Today’s Lecture Preview

• Fourier Transform and Frequency Domain Representation

• Generalized form of DTFT and Fourier Transform Pairs
• Z-transform and its advantages over Fourier Transform
• Z-transform Pairs
• Region of Convergence (ROC) and Properties of ROC
• Properties of Z-transform
• Finding Z-transform and ROC of systems to analyze stability and causality
 Fourier Transform
The Fourier transform (FT) decomposes a function of time (a signal)
into its constituent frequencies

The term Fourier transform refers to both the frequency domain

representation and the mathematical operation that associates the
frequency domain representation to a function of time.

    xn e

j  jn
Xe
n  
 Z-Transform
1. Definition: The z-transform of a discrete-time signal x(n) is defined by

where z = rejw is a complex variable. The values of z for which the sum converges
define a region in the z-plane referred to as the region of convergence (ROC).
2. If x(n) has a z-transform X(z), we write

3. The z-transform may be viewed as the DTFT or an exponentially weighted

sequence. Specifically, note that with z = re jw, X(z) can be looked as the DTFT of the
sequence r--nx(n) and ROC is determined by the range of values of r of the following
right inequation.
 Z-Transform (continued)
• Counterpart of the Laplace transform for discrete-time signals
• Generalization of the Fourier Transform
• Definition:

Xz   xn z n

n  

• Compare to DTFT definition:

    xn e

j  jn
Xe
n  

• z is a complex variable that can be represented as z=r ej

• Substituting z=ej will reduce the z-transform to DTFT
 Advantages of Z-transform over DTFT
Z-transform is more preferable to Fourier Transform in discrete signals because:

 Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) does not converge on all sequence.
So, the Z-transform exists for more varieties of signals.

 Notation good for analysis, provides more physical insight of the system.

 Brings the power of complex variable theory deal with the discrete-time
signals and systems
 Z-Transform Pairs

Sequence z-Transform ROC

(n) 1 All z
All z except 0 (if m>0)
( n  m ) z m
or  (if m<0)
1
| z | 1
u (n) 1  z 1
1
 u (n  1) | z | 1
1  z 1

1
n | z || a |
a u(n) 1  az 1
1
 a nu(n 1) | z || a |
1  az 1
 Properties of Z-transform

Linearity
Z[ x(n)]  X ( z), z  Rx
Z[ y(n)]  Y ( z ), z  Ry

Z[ax(n)  by(n)]  aX ( z )  bY ( z ), z  Rx  Ry

Overlay of
the above two
ROC’s
 Properties of Z-transform
Shifting

Z[ x(n)]  X ( z), z  Rx

Z[ x(n  n0 )]  z X ( z )
n0
z  Rx
 Properties of Z-transform
Multiplication by an Exponential Sequence

Z[ x(n)]  X ( z), Rx- | z | Rx

1
Z[a x(n)]  X (a z )
n
z | a | Rx
 Properties of Z-transform
Differentiation of X(z)

Z[ x(n)]  X ( z), z  Rx

dX ( z )
Z[nx(n)]   z z  Rx
dz
 Properties of Z-transform
Conjugation

Z[ x(n)]  X ( z), z  Rx

Z[ x * (n)]  X * ( z*) z  Rx
 Properties of Z-transform
Reversal

Z[ x(n)]  X ( z), z  Rx

1
Z[ x(n)]  X ( z ) z 1 / Rx
 Properties of Z-transform
Real and Imaginary Parts

Z[ x(n)]  X ( z), z  Rx

Re[ x(n)]  12 [ X ( z)  X * ( z*)] z  Rx

Im[ x(n)]  21j [ X ( z )  X * ( z*)] z  Rx
 Properties of Z-transform
Initial Value Theorem

x(n)  0, for n  0

x(0)  lim X ( z)
z 
Convolution of Sequences

Z[ x(n)]  X ( z), z  Rx
Z[ y(n)]  Y ( z ), z  Ry

Z[ x(n) * y(n)]  X ( z )Y ( z ) z  Rx  Ry
Convolution of Sequences

x(n) * y(n)   x( k ) y ( n  k )
k  

  
 n
Z[ x(n) * y(n)]     x(k ) y(n  k )  z
n    k   
   
  x(k )  y(n  k )z n
 
k  
x( k ) z  k  y (
n  
n )z n

k   n  

 X ( z )Y ( z )
 Region of Convergence (ROC)
• The set of values of z for which the z-transform converges
• Each value of r represents a circle of radius r
• The region of convergence is made of circles and determines the
stability and causality of the system.

• Complex z-plane
z = Re(z) + jIm(z) = re jw
Stability and the ROC
1
• For a > 0: x[n]  a n u[n]  X(z)  for z a
1  az 1

• If the ROC is outside x[n]  u[n] • If the ROC includes

the unit circle, the 1 the unit circle, the
signal is unstable. X(z)  1
for z  1 signal is stable.
1 z
Stability and the ROC (Cont.)
1
• For a < 0: x[n]  a n u[n]  X(z)  for z a
1  az 1

• If the ROC is outside x[n]  u[n] • If the ROC includes

the unit circle, the 1 the unit circle, the
signal is unstable. X(z)  1
for z  1 signal is stable.
1 z
More on ROC
• Example: x[n]  a n u[n  1] (left  sided signal)

  a u[n  1]z  
 1
   a 1 z
n n
X ( z)  n

n   n  

1  (a 1 z ) 
 1 1
?
1 a z

If: a 1 z  1, or, z  a

1 1  a 1 z 1
X(z)  1   
1  a 1 z 1  a 1 z 1  a 1 z
 a 1 z

1  a 1 z
1

1  az 1
z

za

The z-Transform is the same, but the region of convergence is different.

Stability and the ROC
1
• For: x[n]  a n u[n  1]  X(z)  for z a
1  az 1

• If the ROC includes x[n]  u[n] • If the ROC includes

the unit circle, the 1 the unit circle, the
signal is stable. X(z)  1
for z  1 signal is unstable.
1 z
Properties of the ROC (Cont.)
• If x[n] is a two-sided sequence, and if |z| = r0 is in the ROC, then the ROC
consists of a ring in the z-plane including |z| = r0.

right-sided left-sided two-sided

• Example: x[n]  b n b0

x[n]  b n u[n]  b  n u[n]
1
b n u[n]  1
z b
1  bz
1 1
b n u[n  1]  z 
1  b 1 z 1 b
1 1 1
X ( z)    z b
1  bz 1 1  b 1 z 1 b