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Workplace Bullying: Organisational Responses
Workplace Bullying: Organisational Responses
Workplace Bullying: Organisational Responses
organisational responses
Dr Michael Sheehan
Senior Lecturer
School of Management
Griffith University
NATHAN Qld 4111
Telephone: 61 7 3875 7456
Fax: 61 7 3875 3887
Email: M.Sheehan@mailbox.gu.edu.au
Keynote address presented at the Adelaide International Workplace Bullying Conference,
Adelaide, South Australia, 20th – 22nd February 2002.
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Workplace Bullying:
organisational responses
Abstract
Workplace bullying has profound implications for organisations and individuals, yet has only
recently been recognised as a major workplace issue that needs to be addressed. To date,
bullying has been considered mainly in an occupational health and safety context. There are,
however, other ways for organisations to develop responses to the problem. In this paper,
those responses are explored within the frameworks of organisational strategy, risk
management, and organisations as learning organisations. The paper begins by suggesting that
addressing organisational responses to workplace bullying should be directed at organisations
in broad terms, as well as to addressing specific organisational interventions. The focus then
turns to an exploration of organisational strategy, the fulfilment of strategy by way of a
strategic plan, and the need to include risk management strategies for addressing workplace
bullying in such a plan. It is argued that one of the reasons that workplace bullying may be
excluded from a strategic plan is that in considering the issue, organisations make a risk
management decision that precludes workplace bullying. A contextual framework for
understanding organisational responses to bullying is then examined within current concepts
of organisations as learning organisations. Building on the concept, it is argued that such
learning allows the organisation to understand workplace bullying and to develop its
responses to the problem through reflection and critical insight. The paper concludes with a
suggested organisational intervention, pointing out that effectively addressing the incidence
and consequences of workplace bullying requires a multifaceted organisational response and
makes good business sense.
(250 words)
Keywords: workplace bullying; strategy; risk management; learning organisation;
intervention
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Introduction
Workplace bullying has profound implications for organisations and individuals, yet has only
recently been recognised as a major workplace issue that needs to be addressed. The concept
extends beyond the traditional conceptualisation of workplace discrimination or harassment,
and is therefore often not explicitly covered under workplace legislation, although there are
developments in a number of countries to make legislative and policy frameworks more
responsive to the issue. To date, bullying has been considered mainly in an occupational
health and safety context. In this context, organisational responses to bullying at work are
often taken up as a means to prevent stress and injury in the workplace as part of occupational
health and safety compliance obligations (Sheehan, McCarthy, Barker & Henderson, 2001).
There are, however, other ways for organisations to develop responses to the problem. In this
paper, I would like to explore those responses within the frameworks of organisational
strategy, risk management, and organisations as learning organisations.
Organisations Defined
An organisation is a somewhat nebulous entity. While the concrete components of an
organisation such as an employee, a building, a motor vehicle or furniture may be visible, the
organisation itself is more indistinct. An organisation is commonly conceptualised in terms of
its social entity, strategy, structure, and culture (Handy, 1993; Wood, Wallace, Zeffane,
Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 1998). An organisation is further conceptualised as existing
within chaotic social systems (Gregersen & Sailer, 1993; Treleaven, 1994) where market
forces, changing government policies, and technological change are seen as driving change
processes. These conceptual elements are variously combined and highlighted in different
definitions of the organisation.
An organisation essentially comprises people or groups of people who interact with each
other to achieve a common set of goals. The interactions are consciously developed and
coordinated and tend to be premeditated. Thus, organisations are, in the first instance, social
entities in which people interact to perform the duties and functions required by the
organisation to achieve its goals (Daft, 1992; Robbins & Barnwell, 1989). As Arnold, Cooper
and Robertson (1998) suggest, however, such a conception suggests a unitary approach to
understanding organisations, one in which the organisation is seen as being a single entity
with united goals. Intuitively, most people would perceive and experience organisations as
more social in nature. In other words, most organisations consist of a number of different
entities with different, and even contradictory, goals. Thus, organisational members may
experience their organisation, work unit or work colleagues differently from the way another
person in the organisation experiences them, especially in terms of power dispersion (Eisner,
1991; Greene, 1990).
A similar conclusion may be drawn for those people who experience workplace bullying,
either first hand, or as witnesses or bystanders, or as those people charged with responsibility
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for implementing organisational policy and procedures, and ensuring that those policies and
procedures are followed. Included in this latter group are managers, supervisors, and human
resource management professionals. Such a social conception of organisations was seen to
suggest that an address focussing on organisational responses to workplace bullying should be
directed at organisations in broad terms, as opposed to an address that might only encompass
specific organisational interventions. Such an approach also means that all organisations may
be embraced, including small, medium and large businesses and organisations, institutions,
employer groups, unions, and community groups. Whatever these organisations provide by
way of a product, they are generally guided by organisational strategy.
Strategy
There have been a number of contributors to the field of organisational strategy, including
Ansoff (1965, 1979, 1987), Hamel and Prahalad (1989), Miles and Snow, (1978), Mintzberg
(1987, 1990), Pettigrew (1987), Porter (1980, 1985, 1991), Prahalad and Hamel (1994), and
Quinn (1978, 1979). Many of these contributors identify the second element of an
organisation as goal direction or goal orientation. While goal direction and goal orientation
are clearly important, the concept of organisational strategy has also surfaced. Strategy may
be seen in broader terms than goals and is viewed as embracing a number of processes and
forces for change including organisational competitiveness, innovation, transformation and
renewal, structure, culture, leadership and learning (Leavy, 1996; Leavy & Wilson, 1994). In
particular, Kakabadse, Ludlow and Vinnicombe (1988) and Tyson (1995) include a planning
perspective, arguing that strategy is an attempt by business planners to exploit the planning
environment so that the organisation's capital and human resources may be maximised. By
understanding the processes and forces for change, and by being able to plan appropriate
strategies for meeting change requirements, an organisation is able to design its strategic
direction.
Strategic plan
A strategic plan provides a systematic framework for an organisation’s strategic goals and the
strategies to be implemented to achieve those goals (Anthony, Perrewé & Kacmar, 1996).
Strategic plans involve developing a business mission, identifying organisational external
opportunities and threats, determining internal strengths and weaknesses, establishing long
term objectives, generating alternative strategies, choosing strategies to pursue, establishing
resource requirements and implementing the plan (Rea & Kerzner, 1997; Tyson, 1995). A
good strategic plan ought to include an assessment of risk. Risk is the possibility that an
expected outcome will not be achieved, or be replaced by another, or that an unforseen event
will occur (Standards Australia AS/NZS 4360).
Likely risks are generally deemed to include natural disaster, new competitor or increased
competitor activity, or a change in product line, new product development, and technological
change. Also included is the inability to predict market fluctuations, changing customer
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expectations, and lack of diversification, where the organisation is too dependent on a small
market and unable to cope when customer tastes and demands change. Other risks considered
are injury to a customer that is caused by a product, a change in the currency rate, being
financially overextended, sabotage, and organisational change. Inadequate or poor
understanding of legislative requirements, such as the Trade Practices Act, Corporations Law,
the Goods and Services Tax and its implications, Occupational Health and Safety legislation,
and Industrial Law, are also included. What is missing from this generally accepted list is
injury to an employee caused by workplace bullying and the consequent damages to the
organisation as a result. One of the reasons that workplace bullying may be excluded is that in
considering the issue, organisations make a risk management decision that precludes
workplace bullying.
Risk Management
Risk Management is a systematic process to identify, analyse, assess and treat risks that may
impact on an organisation’s or an individual’s objectives. There are many reasons why
organisations manage risk. Some organisations consider that the need to be proactive rather
than reactive is important. They want to be able to anticipate change and to take a co
ordinated approach to help manage change in a turbulent environment. Others want to reduce
harm from risk, or improve safety, quality, and business performance. To achieve these
objectives, organisations set the problem in context in terms of overall business objectives,
the organisational structure and the financial base of the organisation. They then segment the
organisation by dividing the business into finance, client base, product or service, the
environment, and legal liability, considering risks in each area, and establishing processes to
deal with the risks. As a final step, risk management strategists ensure that their
considerations are part of the strategic plan.
It may be assumed, therefore, that in fulfilling the foregoing processes, workplace bullying is
considered in a number of ways. The first option is that workplace bullying is assessed, the
risk is deemed possible, and strategies for addressing the problem are included in the strategic
plan. The second option is that the risk is considered surmountable, minimal or nonexistent,
and not included in the strategic plan. The third option is that workplace bullying is not even
considered. The Queensland Working Women’s Service (2000), in their book Risky Business,
has explored the issue of workplace bullying within a risk management framework. Further
discussion of this issue is beyond the scope of this paper, but is an issue I believe is worthy of
future research.
What I want to do now, is to return to a discussion of workplace bullying and organisational
responses within the broader context. Specifically, I want to explore how organisations might
deal with the problem from the perspective of learning, and within a framework of
organisations as learning organisations, rather than from a punitive perspective.
5
Bullying and the Learning Organisation
A contextual framework for understanding organisational responses as they relate to bullying
may be located within current concepts of organisations as learning organisations. This notion
partly stems from Deming’s (1986) management philosophy. Deming proposed that
organisations ought to evolve as learning organisations by developing intrinsic motivations
for knowledge generation and creativity, rather than using extrinsic motivators such as
punishment and reward systems.
The learning organisation holds a vision that is future oriented in terms of its philosophy,
values, mission, and goals. It is said to have a shared understanding, a core set of
competencies, and it is able to differentiate itself from its competitors (Field & Ford, 1995;
Karpin, 1995; Senge, 1992; Quinn 1992). The vision requires top level commitment to face a
number of discrete challenges, including the complexity of change, and the maintenance of
existing attitudes that are often hidden behind a veil of terms such as 'benchmarking', 'world’s
best practice', and 'commitment'. These challenges often obstruct deeper learning, allow
change to be avoided, maintain the status quo, are perceived by organisational members as
rhetoric rather than reality, and are seen as manipulative by organisational members
(Hampson, Ewer & Smith, 1994; McCarthy, Sheehan & Kearns, 1995; Sheehan, 1996). The
challenges may also be seen to obstruct dealing with the problem of workplace bullying.
In the first instance, notions of the learning organisation suggest that a number of conceptual
changes needed to be made in the way organisations are managed. Leadership needs to be
shared rather than hierarchically controlled. A move to more cooperative rather than
confrontational workplaces are envisaged (Sheehan & Jordan, 2000, 2001a, 2001b). An
environment where information about the problem of bullying is shared rather than
controlled, and where there are systems that seek to address the problem, rather than systems
that are rigid, inflexible, and unable to deal with the problem are important (following Field &
Ford, 1995).
In the second instance, notions of the learning organisation suggest that there needs to be a
redistribution of power, with encouragement of critical questioning of systems that appear to
support, or fail to address, bullying by organisational members. Conflict needs to be identified
as a part of organisational life, with systems developed to ensure that conflict is resolved,
rather then leading to the creation of new tensions, conflicts and differences, resulting in a
lack of trust (Sheehan & Jordan, 2000, 2001a, 2001b). Organisations need to develop systems
that support learning and change to replace those that inhibit and block learning (McCarthy,
Sheehan & Kearns, 1995; Peters & Waterman, 1985).
I propose that the utilisation of the framework of a Learning Organisation (Senge, 1992) may
be the most appropriate method of advancing remedial strategies to minimise bullying. The
Learning Organisation (Field & Ford, 1995; Senge, 1992) emphasises the need for
organisations and employees who face change to learn and continuously improve their skills
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and abilities. In that way they move beyond simply adapting to new challenges and into the
realm of generative learning; that is, learning that goes to the very core of what it is to be
human. Adaptive and generative learning are sometimes labelled single loop and double loop
learning (Argyris & Schön, 1978, 1996).
Some discussion of remedial actions to address bullying includes requiring the bullies to
consider the consequences of their own actions (O’Moore, Seigne, McGuire & Smith, 1998;
Sheehan, 1999). Within a learning organisation framework such discussion is considered to be
single loop learning. Seeking to understand the attitudes that lead to the action, that is, double
loop learning, is a more appropriate approach to ameliorate bullying. If double loop learning
is applied to bullying, the focus becomes the systemic antecedents of bullying rather than the
specific actions that are determined to constitute bullying. This type of approach may assist
more appropriate organisational responses that those engendered through the fear of
legislative recriminations.
Learning Programs
The concept of learning, for the purpose of this address, encompasses more than the
acquisition of facts and knowledge about developing organisational responses to workplace
bullying. Learning is also a dynamic social process occurring within a social context that
varies in meaning and understanding for each participant (Sims, 1993). Such variation
suggests that learning needs to be envisioned beyond the narrow confines of knowledge
enhancement about workplace bullying and appropriate organisational responses and into a
broader realm of social and systemic issues that may be seen to contribute to the problem. In
this address, therefore, learning is contextualised as occurring within processes of planned
change by way of organisational responses framed within the context of organisations as
learning organisations.
Building on the concept of the learning organisation as espoused by Senge (1992), I argue that
such learning allows the organisation to learn about workplace bullying and to develop its
responses to the problem through reflection and critical insight (following Sheehan, 2000 &
Vince, 2001). The ability to learn depends on thinking processes, technical skills, security,
role models, interpersonal skills, life pressures, intrapersonal understanding, and
organisational memory. Reflective practice requires support for people to be able to raise
issues about workplace bullying and to be able to critically question the reasons for the
actions of the perpetrator (following Field & Ford, 1995).
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An awareness of the social context in which bullying occurs has been identified as being
important to the learning process in organisations (Einarsen, 1999; Rayner, 1999). The social
context includes organisational change, and the systemic issues that occur as a result of those
changes. Such issues include uncertainty, ambiguity, fear, confusion, a focus on ends and not
means, and workplace stress (Sheehan & Jordan, 2000, 2001a, 2001b). From a progressive
humanist perspective, a positive and supportive work climate aids the application of learning
in the workplace and the development of organisations as learning organisations. I would now
like to suggest an intervention that helps achieve the twin objectives of minimising workplace
bullying while concurrently building a learning organisation.
Intervention
Workplace bullying needs to be considered within the context of responsible and ethical
management practices. As noted by McCarthy (1998), bullying and other forms of workplace
harassment degrade the vitality and viability of work teams. Responsible employers and
managers will take action to prevent bullying at work because doing so makes the workplace
a more positive and effective environment in which all employees are able to work to their
full potential. Such an environment is an admirable aim for a learning organisation.
Addressing workplace bullying is also good business sense, given the aforementioned risk
management strategies. Sheehan et al’s (2001) cost analysis concludes that workplace
bullying may cost those smaller organisations employing fewer than 20 people between
$17,000 and $24,000 per year. However, a larger corporation with, for example, 1,000
employees could expect to incur direct, hidden, and lost opportunity costs of between at least
$0.6 to $3.6 million every year because of workplace bullying. In comparison, the cost of
intervention programs and prevention strategies is marginal.
Within the context of a learning organisation, there are organisational responses that can be
put in place to prevent bullying in the workplace. McCarthy, Henderson, Sheehan and Barker
(in press) have identified a number of organisational practices that a responsible employer
should take. They include:
stated senior level commitment to bullyfree workplaces
an explicit policy statement that workplace bullying will not be tolerated
effective complaint procedures for identifying and reporting incidents that protect the
complainant from retaliation
appropriate grievance mechanisms to address complaints, including both formal grievance
and informal resolution processes, that include support and representation where necessary
8
provision for independent conflict resolution, that is, arranging for independent conflict
resolution procedures where management associates or those charged with the responsibility
for resolving complaints of workplace bullying could allegedly be implicated in the bullying
prompt and effective investigation procedures to review complaints that promote fair
outcomes for all
appropriate responses to substantiated complaints, including disciplinary action, that
correspond to the seriousness with which the organisation views bullying
training on rights and obligations and prevention strategies for all staff at all levels
systems for ongoing monitoring and regular review of the effectiveness and
appropriateness of existing antibullying policies and practices
human resource structures to provide appropriate support and advice to employees
experiencing bullying, including opportunities for skills development to strengthen capacity
to address the bullying at an individual level or to cope with its consequences
organisational risk assessment frameworks that include bullying, so that policy and
practice is informed by sound information on the incidence, nature, and consequences of
bullying on the organisation
Effectively addressing the incidence and consequences of bullying at work requires a multi
faceted organisational response. The scope of the problem and the nature of its impacts make
it a very relevant issue to address within a risk management and learning organisation context.
Those people involved with the development of risk management strategies, and those
involved with learning and development strategies in organisations, such as human resource
management practitioners, may be seen to have an opportunity for the development of
employee capabilities to address workplace bullying. They have an opportunity to design and
implement systems to enhance productivity and effectiveness by reducing the incidence of
workplace bullying, and to introduce learningbased interventions as preventative measures to
improve organisational and individual performance. In this way we may create respect and
dignity at work for all.
9
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12
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