Solecki, William D.

; Rosenzweig, Cynthia; Parshall, Lily; Pope, Greg; Clark, Maria;

Cox, Jennifer; Wiencke, Mary (2005). "Mitigation of the heat island effect in urban
New Jersey". Global Environmental Change Part B: Environmental Hazards. 6 (1):
39�49. doi:10.1016/j.hazards.2004.12.002

There are several causes of an urban heat island (UHI); for example, dark surfaces
absorb significantly more solar radiation, which causes urban concentrations of
roads and buildings to heat more than suburban and rural areas during the
day;materials commonly used in urban areas for pavement and roofs, such as concrete
and asphalt, have significantly different thermal bulk properties (including heat
capacity and thermal conductivity) and surface radiative properties (albedo and
emissivity) than the surrounding rural areas. This causes a change in the energy
budget of the urban area, often leading to higher temperatures than surrounding
rural areas.

Kumar, Rahul; Mishra, Vimal; Buzan, Jonathan; Kumar, Rohini; Shindell, Drew; Huber,
Matthew (2017). "Dominant control of agriculture and irrigation on urban heat
island in India". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 1�10. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-14213-2.
ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5656645. PMID 29070866

This causes a change in the energy budget of the urban area, often leading to
higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas.[7] Another major reason is the
lack of evapotranspiration (for example, through lack of vegetation) in urban
areas.

Li, Y.; Zhao, X. (2012). "An empirical study of the impact of human activity on
long-term temperature change in China: A perspective from energy consumption".
Journal of Geophysical Research. 117 (D17): D17117. Bibcode:2012JGRD..11717117L.
doi:10.1029/2012JD018132

Other causes of a UHI are due to geometric effects. The tall buildings within many
urban areas provide multiple surfaces for the reflection and absorption of
sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are heated. This is
called the "urban canyon effect". Another effect of buildings is the blocking of
wind, which also inhibits cooling by convection and prevents pollutants from
dissipating. Waste heat from automobiles, air conditioning, industry, and other
sources also contributes to the UHI.

Kumar, Rahul; Mishra, Vimal; Buzan, Jonathan; Kumar, Rohini; Shindell, Drew; Huber,
Matthew (2017-10-25). "Dominant control of agriculture and irrigation on urban heat
island in India". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 1�10. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-14213-2.
ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5656645. PMID 29070866

At night, the situation reverses. The absence of solar heating leads to the
decrease of atmospheric convection and the stabilization of urban boundary layer.
If enough stabilization occurs, an inversion layer is formed. This traps urban air
near the surface, and keeping surface air warm from the still-warm urban surfaces,
resulting in warmer nighttime air temperatures within the UHI. Other than the heat
retention properties of urban areas, the nighttime maximum in urban canyons could
also be due to the blocking of "sky view" during cooling: surfaces lose heat at
night principally by radiation to the comparatively cool sky, and this is blocked
by the buildings in an urban area. Radiative cooling is more dominant when wind
speed is low and the sky is cloudless, and indeed the UHI is found to be largest at
night in these conditions.

J. F. Clarke (1972). "Some effects of the urban structure on heat mortality".

Environmental Research. 5 (1): 93�104. Bibcode:1972ER......5...93C.
doi:10.1016/0013-9351(72)90023-0. PMID 5032928
The nighttime effect of UHIs can be particularly harmful during a heat wave, as it
deprives urban residents of the cool relief found in rural areas during the night.

"Assessment of International Urban Heat Island Research" (PDF). U.S. Department of

Energy Report. Navigant Consulting. Retrieved 30 April 2014.

A researcher found that high UHI intensity correlates with increased concentrations
of air pollutants that gathered at night, which can affect the next day's air
quality. The production of these pollutants combined with the higher temperatures
in UHIs can quicken the production of ozone. Ozone at surface level is considered
to be a harmful pollutant. Studies suggest that increased temperatures in UHIs can
increase polluted days but also note that other factors (e.g. air pressure, cloud
cover, wind speed) can also have an effect on pollution.

Koppe, Christina; Sari Kovats; Gerd Jendritzky; Bettina Menne (2004). "Heat-waves:
risks and responses". Health and Global Environmental Change Series. 2

These pollutants include volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, nitrogen

oxides, and particulate matter.Koppe, Christina; Sari Kovats; Gerd Jendritzky;
Bettina Menne (2004). "Heat-waves: risks and responses". Health and Global
Environmental Change Series. 2

---------------------------------------------------

Impact on nearby water bodies

NYS DEC. "Streams Tributary to Onondaga Lake Biological Assessment." Dec.ny.gov.

N.p., 2008. Web. 12 September 2013.

UHIs also impair water quality. Hot pavement and rooftop surfaces transfer their
excess heat to stormwater, which then drains into storm sewers and raises water
temperatures as it is released into streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes.
Additionally, increased urban water body temperatures lead to a decrease in
diversity in the water.

Paul A. Tipler & Gene Mosca (2007). Physics for Scientists and Engineers.
Macmillan. p. 686. ISBN 978-1-4292-0124-7.

In August 2001, rains over Cedar Rapids, Iowa, led to a 10.5C (18.9F) rise in the
nearby stream within one hour, which led to a fish kill. Since the temperature of
the rain was comparatively cool, it could be attributed to the hot pavement of the
city. Similar events have been documented across the American Midwest, as well as
Oregon and California.

"Urban Climate � Climate Study and UHI". United States Environmental Protection
Agency. 2009-02-09. Retrieved 2009-06-18.

Rapid temperature changes can be stressful to aquatic ecosystems.

"Cool Pavement Report" (PDF). Environmental Protection Agency. June 2005. pp. 21,
43. Retrieved 2013-01-15.

Permeable pavements may mitigate these effects by percolating water through the
pavement into subsurface storage areas where it can be dissipate through absorption
and evaporation.

---------------------------------------------------

Impact on energy usage

Sheng-chieh Chang (2000-06-23). "Energy Use". Environmental Energies Technology
Division. Archived from the original on March 11, 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-18.

Another consequence of urban heat islands is the increased energy required for air
conditioning and refrigeration in cities that are in comparatively hot climates.
The Heat Island Group estimates that the heat island effect costs Los Angeles about
US$100 million per year in energy.

---------------------------------------------------

Mitigation

Albers, R. A. W., Bosch, P. R., Blocken, B., Van Den Dobbelsteen, A. A. J. F., Van
Hove, L. W. A., Spit, T. J. M., ... & Rovers, V. (2015). Overview of challenges and
achievements in the Climate Adaptation of Cities and in the Climate Proof Cities
program. Building and environment, 83, 1�10.

The temperature difference between urban areas and the surrounding suburban or
rural areas can be as much as 5 �C (9.0 �F). Nearly 40 percent of that increase is
due to the prevalence of dark roofs, with the remainder coming from dark-colored
pavement and the declining presence of vegetation. The heat island effect can be
counteracted slightly by using white or reflective materials to build houses,
roofs, pavements, and roads, thus increasing the overall albedo of the city.

"Comprehensive Cool Roof Guide from the Vinyl Roofing Division of the Chemical
Fabrics and Film Association". Archived from the original on 2013-09-21.

Relative to remedying the other sources of the problem, replacing dark roofing
requires the least amount of investment for the most immediate return. A cool roof
made from a reflective material such as vinyl reflects at least 75 percent of the
sun's rays, and emit at least 70 percent of the solar radiation absorbed by the
building envelope. Asphalt built-up roofs (BUR), by comparison, reflect 6 percent
to 26 percent of solar radiation.

"Cool Pavement Report" (PDF). Environmental Protection Agency. June 2005. p. 14.
Retrieved 2009-02-06.

Using light-colored concrete has proven effective in reflecting up to 50% more

light than asphalt and reducing ambient temperature.

Al Gore; A. Steffen (2008). World Changing: A User's Guide for the 21st Century.
New York: Abrams. p. 258.

A low albedo value, characteristic of black asphalt, absorbs a large percentage of

solar heat creating warmer near-surface temperatures. Paving with light-colored
concrete, in addition to replacing asphalt with light-colored concrete, communities
may be able to lower average temperatures.

New York City Regional Heat Island Initiative (October 2006). "Mitigating New York
City's Heat Island With Urban Forestry, Living Roofs, and Light Surfaces" (PDF).
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. p. ii. Retrieved 2009-06-
18.

These two options can be combined with the implementation of green roofs. Green
roofs are excellent insulators during the warm weather months and the plants cool
the surrounding environment. Air quality is improved as the plants absorb carbon
dioxide with concomitant production of oxygen.
Zinzi, M., and S. Agnoli. "Cool and green roofs. An energy and comfort comparison
between passive cooling and mitigation urban heat island techniques for residential
buildings in the Mediterranean region." Energy and Buildings. 55. (2012): 66�76.

White roofs: Painting rooftops white has become a common strategy to reduce the
heat island effect. In cities, there are many dark colored surfaces that absorb the
heat of the sun in turn lowering the albedo of the city. White rooftops allow high
solar reflectance and high solar emittance, increasing the albedo of the city or
area the effect is occurring.

Green roofs: Green roofs are another method of decreasing the urban heat island
effect. Green roofery is the practice of having vegetation on a roof; such as
having trees or a garden. The plants that are on the roof increase the albedo and
decreases the urban heat island effect. This method has been studied and criticized
for the fact that green roofs are affected by climatic conditions, green roof
variables are hard to measure, and are very complex systems.

Rosenfield, Arthur, Joseph Romm, Hashem Akbari, and Alana Lloyd. "Painting the Town
White � and Green." MIT Technology Review. N.p., 14 07 1997. Web. 25 Feb 2014.

Planting trees in cities: Planting trees around the city can be another way of
increasing albedo and decreasing the urban heat island effect. It is recommended to
plant deciduous trees because they can provide many benefits such as more shade in
the summer and not blocking warmth in winter.

Green parking lots: Green parking lots use surfaces other than asphalt and
vegetation to limit the impact urban heat island effect.

---------------------------------------------------

Mitigation policies, measures and other strategies

REPUBLIC ACT No. 10587

AN ACT REGULATING THE PRACTICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING, REPEALING FOR THE PURPOSE
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NUMBERED ONE THOUSAND THREE HUNDRED AND EIGHT, ENTITLED "LAW
REGULATING THE ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING PROFESSION IN THE PHILIPPINES", AND FOR OTHER
PURPOSES

Executive Order No. 72

providing for the preparation and implementation of the Comprehensive Land Use
Plans (CLUPs) of Local Government Units pursuant to the Local Government Code of
1991 and other pertinent laws.

Memorandum Circular No. 54

prescribing the guidelines of Sec. 20, R.A. 7160, authorizing cities/municipalities

to reclassify lands into non-agricultural uses.

Executive Order No. 124

establishing priorities and procedures in evaluating areas for land conversion in

regional agricultural/industrial centers, tourism development areas and sites for
socialized housing.