group they are in
or what they are having done to them as part of the experiment. In fact, test subjects only find
out what group they tested in upon completion of the study.

 Double-blind trials: In a double-blind trial, neither participants or researchers know which test
subjects are in an experimental or control group. This type of study helps reduce bias on the
part of the researchers.

The Goals of Experimental Research

Determining the affects of various variables on a test subject represents the final goal of experimental
research. This allows researchers to see if changing one thing about an experiment can change its
outcome. In this way, researchers can eliminate the affect of outside factors on a subject and draw
conclusions about the relationships between the many variables involved in an experiment. By using
randomization, the researchers can eliminate as much bias as possible which might have an effect of an
experiments outcome. A major downside to this type of experimentation is the large amount of time it
takes and the higher costs associated with it.