(3 - 3.1.

3 - HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF

MOVEMENT ENHANCEMENT)

From the late 1700s to the mid-1800s, three nations–Germany, Sweden, and England–
influenced the early development of physical education in the United States. German
immigrants introduced the Turner Societies, which advocated a system of gymnastics
training that utilized heavy apparatus (e.g., side horse, parallel and horizontal bars) in the
pursuit of fitness. In contrast, the Swedish system of exercise promoted health through
the performance of a series of prescribed movement patterns with light apparatus (e.g.,
wands, climbing ropes). The English brought sports and games to America with a system
that stressed moral development through participation in physical activities. The
influence of these three nations laid the foundation for sport and physical education in
America.

The 1800s were an important time for the inclusion of physical education in schools
across America. The Round Hill School, a private school established in 1823 in
Northampton, Massachusetts, was the first to include physical education as an integral
part of the curriculum. In 1824 Catherine Beecher, founder of the Hartford Female
Seminary, included calisthenics in her school's curriculum and "was the first American to
design a program of exercise for American children" (Lumpkin, p. 202). She also
advocated the inclusion of daily physical education in public schools.

In 1866 California became the first state to pass a law requiring twice-per-day exercise
periods in public schools. Beecher's influence started the American system of exercise,
and, along with her contemporaries Dio Lewis, Edward Hitchcock, and Dudley Allen
Sargent, she was an early leader in physical education.

During the 1890s traditional education was challenged by John Dewey and his
colleagues, whose educational reforms led to the expansion of the "three R's" to include
physical education. It was also during this time that several normal schools (training
schools for physical education teachers) were established.

In 1893 Thomas Wood stated that "the great thought of physical education is not the
education of the physical nature, but the relation of physical training to complete
education, and then the effort to make the physical contribute its full share to the life of
the individual" (National Education Association, p. 621). During the early twentieth
century, several educational psychologists, including Dewey, Stanley G. Hall, and
Edward Thorndike, supported the important role of children's play in a child's ability to
learn. In line with the work of Wood in physical education, and the theoretical work of
prominent educational psychologists, The New Physical Education was published in 1927
by Wood and Rosalind Cassidy, who advocated education through the physical.

This position supported the thesis that physical education contributed to the physical
well-being of children, as well as to their social, emotional, and intellectual development.
However, Charles McCloy argued against this expanded role of physical education,
arguing that education of the physical, which emphasized the development of skills and
the maintenance of the body, was the primary objective of physical education. The testing
of motor skills was a part of McCloy's contribution to physical education, and his
philosophy of testing paralleled the scientific movement in education.

The evolution of physical education, along with other educational professions, reflected
contemporary changes in society. Throughout the early twentieth century, into the 1950s,
there was a steady growth of physical education in the public schools. During the early
1920s many states passed legislation requiring physical education. However, shifts in
curricular emphasis were evident when wars occurred and when the results of national
reports were published. For example, as a result of the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the
United States' entrance into World War II, the emphasis in physical education shifted
from games and sport to physical conditioning.
(3.2 - TERMS)
Defining Fundamental Movement The major learning target for Key Stage 1 students is
to develop locomotor skills, stability skills and manipulative skills through FM activities
and physical play. To facilitate subsequent discussion, several FM related terms are
defined as follows:

• Movement: The act of maintaining or changing the position(s) of body

part(s). Some movements are simple (e.g., walking). Some movements
are complex (e.g., turning a somersault).
• FM: A movement that is simple and basic for participating in or
performing different types of physical activities (e.g. walking, running,
jumping, catching). Children develop fundamental movements as they
grow.
• FM skills: Refined fundamental movements for efficiency or
expressive purposes. They need to be learned.
• Locomotor skills: FM skills for travelling from one place to another.
(see Figure 1.2)
• Stability skills: FM skills for maintaining balance on spot or when
moving. (see Figure 1.3) • Manipulative skills – FM skills for
controlling small objects. (see Figure 1.4)
• FM activities: Activities which are conducive to the development of
FM skills.
(3.2.1 – HUMAN BODY PARTS)
 Body parts list with brief explanation

Body part list

Hair: grown on top of the head.

Head: part of the body that's on top of your neck

Ears: on each side of the head and used for hearing.

Neck: connects the head to the body.

Shoulder: connects the to arm and to the base of the neck

Arms: Used for touching things

Chest: is the below the neck and above the stomach.

Arm pit: joint where the arm connects to the shoulder

Nipple: small projection of a woman's or girl's breast

Stomach: is used for digesting food.

Navel: The little hole in in the center of a person's belly

Waist: Part of the body just above hips.

Elbow: is between the forearm and the upper arm

Forearm: Is between the wrist and elbow.

Back: is rear surface of the body from the shoulders to the hips.

Small of the back: is the lower part of the back.

Hips: from the waist to the top of the leg.

 Waist: is just above the hips

Groin: above the thigh on either side of the body

Buttocks: Sometimes called bottom or behind.

Thigh: part of the leg between the hip and the knee

Knee: connects the lower and upper leg.

Calf: muscle at the back of the lower leg

Shin: front of the leg below the knee

Heel: is the back part of the foot below the ankle.

Arch of foot: where the bottom of the foot curves.

Ball of foot: The padded portion of the sole of the human foot between the toes and
the arch.

Instep: The padded portion foot between the toes and the arch

Toe nails: covers the end of the top of the toes.

Ankle: connects the foot to the leg

Foot: the lower part of the leg below the ankle

Big toe: each foot has 2 big toes

(3.2.2 - The Human Body: Anatomy, Facts &
Functions)

Body systems
Our bodies consist of a number of biological systems that carry out specific
functions necessary for everyday living.

The job of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and hormones, around the body. It consists of the heart, blood, blood
vessels,arteries and veins.
The digestive system consists of a series of connected organs that together, allow
the body to break down and absorb food, and remove waste. It includes the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The liver
and pancreas also play a role in the digestive system because they produce
digestive juices.
The endocrine system consists of eight major glands that secrete hormones into the
blood. These hormones, in turn, travel to different tissues and regulate various
bodily functions, such as metabolism, growth and sexual function.
The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria, viruses and other
pathogens that may be harmful. It includes lymph nodes, the spleen, bone marrow,
lymphocytes (including B-cells and T-cells), the thymus and leukocytes, which are
white blood cells.
The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymph ducts and lymph vessels, and
also plays a role in the body's defenses. Its main job is to make is to make and
move lymph, a clear fluid that contains white blood cells, which help the body
fight infection. The lymphatic system also removes excess lymph fluid from bodily
tissues, and returns it to the blood.
The nervous system controls both voluntary action (like conscious movement) and
involuntary actions (like breathing), and sends signals to different parts of the
body. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The
peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that connect every other part of the
body to the central nervous system.
The body's muscular system consists of about 650 muscles that aid in movement,
blood flow and other bodily functions. There are three types of muscle: skeletal
muscle which is connected to bone and helps with voluntary movement, smooth
muscle which is found inside organs and helps to move substances through organs,
and cardiac muscle which is found in the heart and helps pump blood.
The reproductive system allows humans to reproduce. The male reproductive
system includes the penis and the testes, which produce sperm. The female
reproductive system consists of the vagina, the uterus and the ovaries, which
produce eggs. During conception, a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, which
creates a fertilized egg that implants and grows in the uterus. [Related: Awkward
Anatomy: 10 Odd Facts About the Female Body]
Our bodies are supported by the skeletal system, which consists of 206 bones that
are connected by tendons, ligaments and cartilage. The skeleton not only helps us
move, but it's also involved in the production of blood cells and the storage of
calcium. The teeth are also part of the skeletal system, but they aren't considered
bones.
The respiratory system allows us to take in vital oxygen and expel carbon dioxide
in a process we call breathing. It consists mainly of the trachea, the diaphragm and
the lungs.
The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called urea from the body,
which is produced when certain foods are broken down. The whole system
includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the
urethra. Urine produced by the kidneys travels down the ureters to the bladder, and
exits the body through the urethra.
The skin, or integumentary system, is the body's largest organ. It protects us from
the outside world, and is our first defense against bacteria, viruses and other
pathogens. Our skin also helps regulate body temperature and eliminate waste through
perspiration. In addition to skin, the integumentary system includes hair and nails.
Vital organs
Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival. These are the brain,
heart, kidneys, liver and lungs.

The human brain is the body's control center, receiving and sending signals to
other organs through the nervous system and through secreted hormones. It is
responsible for our thoughts, feelings, memory storage and general perception of
the world.
The human heart is a responsible for pumping blood throughout our body.
The job of the kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from the blood. The
kidneys take urea out of the blood and combine it with water and other substances
to make urine.
The liver has many functions, including detoxifying of harmful chemicals,
breakdown of drugs, filtering of blood, secretion of bile and production of blood-
clotting proteins.
(3.2.2 - MUSCLES)
Muscular System Anatomy
Muscle Types

There are three types of muscle tissue: Visceral, cardiac, and skeletal.

Visceral Muscle

Visceral muscle is found inside of organs like the stomach, intestines, and blood
vessels. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscle makes organs contract to
move substances through the organ. Because visceral muscle is controlled by the
unconscious part of the brain, it is known as involuntary muscle—it cannot be directly
controlled by the conscious mind.

Cardiac Muscle

Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout
the body. Cardiac muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously, so it is an
involuntary muscle. While hormones and signals from the brain adjust the rate of
contraction, cardiac muscle stimulates itself to contract.

Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle is the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body—it is
controlled consciously. Every physical action that a person consciously performs (e.g.
speaking, walking, or writing) requires skeletal muscle.

Gross Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle

Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones through tendons. Tendons are tough
bands of dense regular connective tissue whose strong collagen fibers firmly attach
muscles to bones.
Names of Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscles are named based on many different factors, including their location,
origin and insertion, number of origins, shape, size, direction, and function.

 Location. Many muscles derive their names from their anatomical region.
The rectus abdominis and transverse abdominis, for example, are found in
the abdominal region. Some muscles, like the tibialis anterior, are named
after the part of the bone (the anterior portion of the tibia) that they are
attached to. Other muscles use a hybrid of these two, like the brachioradialis,
which is named after a region (brachial) and a bone (radius).
 Origin and Insertion. Some muscles are named based upon their connection
to a stationary bone (origin) and a moving bone (insertion). These muscles
become very easy to identify once you know the names of the bones that they
are attached to. Examples of this type of muscle include
the sternocleidomastoid (connecting the sternum and clavicle to the mastoid
process of the skull) and the occipitofrontalis (connecting the occipital bone to
the frontal bone).
 Number of Origins. Some muscles connect to more than one bone or to
more than one place on a bone, and therefore have more than one origin. A
muscle with two origins is called a biceps. A muscle with three origins is a
triceps muscle. Finally, a muscle with four origins is a quadriceps muscle.
 Shape, Size, and Direction. We also classify muscles by their shapes. For
example, the deltoids have a delta or triangular shape. The serratus muscles
feature a serrated or saw-like shape. The rhomboid major is a rhombus or
diamond shape. The size of the muscle can be used to distinguish between two
muscles found in the same region. The muscles whose fibers run straight up
and down are the rectus abdominis, the ones running transversely (left to
right) are the transverse abdominis, and the ones running at an angle are the
obliques.
 Function. Muscles are sometimes classified by the type of function that they
perform. Most of the muscles of the forearms are named based on their
function because they are located in the same region and have similar shapes
and sizes. For example, the flexor group of the forearm flexes the wrist and the
fingers. The supinator is a muscle that supinates the wrist by rolling it over to
face palm up. In the leg, there are muscles called adductors whose role is to
adduct (pull together) the legs.

Groups Action in Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscles rarely work by themselves to achieve movements in the body. More
often they work in groups to produce precise movements. The muscle that produces
any particular movement of the body is known as an agonist or prime mover. The
agonist always pairs with an antagonist muscle that produces the opposite effect on
the same bones.

Skeletal Muscle Histology

Skeletal muscle fibers differ dramatically from other tissues of the body due to their
highly specialized functions. Many of the organelles that make up muscle fibers are
unique to this type of cell.

The sarcolemma is the cell membrane of muscle fibers. The sarcolemma acts as a
conductor for electrochemical signals that stimulate muscle cells. Connected to the
sarcolemma are transverse tubules (T-tubules) that help carry these electrochemical
signals into the middle of the muscle fiber.

Sarcomere Structure

Sarcomeres are made of two types of protein fibers: thick filaments and thin filaments.

 Thick filaments. Thick filaments are made of many bonded units of the
protein myosin. Myosin is the protein that causes muscles to contract.


Thin filaments. Thin filaments are made of three proteins:

1. Actin. Actin forms a helical structure that makes up the bulk of the
thin filament mass. Actin contains myosin-binding sites that allow
myosin to connect to and move actin during muscle contraction.
2. Tropomyosin. Tropomyosin is a long protein fiber that wraps around
actin and covers the myosin binding sites on actin.
3. Troponin. Bound very tightly to tropomyosin, troponin moves
tropomyosin away from myosin binding sites during muscle contraction.
Muscular System Physiology
Function of Muscle Tissue

The main function of the muscular system is movement. Muscles are the only tissue in
the body that has the ability to contract and therefore move the other parts of the body.

Skeletal Muscles as Levers

Skeletal muscles work together with bones and joints to form lever systems. The
muscle acts as the effort force; the joint acts as the fulcrum; the bone that the muscle
moves acts as the lever; and the object being moved acts as the load.

There are three classes of levers, but the vast majority of the levers in the body are
third class levers.

how many motor units to activate for a given function. This explains why the same
muscles that are used to pick up a pencil are also used to pick up a bowling ball.

Contraction Cycle

Muscles contract when stimulated by signals from their motor neurons. Motor neurons
contact muscle cells at a point called the Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ). Motor
neurons release neurotransmitter chemicals at the NMJ that bond to a special part of
the sarcolemma known as the motor end plate. The motor end plate contains many ion
channels that open in response to neurotransmitters and allow positive ions to enter
the muscle fiber. The positive ions form an electrochemical gradient to form inside of
the cell, which spreads throughout the sarcolemma and the T-tubules by opening even
more ion channels.

Types of Muscle Contraction

The strength of a muscle’s contraction can be controlled by two factors: the number of
motor units involved in contraction and the amount of stimulus from the nervous
system. A single nerve impulse of a motor neuron will cause a motor unit to contract
briefly before relaxing. This small contraction is known as a twitch contraction. If the
motor neuron provides several signals within a short period of time, the strength and
duration of the muscle contraction increases.
Functional Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Skeletal muscle fibers can be divided into two types based on how they produce and
use energy: Type I and Type II.

1. Type I fibers are very slow and deliberate in their contractions. They are very
resistant to fatigue because they use aerobic respiration to produce energy from
sugar. We find Type I fibers in muscles throughout the body for stamina and
posture. Near the spine and neck regions, very high concentrations of Type I
fibers hold the body up throughout the day.
2. Type II fibers are broken down into two subgroups: Type II A and Type II B.
o Type II A fibers are faster and stronger than Type I fibers, but do not
have as much endurance. Type II A fibers are found throughout the
body, but especially in the legs where they work to support your body
throughout a long day of walking and standing.
o Type II B fibers are even faster and stronger than Type II A, but have
even less endurance.
(3.3 – EQUIPMENTS)
(3.4 – MOVEMENT SKILLS)
The Fundamental Body Movements
You may not think much about simple body movements like walking, bending, or
kicking a ball; however, fundamental body movements are the building blocks
necessary for more complex physical activities. Playing sports, exercising, and
dancing all require a command of simple, fundamental body movements.
For that reason, students should master these movement concepts during early
childhood development and elementary school physical education. Studies show
that students are more likely to stay active when fundamental body movements
are mastered at that age. When fundamental body movements are not mastered
at a young age, students are unable to participate in certain physical activities as
they grow older. For example, a student who never learns to dribble a ball cannot
later participate on the middle school basketball team.
There are three main categories of fundamental body movements:

1. Locomotor
2. Non locomotor
3. Manipulative

Let's take a closer look at each.

Locomotor Movements
Let's start with locomotor movements. Locomotor refers to body movements
that move the body from one place to another. They are categorized as either
even or uneven movements. Even rhythm movements consist of equal,
unvarying actions. These movements include:

1. Walking
2. Running
3. Hopping
4. Leaping
5. Jumping

Uneven rhythm movements consist of unequal actions. They also sometimes

incorporate alternating actions. These movements include:

1. Skipping
2. Galloping
3. Sliding
Non locomotor Movements
Non locomotor movements are also sometimes called axial movements. They
are movements of certain body parts, or even the whole body, without causing
the body to travel. For example, swinging your arms back and forth. Notice that
non locomotor movements are often combined with locomotor movements, such
as walking and swinging your arms.
There are many different non locomotor movements:

 Bending
 Flexing
 Stretching
 Extending
 Lifting
 Raising
 Twisting

Manipulative Movements
Manipulative skills involve moving or using an object with the hands or feet to achieve a
goal or complete a task. For fine motor skills, that object might be a pencil or button.
For gross motor skills, the object might be sporting equipment or toys such as bats, balls,
racquets, or jump ropes. These skills are also sometimes called object-control skills.

Types of Manipulative Skills

In the gross-motor area, these skills include:

 Pushing and pulling (the object might be a wheeled toy)

 Lifting
 Striking (such as swinging a baseball bat or golf club to hit a ball)
 Throwing
 Kicking or rolling (a ball)
(4 - TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS)
Synovial joints allow the body a tremendous range of movements. Each movement at a
synovial joint result from the contraction or relaxation of the muscles that are attached to
the bones on either side of the articulation. The type of movement that can be produced at
a synovial joint is determined by its structural type. While the ball-and-socket joint gives
the greatest range of movement at an individual joint, in other regions of the body,
several joints may work together to produce a particular movement. Overall, each type of
synovial joint is necessary to provide the body with its great flexibility and mobility.
There are many types of movement that can occur at synovial joints

Figure 1. Movements of the Body, Part 1. Synovial joints give the body many ways in
which to move. (a)–(b) Flexion and extension motions are in the sagittal (anterior–
posterior) plane of motion. These movements take place at the shoulder, hip, elbow, knee,
wrist, metacarpophalangeal, metatarsophalangeal, and interphalangeal joints. (c)–(d)
Anterior bending of the head or vertebral column is flexion, while any posterior-going
movement is extension. (e) Abduction and adduction are motions of the limbs, hand,
fingers, or toes in the coronal (medial–lateral) plane of movement. Moving the limb or
hand laterally away from the body, or spreading the fingers or toes, is abduction.
Adduction brings the limb or hand toward or across the midline of the body, or brings the
fingers or toes together. Circumduction is the movement of the limb, hand, or fingers in a
circular pattern, using the sequential combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and
abduction motions. Adduction/abduction and circumduction take place at the shoulder,
hip, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, and metatarsophalangeal joints. (f) Turning of the head
side to side or twisting of the body is rotation. Medial and lateral rotation of the upper
limb at the shoulder or lower limb at the hip involves turning the anterior surface of the
limb toward the midline of the body (medial or internal rotation) or away from the
midline (lateral or external rotation).

Figure 2. Movements of the Body, Part 2. (g) Supination of the forearm turns the hand
to the palm forward position in which the radius and ulna are parallel, while forearm
pronation turns the hand to the palm backward position in which the radius crosses
over the ulna to form an “X.” (h) Dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle joint moves the top
of the foot toward the leg, while plantar flexion lifts the heel and points the toes. (i)
Eversion of the foot moves the bottom (sole) of the foot away from the midline of the
body, while foot inversion faces the sole toward the midline. (j) Protraction of the
mandible pushes the chin forward, and retraction pulls the chin back. (k) Depression of
the mandible opens the mouth, while elevation closes it. (l) Opposition of the thumb
brings the tip of the thumb into contact with the tip of the fingers of the same hand and
reposition brings the thumb back next to the index finger.

Flexion and Extension

Flexion and extension are movements that take place within the sagittal plane and
involve anterior or posterior movements of the body or limbs. For the vertebral column,
flexion (anterior flexion) is an anterior (forward) bending of the neck or body, while
extension involves a posterior-directed motion, such as straightening from a flexed
position or bending backward. Lateral flexion is the bending of the neck or body toward
the right or left side. These movements of the vertebral column involve both the
symphysis joint formed by each intervertebral disc, as well as the plane type of synovial
joint formed between the inferior articular processes of one vertebra and the superior
articular processes of the next lower vertebra.

In the limbs, flexion decreases the angle between the bones (bending of the joint), while
extension increases the angle and straightens the joint. For the upper limb, all anterior-
going motions are flexion and all posterior-going motions are extension. These motions
take place at the first carpometacarpal joint. Note that extension of the thigh beyond the
anatomical (standing) position is greatly limited by the ligaments that support the hip
joint. Knee flexion is the bending of the knee to bring the foot toward the posterior thigh,
and extension is the straightening of the knee. Flexion and extension movements are seen
at the hinge, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket joints of the limbs (see Figure 1a-d).

Hyperextension is the abnormal or excessive extension of a joint beyond its normal

range of motion, thus resulting in injury. Similarly, hyperflexion is excessive flexion at a
joint. Hyperextension injuries are common at hinge joints such as the knee or elbow. In
cases of “whiplash” in which the head is suddenly moved backward and then forward, a
patient may experience both hyperextension and hyperflexion of the cervical region.

Abduction and Adduction

Abduction and adduction motions occur within the coronal plane and involve medial-
lateral motions of the limbs, fingers, toes, or thumb. For example, abduction is raising the
arm at the shoulder joint, moving it laterally away from the body, while adduction brings
the arm down to the side of the body. Similarly, abduction and adduction at the wrist
moves the hand away from or toward the midline of the body. Spreading the fingers or
toes apart is also abduction, while bringing the fingers or toes together is adduction. For
the thumb, abduction is the anterior movement that brings the thumb to a 90°
perpendicular position, pointing straight out from the palm. Adduction moves the thumb
back to the anatomical position, next to the index finger. Abduction and adduction
movements are seen at condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket joints (see Figure 1e).

Circumduction
Circumduction is the movement of a body region in a circular manner, in which one end
of the body region being moved stays relatively stationary while the other end describes a
circle. It involves the sequential combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and
abduction at a joint. This type of motion is found at biaxial condyloid and saddle joints,
and at multiaxial ball-and-sockets joints (see Figure 1e).

Rotation
Rotation can occur within the vertebral column, at a pivot joint, or at a ball-and-socket
joint. Rotation of the neck or body is the twisting movement produced by the summation
of the small rotational movements available between adjacent vertebrae. At a pivot joint,
one bone rotates in relation to another bone. This is a uniaxial joint, and thus rotation is
the only motion allowed at a pivot joint. For example, at the atlantoaxial joint, the first
cervical (C1) vertebra (atlas) rotates around the dens, the upward projection from the
second cervical (C2) vertebra (axis). This allows the head to rotate from side to side as
when shaking the head “no.” The proximal radioulnar joint is a pivot joint formed by the
head of the radius and its articulation with the ulna. This joint allows for the radius to
rotate along its length during pronation and supination movements of the

Supination and Pronation

Supination and pronation are movements of the forearm. In the anatomical position, the
upper limb is held next to the body with the palm facing forward.

Supination and pronation are the movements of the forearm that go between these two
positions. Pronation is the motion that moves the forearm from the supinated
(anatomical) position to the pronated (palm backward) position. This motion is produced
by rotation of the radius at the proximal radioulnar joint, accompanied by movement of
the radius at the distal radioulnar joint.. This crossing over brings the radius and ulna into
an X-shape position. Supination is the opposite motion, in which rotation of the radius
returns the bones to their parallel positions and moves the palm to the anterior facing
(supinated) position. It helps to remember that supination is the motion you use when
scooping up soup with a spoon (see Figure 2g).
Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion
Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion are movements at the ankle joint, which is a hinge
joint. Lifting the front of the foot, so that the top of the foot moves toward the anterior leg
is dorsiflexion, while lifting the heel of the foot from the ground or pointing the toes
downward is plantar flexion. These are the only movements available at the ankle joint
(see Figure 2h).

Inversion and Eversion

Inversion and eversion are complex movements that involve the multiple plane joints
among the tarsal bones of the posterior foot (intertarsal joints) and thus are not motions
that take place at the ankle joint. Inversion is the turning of the foot to angle the bottom
of the foot toward the midline, while eversion turns the bottom of the foot away from the
midline. The foot has a greater range of inversion than eversion motion. These are
important motions that help to stabilize the foot when walking or running on an uneven
surface and aid in the quick side-to-side changes in direction used during active sports
such as basketball, racquetball, or soccer (see Figure 2i).

Protraction and Retraction

Protraction and retraction are anterior-posterior movements of the scapula or mandible.
Protraction of the scapula occurs when the shoulder is moved forward, as when pushing
against something or throwing a ball. Retraction is the opposite motion, with the scapula
being pulled posteriorly and medially, toward the vertebral column. For the mandible,
protraction occurs when the lower jaw is pushed forward, to stick out the chin, while
retraction pulls the lower jaw backward. (See Figure 2j.)

Depression and Elevation

Depression and elevation are downward and upward movements of the scapula or
mandible. The upward movement of the scapula and shoulder is elevation, while a
downward movement is depression. These movements are used to shrug your shoulders.
Similarly, elevation of the mandible is the upward movement of the lower jaw used to
close the mouth or bite on something, and depression is the downward movement that
produces opening of the mouth (see Figure 2k).

Excursion
Excursion is the side to side movement of the mandible. Lateral excursion moves the
mandible away from the midline, toward either the right or left side. Medial
excursion returns the mandible to its resting position at the midline.
(5 – RULES AND GUIDELINES)
Rules and Responsibilities for Physical Education Class

Food/Drink:

1. No food or drink will be tolerated in the gymnasium. All Food and drink must
be consumed outside of the gymnasium area

2. Students are not to bring breakfast or lunch to class.

Dress:

1. All students must change for physical education class.

2. All students must wear a T-shirt or sweatshirt, shorts or sweatpants, and

sneakers with laces to physical education class.

3. No denim shorts, slip-on sneakers, belts, or work boots are allowed.

4. No IPods, video games or cell phones are allowed during class.

Unprepared:

1. If you are unprepared for class, you should see your teacher as soon as
possible upon arriving to the gym.

2. You must still report to the class if you know you are going to be unprepared!

Make-Up Class:

1. A student may make up a physical education class on Days 2 + 4 at 7:15 am.

2. Make-up class meets in the gym or weight room located down the hall from
the locker rooms.

3. The student must arrive on time, change for class and be prepared to
participate with Mr. Aiello’s class.

4. If a student makes up a class for being unprepared or absent, the unprepared

or absence will be erased.
5. Students must attend make-up class for an unprepared prior to the end of a
marking period. For example, an unprepared in the second marking period
cannot be made-up in the third marking period.

Illness/Injury:

1. If you are unable to participate for a medical/injury reason, the following

applies:

a. 1 Day excuse - Parent note is acceptable

b. More than 1 class – Doctors Note is required

2. Any medical excuse longer than 4 weeks, the student will be given alternative
work to fulfill his/her physical education requirements.

3. Any injury received by the student must be reported to the teacher within
twenty-four (24) hours so that the appropriate paperwork can be completed.
Failure to do so may result in the denial of any available student accident
benefits.

Alternate Excuses (Music lessons, guidance appointments, nurse etc…):

1. Student must report to the gymnasium first and speak to his/her teacher.

2. If student has a pass for the appointment, this pass must be presented to the
teacher before leaving the gym area.

Lateness:

1. If a student is unexcused late to class three times, it is equal to 1 cut.

a. Late out of locker room.

b. Late from previous class period.

c. Late back from prior appointment attended.

GRADING:

In accordance with the Sewanhaka Central High School District policy, the
following criteria will be the basis for grading in all physical education classes:
Participation – 65%

· Students must be properly prepared to participate in class

· Students are expected and urged to participate to the best of his/her

ability during every physical education period.

· Students are expected to conduct themselves in a mature, courteous

manner so all may participate at the highest and safest level possible.

Physical Fitness – 15%

· Determined by the students’ participation in daily warm-up routines and

the Fitness gram fitness assessments (pacer test, mile run, sit ups, shuttle run
and sidestep test) Fitness assessment will be administered every marking period.

Skills – 10%

· Determined by performance in the basic and advanced competencies in

the skills taught during each of the four marking periods.

· Performance in skill and end-of-unit assessments.

Knowledge – 10%

· Assessments of rules, strategies, history of the sport and techniques.