Defining what is learning: Understanding Learning and Knowledge Acquisition

Definition of learning- is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills, knowledge,
understanding, values and wisdom. It is the goal of education, and the product of experience. It is therefore a relatively
permanent change in behavior.
Other Definitions:
1. A process inferred from relatively stable changes in behavior that result through practice of interaction with and
adaptation to the environment (Goodwin and Klausmeier)
2. The development of new associations as a result of experience ( Good and Grophy).
3. The modification of an organism’s behavior as a result of maturation and environmental experience.

Theories of Learning
A. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionis,/Associationism Theory: Human activity is based on association between
stimulus and response.
a. Law of effect
b. Law of exercise
c. Law of readiness
B. Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): It is based on ADHESIVE principle which means that a response is attached
to a stimulus through the stimulus occurring just prior to he response so that the recurrence of the stimulus will evoke
or cause the response. (ex. Dog’s salivation experiment)
C. Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner): Organism has to do something in order to get reward that is, it must operate
on its environment.
 Reinforcement: is any behavioral consequence that strengthens behavior. It increases the likelihood of the recurrent
of a particular type of response.
 Types of reinforcement:
-Positive Reinforcement: These reinforcers increase frequency.
-Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by their removal.
-Primary Reinforcement: food, water, sleep
-Secondary Reinforcement: money, grades, starts, tokens etc.
D. Social Learning Theory ( Albert Bandura) –plus emphasis on OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING.
E. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Theory- Gaining insight is a gradual processes of exploring analyzing and restructuring
perceptions until a solution is arrived at.
F. Gestalt Theoru (Kohlerm Wertheimer and Koffka)- The primary focus of this theory is on PERCEPTION and how
people assign meanings to visual stimuli,”The whole is more than the sum of all its parts”
G. Kurt Lewin’s Topological and Vector Theory (Field Theory)- the behavior of an individual at a given moment is
the result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life space. (Internal and External forces).
H. Jerome Bruner’s Theory- Also known as Instrumental Conceptualism. Learning involves 3 simultaneously
processes: acquisition transformation and evaluation.
I. Information processing Theory- The theory describes the psychological events in terms of transformations of
information form input to output. It stresses the value of perception, attention and memory in the learning process.
Type of Learning:
a. Cognitive Learning- is concerned with the development of ideas and concepts.
b. Affective Learning- Involves assimilation of values, emotional reactions and acquisition of attitudes
c. Psychomotor Learning- understanding the external world through the senses and muscles.
Cognitive and Meta-cognitive factors in Learning
Analogical Process and Transfer of Learning
The Theory of Transfer of Learning was introduced by Thorndike and Woodworth (1901). They explored how
individuals would transfer learning in one context to another context that shared similar characteristics. Their theory
implied that transfer of learning depends on the learning task and the transfer task being identical, also known as
“identical elements. There is a close relationships between transfer of learning and problem solving a problem in a
new situation.
Module1: Metacognition
The theorist of metacognition is John Flavell
Flavell (1979, 1987) Metacognition is “thinking about thinking” or learning how to learn. It refers to higher order
thinking which involves active awareness and control over the cognitive processes engage in learning. Metacognitive
of knowledge it refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive process, knowledge that can be used
to control cognitive process. Flavell divided metacognitive into three:
 Person variables: How one views himself as a learner. It refers also knowledge about how human beings learn and
process information as well as individual knowledge of ones own learning process.
 Tasg variables: Includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of the processing demands that it
will place upon the individual.
 Strategy variables: Involves the awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this
strategy is effective.
o Meta-attention – is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on the topic or
task at hand.
o Metamemory – is the awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.
MODULE 2: Learner- Centerded Psychological Principles (LCP)
The 14 principles are divided into those referring to
1. cognitive and metacognitive
a. Nature of the Learning Process - learner learns when the environment is conducive to learning.
b. Goals of the Learning Process - learning is always goal-oriented.
c. Construction of Knowledge – the successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.
d. Strategic thinking – the successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex
learning goals.
e. Thinking about thinking – higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative
and critical thinking.
f. Context Learning – learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instruction
practices.
2. motivational and affective
a. Motivational and emotional influences on learning – motivation to learn in turn are influenced by the individual’s
emotional states, beliefs, interest and goals, and habits of thinking.
b. Intrinsic Motivation to learn – learning by oneself or internally.
c. Effects of motivation on effort.
3. developmental and social factors
a. Development influences on learning
b. Social Influences – learning is influence by social interactions, interpersonal relation and communication with others.
4. Individual factors influencing learners and learning
a. Individual Differences in learning
b. Learning Diversity
c. Standards and Assessment
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into 5
areas:
1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning. The learner’s previous
knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how he represents new information make associations and filters
new experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learner can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in
order to learn more effectively (metacognition)
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to learn personal goals and enjoyment
of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his
own unique combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or Context. Learning happens at the context of a society as well as within an individual. The principal goal
of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things not simply repeating what other generation have
done men who are creative, essential and discovers.

MODULE 3: Piaget’s Stages of Development

Piaget, Jean cognitive Theory it focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.
Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development
Stage 1: Sensory Motor stage – It focuses on the prominence of his senses and muscles movement through which the
infant were to learn about himself and the world.
Stage 2: Pre-operational stage – The pre-operational stage covers from about two to seven years old. Intelligence is
intuitive in nature. The child is closer to the use of symbols. He is egocentric.
Centration – tendency to focus on one aspect of a thing or event, and exclude other aspects. reversibility – ability to
reverse their thinking
Animism – tendency to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.
Transductive reasoning – reasoning from particular to particular(deductive nor inductive.)
Stage 3: Concrete-Operational Stage- The child think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.
Decentering – Ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations.
Conservation – ability to know the properties of objects like volume, masses, etc.
Seriation – Ability to order, arrange things in series based on love dimension such as
volume etc.
Stage 4: Formal Operation Stage – age 12 and 15
Hypothetical reasoning – about a problem
Analogical reasoning – ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and the use that relationship to narrow down
possible answer in another similar situations or problem.
Deductive reasoning – ability to think logically by applying a spherical rule to a particular instance or situation.

MODULE 4: Erickson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Erickson’s Theory on maladaptation and malignancy
Malignancy – too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect of the task such as a person who can’t trust
others.
Maladaptation – too much of the positive, too little of the negative such as a person who trust too much.
His theory of Psycho – social crisis from the stage of infancy, young adult, adult, old age, etc.
The epigenetic principles – As Boeree explains “The principle say that we develop through a predetermined unfolding
of our personality in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is part determined by our success or luck of success,
in all the previous stage. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a
certain time in a certain order, which nature through its genetics has determined. If we interfere in the natural order of
development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower.

MODULE 5: Vigotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Scaffolding term use by Vigotsky appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task.
Vygotsky Socio – Cultural theory – He’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive
development. He believes that individual development could not be understood without looking into the social and
cultural context within which development happens through participation in social activities,
making the social context of learning crucial. prepare the learner for their role as responsible members of society, it
also can promote harmony.

MODULE 6: Kohlberg’s’ Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in studying the development of the moral reasoning.
Moral Development occurs in six (6) stages
1. Punishment/ Obedience – one is motivated by fear of punishment. He will act in order to avoid punishment.
2. Mutual Benefit – one is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain later. “You scratch my back, I’ll scratch
yours”.
3. Social approval – one is motivated by what others expect in behavior good boy, good girl. The person act because
he/she gives importance on what people will think or say.
4. Law and Order – one acts in order to upholds law and order. The person will follow the law, because it is the law.
5. Social contract. Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act based on social justice and the common good.
6. Universal Principle. This is associated with the development of one’s conscience. Having a set of standards that
drives one to possess in order responsibility to make societal changes regardless of consequences to oneself. Examples
are Mother Theresa and Martin Luther.
The levels of moral development are the following:
1. Pre-conventional level – Moral reasoning is based on the consequences/ result of the act itself is good or bad.
2. Conventional – Moral reasoning is based on the convention are “norms” of society. These may include approval of
others law and orders.
3. Post – conventional – Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent principles. It is not just recognizing the
law, but the principles behind the law.
MODULE 7: Individual Differences
Diversity
Factors that affect diversity,
1 Socio economic Status
2 Thinking, Learning style
3 Exceptionalities
Student Diversity enriches the learning of environment because student’s self-awareness is enhanced, it also contributes
to cognitive development, it also prepares the learner for their role as responsible members of society, it also can
promote harmony.
Module 8: Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences
This refer to the preferred way an individual process an information.
Clyde Klucgholn an American anthropologist has commented. “Every human is at the same time like all other humans,
like same humans, and like no other human”, His observation is a paradox in the human experience, namely; We are
all the same in different ways.
Learning Styles by Silver
1. Visual
a. Visual-iconic – learner are more interested in visual imagery such a film, graphic display, or pictures in order to
solidify learning.
b. Visual-symbolic – learner are comfortable in abstract symbolism.
MODULE 9: Learner’s with Exceptionalities
Disability – measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with person’s ability
Handicap – is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability.
Categories of Exceptionalities
 Learning Disabilities – involves difficulties in specific cognitive processes.
 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and recurrent and
impulsive disorder.
 Emotional/Conduct Disorder – the presence of emotional state like depression and aggression.
 Autism – manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and
limited interests.
 Mental retardation – refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior.
MODULE 10: Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner
Behaviorist Perspective
Ivan Pavlov - classical conditioning, reinforcement
Edward L. Thorndike – Connectionism theory- S – k, Stimulus response. Learning has taken place when a strong
connection or band between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with primary laws of learning:
1. law of readiness
2. law of affect
3. law of exercise
John Watson – considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All
other behavior is learned through stimulus response association through conditioning.
Burrhus Frederick Skinner - he believed in the stimulus response pattern of conditioned behavior operant conditioning
– this based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior.
MODULE 11: Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura
Tolman’s Purposive Behavior – learning is always purposive and goal directed. He found out that organisms will select
the shortest way or easiest path to achieve a goal.
Latent Learning – is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed.
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory – Social learning focuses on the learning that
occurs within a social context. People learn from one another including such concept
as observational learning imitation and modeling a conditioning necessary to occur
for effective modeling;
1. attention
2. retention
3. motor reproduction
4. Motivation
Information Processing

MODULE 12: Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of
sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception. Gestalt means form or configuration. Psychologist Max
Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception and concluded that perceivers or learners were not
passive but rather active. They suggested that learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and
restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual process. Certain factors impact on this
perceptual process. Factors like past experiences, needs, attitudes and one’s present situation can affect his perception.
Gestalt Principles:
1. Law of Proximity – Elements that are closes together will be perceived as a coherent object.
2. Law of Similarity – Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form. We link similar elements
together.
3. Law of Closure – We tend to fill the gap of “close” the figure we perceive. We enclose a space of completing a
contour and ignoring gaps in the figure.
4. Law of Good Continuation – tendency to continue contour whenever the elements of the patterns establish as implied
direction - people tend to draw
a good continuous line.
5. Law of Good Progranz - The stimulus will be organized into as good a figure as possible. For this example good
refers to symmetry, simplicity and regularity.
Wolfgang Kohler – insight theory of learning or discovery learning.
Bruner’s Constructivist Theory - His theory is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas
or concepts based upon the current/past knowledge.
Module 13: Information Processing
Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and stored and
retrieved from our memory.
Internal Process – quality of learning on inherent intelligence.
Types of Knowledge
a. General vs. Specific – involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks or only one.
b. Declarative – refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are.
c. Procedural – include knowledge on how to do things.
d. Episodic – includes memories of life events.
e. Conditional – knowing when why to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.
Three Primary Stages in Information and Processing Theory
 Encoding – information is sensed, perceived, and attended to.
 Storage – information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon the processes following
encoding.
 ketrieval - Information that brought back at the appropriate time.
Sensory kegister – learning through the use of senses.
Short term Memory – maintain information for a limited time, until the learner has adequate resources to the
information.
Long Term Memory – is the final storing house for memory information. The capacity is unlimited.
Forgetting – is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.
Two main which Forgetting occurs.
 Decay – information’s is not attended and eventually fades away.
 Interference – new or old information blocks access to the information in the question.
Methods for increasing retrieval information is done by rehearsal, meaningful learning, organization, elaboration, visual
imagery, generation, context and personalization, serial position effect, part learning distributed practice and
mnemonic aids.
MODULE 14: Pioneer is Jerome Bruner his theory states that learning is an active process which learner construct
new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge.
representation – is the ability to represent knowledge.
 Enactive representation learn through action on physical objects and the outcomes of these action.
 Iconic representation learning can obtained through using models and pictures.
 Symbolic representation the learner has developed the ability to think in abstract terms.
Spiral Curriculum teacher must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in different ways depending on
student’s development levels.
Four Major Aspect of Theory of Instruction
 Predisposition to learn
 Structure of Knowledge
 Effective sequencing
 reinforcement
Categorization rules that specify four things of about objects.
MODULE 15: Ausebel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory
Ausubel’s meaningful Verbal Learning Subsumption Theory - He suggest the use of advance organizers. Ausubel’s
theory is that knowledge is hierarchically organized, that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be
related to what is already known It is about how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal /
textual presentation in or school setting. He prepared the use of advance organizers as a tool for learning. There are
type of advanced organizer such as expository, narrative. Skimming, graphic organizer.

MODULE 16: Gagne’s Conditions of Learning

His theory specified several different types or level of learning. He stressed that different internal and external
conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his theory is called conditions of learning. He also provided nine
instruction events that serve as basis for sequencing of instructions. His theory deals with all aspects of learning. His
principles – different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. His theory asserts that there are several
different types or levels of learning. The theory implies that each different type of learning calls for different
types of instructions. Gagne named five categories of learning:
1. verbal information
2. intellectual skills
3. cognitive strategies
4. motor skills
5. attitudes
MODULE 17: COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/Concept of Learning
Two views of Constructivism
o Individual Constructivism it also called cognitive constructivism it emphasizes individual, internal construction of
knowledge.
o Social Constructivism emphasize that knowledge exists in social context and initially shared with others.
MODULE 18: TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Transfer of Learning applying to another situation what was previously learned. It is also done like when you are
teaching you younger brother or sister you are already transferring your knowledge to his/her.
MODULE 19: FACILITATING LEARNING AND BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES
Level of Bloom’s Taxonomy
1. Knowledge: ask question with who, what, where, when.
2. Comprehension: this taxonomy needs to have the student to comprehend use their higher thinking skills.
3. Application – student need to apply what they have learned.
4. Analysis- need also a higher thinking skills
5. Synthesis – this taxonomy needs a student to have a unique idea.
6. Evaluation – this taxonomy needs the student to be judge of their idea.
To develop higher order thinking skills, ask questions on Blooms cognitive domain of objectives that represent the
different levels of Bloom’s cognitive domain of objectives in your field of specialization Formulate questions that
correspond to each learning objectives.
Module 21: MOTIVATION
MEANING & TYPES OF MOTIVATION
Motivation it is an inner drives that causes you to do something and persevere, urge to do at something. There are types
of motivation one is intrinsic motivation is motivation on your own free will while extrinsic motivation is you
are motivated because of external thing like school facility and money.
MODULE 22: THEORIES ON FACTORS AFFECTING MOTIVATION
There are theories that can affect ones motivation one of these motivation is attribution theory which state that we
attribute our successes or failures or other events to several factors or we blame t to a certain object. Self-efficacy states
that a person should have a high sense of competence or in another word never say never. Self-determined theory is
when you are determined to yourself so that we can be successful. Self- regulation state that it is the ability of the person
to master himself.
Choice Theory states that we have the right to choice what we want to do in our own life. Maslow Hierarchy of needs
states that we should be satisfied to with our basic needs, safety needs, love and belongingness needs and esteem needs
in order to be self-actualized . Lastly goal theory in order to succeed we need to
have goals in life.