Workplace Bullying: Organisational Responses

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Workplace Bullying:

organisational responses

Dr Michael Sheehan
Senior Lecturer
School of Management
Griffith University
NATHAN Qld 4111

Telephone: 61 7 3875 7456
Fax: 61 7 3875 3887
E­mail: M.Sheehan@mailbox.gu.edu.au

Keynote address presented at the Adelaide International Workplace Bullying Conference, 
Adelaide, South Australia, 20th – 22nd February 2002.

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Workplace Bullying:
organisational responses

Abstract
Workplace bullying has profound implications for organisations and individuals, yet has only 
recently been recognised as a major workplace issue that needs to be addressed. To date, 
bullying has been considered mainly in an occupational health and safety context. There are, 
however, other ways for organisations to develop responses to the problem. In this paper, 
those responses are explored within the frameworks of organisational strategy, risk 
management, and organisations as learning organisations. The paper begins by suggesting that
addressing organisational responses to workplace bullying should be directed at organisations 
in broad terms, as well as to addressing specific organisational interventions. The focus then 
turns to an exploration of organisational strategy, the fulfilment of strategy by way of a 
strategic plan, and the need to include risk management strategies for addressing workplace 
bullying in such a plan. It is argued that one of the reasons that workplace bullying may be 
excluded from a strategic plan is that in considering the issue, organisations make a risk 
management decision that precludes workplace bullying. A contextual framework for 
understanding organisational responses to bullying is then examined within current concepts 
of organisations as learning organisations. Building on the concept, it is argued that such 
learning allows the organisation to understand workplace bullying and to develop its 
responses to the problem through reflection and critical insight. The paper concludes with a 
suggested organisational intervention, pointing out that effectively addressing the incidence 
and consequences of workplace bullying requires a multi­faceted organisational response and 
makes good business sense.

(250 words)

Keywords: workplace bullying; strategy; risk management; learning organisation; 
intervention

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Introduction
Workplace bullying has profound implications for organisations and individuals, yet has only 
recently been recognised as a major workplace issue that needs to be addressed. The concept 
extends beyond the traditional conceptualisation of workplace discrimination or harassment, 
and is therefore often not explicitly covered under workplace legislation, although there are 
developments in a number of countries to make legislative and policy frameworks more 
responsive to the issue. To date, bullying has been considered mainly in an occupational 
health and safety context. In this context, organisational responses to bullying at work are 
often taken up as a means to prevent stress and injury in the workplace as part of occupational
health and safety compliance obligations (Sheehan, McCarthy, Barker & Henderson, 2001). 
There are, however, other ways for organisations to develop responses to the problem. In this 
paper, I would like to explore those responses within the frameworks of organisational 
strategy, risk management, and organisations as learning organisations.

Organisations Defined
An organisation is a somewhat nebulous entity. While the concrete components of an 
organisation such as an employee, a building, a motor vehicle or furniture may be visible, the 
organisation itself is more indistinct. An organisation is commonly conceptualised in terms of 
its social entity, strategy, structure, and culture (Handy, 1993; Wood, Wallace, Zeffane, 
Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 1998). An organisation is further conceptualised as existing 
within chaotic social systems (Gregersen & Sailer, 1993; Treleaven, 1994) where market 
forces, changing government policies, and technological change are seen as driving change 
processes. These conceptual elements are variously combined and highlighted in different 
definitions of the organisation.

An organisation essentially comprises people or groups of people who interact with each 
other to achieve a common set of goals. The interactions are consciously developed and 
coordinated and tend to be premeditated. Thus, organisations are, in the first instance, social 
entities in which people interact to perform the duties and functions required by the 
organisation to achieve its goals (Daft, 1992; Robbins & Barnwell, 1989). As Arnold, Cooper 
and Robertson (1998) suggest, however, such a conception suggests a unitary approach to 
understanding organisations, one in which the organisation is seen as being a single entity 
with united goals. Intuitively, most people would perceive and experience organisations as 
more social in nature. In other words, most organisations consist of a number of different 
entities with different, and even contradictory, goals. Thus, organisational members may 
experience their organisation, work unit or work colleagues differently from the way another 
person in the organisation experiences them, especially in terms of power dispersion (Eisner, 
1991; Greene, 1990).

A similar conclusion may be drawn for those people who experience workplace bullying, 
either first hand, or as witnesses or bystanders, or as those people charged with responsibility 

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for implementing organisational policy and procedures, and ensuring that those policies and 
procedures are followed. Included in this latter group are managers, supervisors, and human 
resource management professionals. Such a social conception of organisations was seen to 
suggest that an address focussing on organisational responses to workplace bullying should be
directed at organisations in broad terms, as opposed to an address that might only encompass 
specific organisational interventions. Such an approach also means that all organisations may 
be embraced, including small, medium and large businesses and organisations, institutions, 
employer groups, unions, and community groups. Whatever these organisations provide by 
way of a product, they are generally guided by organisational strategy.

Strategy
There have been a number of contributors to the field of organisational strategy, including 
Ansoff (1965, 1979, 1987), Hamel and Prahalad (1989), Miles and Snow, (1978), Mintzberg 
(1987, 1990), Pettigrew (1987), Porter (1980, 1985, 1991), Prahalad and Hamel (1994), and 
Quinn (1978, 1979). Many of these contributors identify the second element of an 
organisation as goal direction or goal orientation. While goal direction and goal orientation 
are clearly important, the concept of organisational strategy has also surfaced. Strategy may 
be seen in broader terms than goals and is viewed as embracing a number of processes and 
forces for change including organisational competitiveness, innovation, transformation and 
renewal, structure, culture, leadership and learning (Leavy, 1996; Leavy & Wilson, 1994). In 
particular, Kakabadse, Ludlow and Vinnicombe (1988) and Tyson (1995) include a planning 
perspective, arguing that strategy is an attempt by business planners to exploit the planning 
environment so that the organisation's capital and human resources may be maximised. By 
understanding the processes and forces for change, and by being able to plan appropriate 
strategies for meeting change requirements, an organisation is able to design its strategic 
direction.

Strategic plan
A strategic plan provides a systematic framework for an organisation’s strategic goals and the 
strategies to be implemented to achieve those goals (Anthony, Perrewé & Kacmar, 1996). 
Strategic plans involve developing a business mission, identifying organisational external 
opportunities and threats, determining internal strengths and weaknesses, establishing long­
term objectives, generating alternative strategies, choosing strategies to pursue, establishing 
resource requirements and implementing the plan (Rea & Kerzner, 1997; Tyson, 1995). A 
good strategic plan ought to include an assessment of risk. Risk is the possibility that an 
expected outcome will not be achieved, or be replaced by another, or that an unforseen event 
will occur (Standards Australia AS/NZS 4360).

Likely risks are generally deemed to include natural disaster, new competitor or increased 
competitor activity, or a change in product line, new product development, and technological 
change. Also included is the inability to predict market fluctuations, changing customer 

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expectations, and lack of diversification, where the organisation is too dependent on a small 
market and unable to cope when customer tastes and demands change. Other risks considered 
are injury to a customer that is caused by a product, a change in the currency rate, being 
financially over­extended, sabotage, and organisational change. Inadequate or poor 
understanding of legislative requirements, such as the Trade Practices Act, Corporations Law,
the Goods and Services Tax and its implications, Occupational Health and Safety legislation, 
and Industrial Law, are also included. What is missing from this generally accepted list is 
injury to an employee caused by workplace bullying and the consequent damages to the 
organisation as a result. One of the reasons that workplace bullying may be excluded is that in
considering the issue, organisations make a risk management decision that precludes 
workplace bullying.

Risk Management
Risk Management is a systematic process to identify, analyse, assess and treat risks that may 
impact on an organisation’s or an individual’s objectives. There are many reasons why 
organisations manage risk. Some organisations consider that the need to be proactive rather 
than reactive is important. They want to be able to anticipate change and to take a co­
ordinated approach to help manage change in a turbulent environment. Others want to reduce 
harm from risk, or improve safety, quality, and business performance. To achieve these 
objectives, organisations set the problem in context in terms of overall business objectives, 
the organisational structure and the financial base of the organisation. They then segment the 
organisation by dividing the business into finance, client base, product or service, the 
environment, and legal liability, considering risks in each area, and establishing processes to 
deal with the risks. As a final step, risk management strategists ensure that their 
considerations are part of the strategic plan.

It may be assumed, therefore, that in fulfilling the foregoing processes, workplace bullying is 
considered in a number of ways. The first option is that workplace bullying is assessed, the 
risk is deemed possible, and strategies for addressing the problem are included in the strategic
plan. The second option is that the risk is considered surmountable, minimal or non­existent, 
and not included in the strategic plan. The third option is that workplace bullying is not even 
considered. The Queensland Working Women’s Service (2000), in their book Risky Business, 
has explored the issue of workplace bullying within a risk management framework. Further 
discussion of this issue is beyond the scope of this paper, but is an issue I believe is worthy of 
future research.

What I want to do now, is to return to a discussion of workplace bullying and organisational 
responses within the broader context. Specifically, I want to explore how organisations might 
deal with the problem from the perspective of learning, and within a framework of 
organisations as learning organisations, rather than from a punitive perspective.

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Bullying and the Learning Organisation
A contextual framework for understanding organisational responses as they relate to bullying 
may be located within current concepts of organisations as learning organisations. This notion
partly stems from Deming’s (1986) management philosophy. Deming proposed that 
organisations ought to evolve as learning organisations by developing intrinsic motivations 
for knowledge generation and creativity, rather than using extrinsic motivators such as 
punishment and reward systems.

The learning organisation holds a vision that is future oriented in terms of its philosophy, 
values, mission, and goals. It is said to have a shared understanding, a core set of 
competencies, and it is able to differentiate itself from its competitors (Field & Ford, 1995; 
Karpin, 1995; Senge, 1992; Quinn 1992). The vision requires top level commitment to face a 
number of discrete challenges, including the complexity of change, and the maintenance of 
existing attitudes that are often hidden behind a veil of terms such as 'benchmarking', 'world’s 
best practice', and 'commitment'. These challenges often obstruct deeper learning, allow 
change to be avoided, maintain the status quo, are perceived by organisational members as 
rhetoric rather than reality, and are seen as manipulative by organisational members 
(Hampson, Ewer & Smith, 1994; McCarthy, Sheehan & Kearns, 1995; Sheehan, 1996). The 
challenges may also be seen to obstruct dealing with the problem of workplace bullying.

In the first instance, notions of the learning organisation suggest that a number of conceptual 
changes needed to be made in the way organisations are managed. Leadership needs to be 
shared rather than hierarchically controlled. A move to more co­operative rather than 
confrontational workplaces are envisaged (Sheehan & Jordan, 2000, 2001a, 2001b). An 
environment where information about the problem of bullying is shared rather than 
controlled, and where there are systems that seek to address the problem, rather than systems 
that are rigid, inflexible, and unable to deal with the problem are important (following Field &
Ford, 1995).

In the second instance, notions of the learning organisation suggest that there needs to be a 
redistribution of power, with encouragement of critical questioning of systems that appear to 
support, or fail to address, bullying by organisational members. Conflict needs to be identified
as a part of organisational life, with systems developed to ensure that conflict is resolved, 
rather then leading to the creation of new tensions, conflicts and differences, resulting in a 
lack of trust (Sheehan & Jordan, 2000, 2001a, 2001b). Organisations need to develop systems 
that support learning and change to replace those that inhibit and block learning (McCarthy, 
Sheehan & Kearns, 1995; Peters & Waterman, 1985).

I propose that the utilisation of the framework of a Learning Organisation (Senge, 1992) may 
be the most appropriate method of advancing remedial strategies to minimise bullying. The 
Learning Organisation (Field & Ford, 1995; Senge, 1992) emphasises the need for 
organisations and employees who face change to learn and continuously improve their skills 

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and abilities. In that way they move beyond simply adapting to new challenges and into the 
realm of generative learning; that is, learning that goes to the very core of what it is to be 
human. Adaptive and generative learning are sometimes labelled single loop and double loop 
learning (Argyris & Schön, 1978, 1996).

Double loop learning


In order to address the consequences of workplace bullying, we need to move beyond the 
focus on the people who have experienced bullying, and those who have been labelled as 
bullies, to explore ways of dealing with the deeper systemic issues that contribute to the 
problem.

Some discussion of remedial actions to address bullying includes requiring the bullies to 
consider the consequences of their own actions (O’Moore, Seigne, McGuire & Smith, 1998; 
Sheehan, 1999). Within a learning organisation framework such discussion is considered to be
single loop learning. Seeking to understand the attitudes that lead to the action, that is, double 
loop learning, is a more appropriate approach to ameliorate bullying. If double loop learning 
is applied to bullying, the focus becomes the systemic antecedents of bullying rather than the 
specific actions that are determined to constitute bullying. This type of approach may assist 
more appropriate organisational responses that those engendered through the fear of 
legislative recriminations.

Learning Programs
The concept of learning, for the purpose of this address, encompasses more than the 
acquisition of facts and knowledge about developing organisational responses to workplace 
bullying. Learning is also a dynamic social process occurring within a social context that 
varies in meaning and understanding for each participant (Sims, 1993). Such variation 
suggests that learning needs to be envisioned beyond the narrow confines of knowledge 
enhancement about workplace bullying and appropriate organisational responses and into a 
broader realm of social and systemic issues that may be seen to contribute to the problem. In 
this address, therefore, learning is contextualised as occurring within processes of planned 
change by way of organisational responses framed within the context of organisations as 
learning organisations.

Building on the concept of the learning organisation as espoused by Senge (1992), I argue that
such learning allows the organisation to learn about workplace bullying and to develop its 
responses to the problem through reflection and critical insight (following Sheehan, 2000 & 
Vince, 2001). The ability to learn depends on thinking processes, technical skills, security, 
role models, interpersonal skills, life pressures, intrapersonal understanding, and 
organisational memory. Reflective practice requires support for people to be able to raise 
issues about workplace bullying and to be able to critically question the reasons for the 
actions of the perpetrator (following Field & Ford, 1995).

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An awareness of the social context in which bullying occurs has been identified as being 
important to the learning process in organisations (Einarsen, 1999; Rayner, 1999). The social 
context includes organisational change, and the systemic issues that occur as a result of those 
changes. Such issues include uncertainty, ambiguity, fear, confusion, a focus on ends and not 
means, and workplace stress (Sheehan & Jordan, 2000, 2001a, 2001b). From a progressive­
humanist perspective, a positive and supportive work climate aids the application of learning 
in the workplace and the development of organisations as learning organisations. I would now
like to suggest an intervention that helps achieve the twin objectives of minimising workplace
bullying while concurrently building a learning organisation.

Intervention
Workplace bullying needs to be considered within the context of responsible and ethical 
management practices. As noted by McCarthy (1998), bullying and other forms of workplace 
harassment degrade the vitality and viability of work teams. Responsible employers and 
managers will take action to prevent bullying at work because doing so makes the workplace 
a more positive and effective environment in which all employees are able to work to their 
full potential. Such an environment is an admirable aim for a learning organisation.

Addressing workplace bullying is also good business sense, given the aforementioned risk 
management strategies. Sheehan et al’s (2001) cost analysis concludes that workplace 
bullying may cost those smaller organisations employing fewer than 20 people between 
$17,000 and $24,000 per year. However, a larger corporation with, for example, 1,000 
employees could expect to incur direct, hidden, and lost opportunity costs of between at least 
$0.6 to $3.6 million every year because of workplace bullying. In comparison, the cost of 
intervention programs and prevention strategies is marginal.

Within the context of a learning organisation, there are organisational responses that can be 
put in place to prevent bullying in the workplace. McCarthy, Henderson, Sheehan and Barker 
(in press) have identified a number of organisational practices that a responsible employer 
should take. They include:

 stated senior level commitment to bully­free workplaces

 an explicit policy statement that workplace bullying will not be tolerated

 effective complaint procedures for identifying and reporting incidents that protect the 
complainant from retaliation 

 appropriate grievance mechanisms to address complaints, including both formal grievance
and informal resolution processes, that include support and representation where necessary 

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 provision for independent conflict resolution, that is, arranging for independent conflict 
resolution procedures where management associates or those charged with the responsibility 
for resolving complaints of workplace bullying could allegedly be implicated in the bullying

 prompt and effective investigation procedures to review complaints that promote fair 
outcomes for all

 appropriate responses to substantiated complaints, including disciplinary action, that 
correspond to the seriousness with which the organisation views bullying

 training on rights and obligations and prevention strategies for all staff at all levels

 systems for ongoing monitoring and regular review of the effectiveness and 
appropriateness of existing anti­bullying policies and practices 

 human resource structures to provide appropriate support and advice to employees 
experiencing bullying, including opportunities for skills development to strengthen capacity 
to address the bullying at an individual level or to cope with its consequences

 organisational risk assessment frameworks that include bullying, so that policy and 
practice is informed by sound information on the incidence, nature, and consequences of 
bullying on the organisation

Effectively addressing the incidence and consequences of bullying at work requires a multi­
faceted organisational response. The scope of the problem and the nature of its impacts make 
it a very relevant issue to address within a risk management and learning organisation context.
Those people involved with the development of risk management strategies, and those 
involved with learning and development strategies in organisations, such as human resource 
management practitioners, may be seen to have an opportunity for the development of 
employee capabilities to address workplace bullying. They have an opportunity to design and 
implement systems to enhance productivity and effectiveness by reducing the incidence of 
workplace bullying, and to introduce learning­based interventions as preventative measures to
improve organisational and individual performance. In this way we may create respect and 
dignity at work for all.

9
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