RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF

 

MODERN EUROPE
 

 
CULTURAL AND REGIONAL ECONOMY OF EUROPE
 
AUTHOR: Andrea Ramírez Ruiz
 

 
 INICIO  

• Academic  Recommendations  
• Thematic  development    
1. Changes  produced  to  reach  the  Modern  Age    
2. European  Expansion  in  the  Modern  Age    
2.1. Geographical  discoveries  
3. Major  changes  to  social  and  political  Level  
3.1. Authoritarian  monarchies  
3.2. Absolutism  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  
4. Evolution  of  the  economy  and  the  European  Trade  
4.1. Trade  relations  between  America  and  Europe  in  the  16th  century  
4.2. Mercantilism    
4.3. Mercantilism  as  a  political  doctrine:  the  formation  of  European  states  
4.4. End  of  mercantilism  
4.5. Economic  development  in  Europe    
4.6. New  business  prosperity    
5. European  culture  in  the  modern  age  
5.1. Humanism    
5.2. The  Renaissance    
5.3. Baroque    
• References    

2 POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO
 ACADEMIC  RECOMMENDATIONS  

The  main  recommendation  is  to  dedicate  enough  time  required  for  appropriating  the  elements  
of  the  course,  to  read  and  analyze  all  the  readings  proposed  in  this  course.    I  suggest  to  review  
the   entire   virtual   course,   as   well   as   the   timing   and   activity   guide,   to   have   knowledge   of   all  
activities  with  the  week  and  date  they  are  made.  It  is  also  important  to  check  your  percentage  of  
the  note  relative  to  the  course.  

THEMATIC  DEVELOPMENT    

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CULTURAL AND REGIONAL ECONOMY OF EUROPE 3
 1. Changes  produced  to  reach  the  Modern  Age  

The  Modern  Age  began  in  the  late  15th  century  and  is  marked  by  two  major  events:  the  fall  of  
Constantinople  in  hands  of  the  Turks  (1453)  and  the  discovery  of  America  (1492).  This  period  
culminates  in  the  eighteenth  century  with  the  French  Revolution  in  1789.  

After   the   terrible   crisis   that   hit   Europe   in   the   14th   century,   which   made   that   Europe   lose   among  
the  30  and  40  percent  of  the  population,  during  the  15th  century  a  slow  recovery  starts  thanks  to  
the  improving  of  weather  and  good  harvests.  European  recovery  shows  a  series  of  changes  that  
give  rise  to  the  modern  age  and  characterize  its  economy,  its  society  and  politics.        

The  modern  age  is  characterized  as  a  time  of  profound  changes  in  Europe:  economically,  with  the  
transition   between   feudalism   and   capitalism;   and   socially,   with   the   consolidation   of   absolute  
power  of  monarchs,  as  well  as  major  criticism  of  this  power.  On  the  commercial  side,  Europe  is  
venturing   into   the   search   for   new   paths   hand   in   hand   with   science,   which   is   structured   in   its  
different   branches,   allowing   the   creation   of   different   inventions,   in   turn   promoters,   and   the  
exploration  and  discovery  of  new  lands.  Besides,  The  division  of  the  church  with  the  appearance  
of   Protestantism.   In   short,   a   time   of   significant   changes   that   made   possible   the   fast   subsequent  
transformations  of  the  19th  and  20th  centuries.    

2. European  Expansion  in  the  Modern  Age  

In  the  last  years  of  the  15th  century  and  during  the  16th  century  huge  geographical  discoveries  
were   made   by   Europe   initiative,   specifically   two   kingdoms   south-­‐west   Europe:   Castile   and  
Portugal.  There  were  different  causes  to  begin  this  process.  Economically,  there  was  a  marked  
need  for  new  trade  routes  to  the  East,  since  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  the  traditional  
Mediterranean  routes,  especially  the  silk  and  spice  were  hampered  by  the  Turks  and  monopolized  
by  the  Italian  cities.    

 It  is  considered  that  the  development  that  begins  to  acquire  Europe  made  necessary  the  arrival  
of  precious  metals  to  make  money.  The  ruling  classes  and  the  bourgeoisie,  increased  consumption  
of  luxury  goods,  and  the  use  of  spices  to  preserve  and  flavor  foods.  

A  political  and  religious  level,  Castile  and  Portugal  were  concluding  their  reconquest  processes  of  
the  Iberian  Peninsula,  which  had  been  held  by  Muslims.  That  momentum  was  beyond  the  ocean  
in  a  desire  to  increase  territories  and  bring  the  Christian  religion  beyond  Europe.  Moreover,  in  
technology,   the   cartographic   development   and   the   creation   of   new   instruments   such   as   the  
compass,  the  astrolabe  and  the  caravel,  facilitated  navigating  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic.          

4 POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO
 2.1. Time  of  geographical  discoveries  

After  the  discovery  of  America  in  1492  by  Christopher  Columbus,  talks  about  the  control  of  new  
routes  and  territories  between  Portugal  and  Spain  were  initiated.  Thus,  on  June  7th  of  1494,  was  
signed  with  the  mediation  of  the  Pope,  the  Treaty  of  Tordesillas,  agreement  that  delimited  the  
zones  of  influence  of  Castile  and  Portugal  divided  the  world  into  two  halves.  Soon  a  monopoly  of  
major  routes  would  be  created  for  the  Iberian  kingdoms.          

The  expansion  to  the  western  world,  was  consolidated  later  with  England  and  France  to  the  north  
of  Mexico,  during  the  17th  century.  European  states  seeking  to  consolidate  its  eastward  expansion  
with  the  creation  of  the  East  India  Company  by  the  British  in  1600,  and  similar  companies  by  the  
Dutch   and   the   French.   These   entities   were   responsible   not   only   to  monopolize  the  trade  and  
navigation   of   these   countries   with   their   colonies,   but   also   to   control   the   slave   trade.   It   is  
noteworthy  that  they  were  equipped  with  a  number  of  political  and  administrative  prerogatives,  
similar  to  those  that  had  the  “Casa  de  Contratación”  (Contracting  House)  -­‐founded  by  the  Spanish  
in  Seville  in  1503.          

3. Major  changes  to  social  and  political  level  

At   the   social   level   a   new   class   appeared,   the   commercial   bourgeoisie,   which   had   capital   and  
controls  the  production  process,  from  procurement  of  raw  materials  to  the  sale  of  the  finished  
product.  They  took  the  power  of  cities  with  the  help  of  the  king,  and  economic  activity  made  the  
cities  become  again  the  center  of  society,  contributing  to  the  growth  of  the  urban  population.      

On  the  other  hand,  the  peasants  revolted  against  the  nobles  and  got  rid  of  personal  servitude.  
Many   of   them   fled   to   the   cities   under   pressure   from   the   lords,   who   wanted   to   increase   their  
incomes  demanding  more  taxes.  Cities  grew  and  in  them  this  new  class  of  laborers,  who  no  longer  
depended  on  the  power  of  the  nobility.  (Educa  Madrid,  2016)    

The  nobility  lost  part  of  its  political  and  military  power,  so  even  trying  to  maintain  their  privileges,  
opposing  the  bourgeois  and  the  king,  fails.  That's  when  the  monarchy  arises.    

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CULTURAL AND REGIONAL ECONOMY OF EUROPE 5
 3.1. Authoritarian  monarchies  

The  authoritarian  monarchy  as  a  political  model  of  transition  between  the  feudal  monarchy  and  
the   Absolut   monarchy,   was   the   essential   political   change   in   the   Middle   Ages   ends   and   the  
beginning  of  the  Modern  age,  the  Kings,  whose  power  had  been  limited  by  the  nobility  during  the  
Middle  Ages,  had  struggled  to  gather  in  their  hands  the  maximum  possible  power;  and  the  late  
fifteenth  century  or  early  sixteenth  some  of  the  monarchies  managed  to  collect  a  lot  of  power;  
these  are  called  authoritarian.  (Gobierno  de  España,  2016)  

The  authoritarian  monarchy  is  a  system  of  government  in  which  the  rulers  have  an  own  army,  a  
system  of  tax  collection  and  administration,  so  its  power  cannot  be  challenged  by  nobility,  church  
or  cities.  

In  the  15th  century  the  authoritarian  monarchy  in  Castile  and  Aragon  is  imposed,  with  the  Catholic  
Monarchs  (Ferdinand  and  Isabella),  with  Francis  I  in  France  and  in  England  with  Enrique  VXIII.  

Monarchy in Spain  

The   marriage   of   Isabel   of   Castile   and   Ferdinand   of   Aragon,   the   Catholic   Monarchs,   led   to   the  
dynastic   union   of   the   two   most   important   crowns   of   the   Iberian   Peninsula.   However,   this   union  
did   not   involve   an   institutional   unit,   as   each   kingdom   continued   to   have   their   own   courts,   laws,  
languages,  institutions  and  coins.  The  different  kingdoms  which  made  up  the  possessions  of  the  
Catholic   Monarchs   had   in   common   only   the   monarchs.   Only   the   religious   policy,   foreign   and  
military  policy  were  common  in  both  crowns.            

An  example  of  this  was  when  on  March  31st,  1492  the  Catholic  Monarchs  signed  in  the  palace  of  
the   Alhambra   the   decree   of   expulsion   of   the   Jews.   The   path   of   exile   led   the   Castilian   and  
Aragonese   Jews   mainly   to   Portugal   and   Navarre,   kingdoms   where   later   they   also   would   be  
expelled;  and  to  a  lesser  extent  to  Flanders,  North  Africa,  Italy  and  the  Mediterranean  territories  
of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  where  the  sultan  welcomed  them.  (Gobierno  de  Aragon,  2016)  .  The  
consequences  were  severe  for  commercial  and  financial  activities.  

3.2. Absolutism  in  the  17 th  and  18 th  centuries  

Although  from  a  formal  point  of  view,  all  power  resided  in  the  monarch,  in  practice  it  was  aided  
by  some  institutions  that  advising  and  executed  their  mandates.  The  main  governing  body  was  
the   State   Council,   whose   members   were   designated   by   the   king.   The   increasing   complexity   of  
government  affairs,  especially  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  made  a  subdivision  into  sections:  
Council  of  Finance,  Justice,  War,  and  became  common  the  designation  of  Secretaries  of  State,  
comparable  to  current  ministers.  (Santos,  2016)  

The   local   administration   was   in   the   hands   of   governors   or   mayors,   or   other   types   of   charges,  
which  were  given  the  power  to  enforce  laws,  maintain  order,  directing  public  works,  industry,  

6 POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO
 trade,   or   any   matter   of   territorial   government.   These   charges   depended   on   the   monarch   and  
were  revocable  at  will.  

Finally,   a   legion   of   officials   and   bureaucrats   was   in   charge   of   execute   the   royal   orders,  
administering  justice,  collecting  taxes,  etc.  Its  work  and  its  presence  throughout  the  territory  were  
essential  to  run  the  complex  state  machinery.    

The  power  of  the  sovereign  was  restricted,  however,  by  divine  law,  which  was  submitted  as  any  
other;  by  natural  law,  set  of  rules  formed  by  custom  and  tradition;  and  the  fundamental  laws  of  
each   kingdom,   expressing   a   minimum   agreement   between   the   monarch   and   his   subjects,   the  
monarch  had  to  accept  at  the  time  of  his  coronation.  The  last  case  involves  the  limitations  that  
parliaments,  courts  or  the  General  States  imposed  to  the  monarch.  

Since  the  late  Middle  Ages  was  frequently  that  to  the  Court  formed  by  nobles  and  priests  who  
advised   the   king,   joined   the   representatives   of   cities   (bourgeois).   These   three   groups   constitute  
the   courts   or   parliaments.   Their   role   was   very   limited   and   should   not   be   confused   with   modern  
parliaments.  Each  estate  deliberated  separately  and  as  a  group  voted  against  the  proposals  of  the  
monarch.   They   only   had   certain   attributions   in   tax   matters,   made   up   for   the   monarch   in  
exceptional   situations   and   ratify   by   the   new   kings.   But   still,   the   absolute   monarchs   tried   to  
marginalize  parliaments,  which  could  hinder  the  exercise  of  absolute  power,  and  only  resorted  to  
convene  them  in  external  situations,  to  ask  for  tax  increases  or  economic  aid.    

4. Evolution  of  the  economy  and  European  trade  

With  the  European  expansion  different  changes  occurred  economically.  Additionally,  once  seated  
the  settlers,  sought  sources  of  stable  resources  and  demanded  that  the  Crown  concession  of  land  
and   mines.   It   was   so   the   lands   were   divided   among   the   settlers,   and   for   working   them   was  
established  the  encomienda  system.        

4.1. Trade  relations  between  America  and  Europe  in  the  16 th  century  

The  new  American  territories  represented  a  major  source  of  income  for  Castile,  especially  for  the  
Crown,  as  in  the  16th  century  began  to  exploit  important  mines  of  gold  and  silver  in  America.  As  a  
result,  there  was  a  high  demand  for  consumer  products  in  the  new  lands;  also  trade  with  America,  
that  monopolized  Castile,  experienced  a  great  development.  This  business  growth  focused  on  the  
Castilians   Atlantic   ports,   especially   in   Seville,   from   where   all   boats   left   and   came.   The   rapid  
discovery  of  gold  and  silver  made  rules  for  the  operation  and  marketing  of  these  metals  were  
issued.   To   control   the   trade,   the   “Casa   de   Contratación”   (Contracting   House)   of   Seville   was  
created  in  1503.      

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CULTURAL AND REGIONAL ECONOMY OF EUROPE 7
 However,   the   massive   influx   of   precious   metals   from   America   caused   the   rise   in   prices   and  
decreased  the  purchasing  power  of  the  popular  classes  and  their  standard  of  living.  Instead  of  
creating  national  industries  or  improve  agriculture,  Spain  spent  American  gold  to  finance  wars  
and  pay  for  imported  products  from  Europe,  which  were  of  higher  quality  and  more  competitive  
prices.    

Domestic  investment  did  not  benefit  the  economy,  since  in  Spain  the  cultivated  area  extended  
thanks  to  the  increase  of  population  and  the  demand  of  products.  The  craft  also  grew  in  the  first  
half  of  the  16th  century.  However,  it  was  losing  competitiveness  on  foreign  production  because  of  
technological  backwardness  and  lower  quality.      

The  economy  became  global,  products  and  raw  materials  crossed  the  oceans  and  the  merchants  
and  large  commercial  companies  got  rich.  The  bourgeoisie  is  the  protagonist  of  this  mercantilist  
economy  and  post-­‐industrial  economy.  Arises  then,  a  thriving  mercantilism  between  1550  and  
1750,  hand  in  hand  of  two  closely  related  phenomena:  the  emergence  of  colonial  powers  (Spain,  
Portugal,  England,  France  and  Holland)  and  a  large  trade  growth.  

4.2. Mercantilism  

It   is   the   17th   century   that   marks   the   rise   of   mercantilist   policies   in   Europe,   as   a   result   of   high  
growth  of  colonial  trade,  European  merchant  marine,  production  and  looting  of  precious  metals  
in  Mexico  and  Peru.  The  fact  allow  the  growth  of  the  money  supply  in  Europe.    

For  example,  two  governments  which  applied  mercantilist  policies  were:  first,  Oliver  Cromwell  in  
England,   which   sought   to   promote   trade,   allowed   the   return   of   the   Jews   to   the   country   and  
enacted  the  first  Navigation  Act  in  1651.  Second,  Jean  Baptiste  Colbert  in  France,  who  reformed  
finance   and   justice   in   that   country,   promoted   trade   and   industry   and   through   navigation   and  
protectionists  laws.  (Rojas,  2016)    

4.3. Mercantilism  as  a  political  doctrine:  the  formation  of  the  European  states  

Mercantilist  interest  in  increasing  political  and  military  power  of  states  derived  policies  in  search  
of  surplus  trade  with  other  countries  because  they  could  accumulate  gold  and  precious  metals,  
which  would  allow  to  that  state  to  enter  into  wars  and  win  them.  Under  this  modality  in  trade,  
there  would  always  winners  and  losers.          

The   policy   of   the   governments   of   France   and   England   was   protectionist,   sought   to   promote  
exports  (except  arms  and  some  other  products)  and  to  restrict  or  discourage  imports  (excluding  
raw  materials  needed).  For  this  purpose  to  export  and  therefore  produce  more,  It  was  necessary  
not   only   promote   the   growth   of   the   population   for   greater   workforce,   but   also   keep   low   wages  
to  reduce  production  costs  of  exports  and  consumption  of  workers.  Interest  rates  had  to  be  kept  
low.  

8 POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO
 A   very   important   aspect   of   mercantilist   policies   was   the   monopolization   of   trade   with   the  
colonies.  European  cities  saw  their  colonies  both  as  a  source  of  precious  metals  and  raw  materials,  
as   a   potential   source   of   demand   for   exports.   Hence,   trade   with   these   colonies   ought   to   be  
monopolized.  In  England,  for  example,  Acts  of  Navigation  (Navigation  Acts)  were  enacted  in  1651  
and  1660,  establishing  that  its  imports  should  be  done  in  English  ships  or  ships  from  the  country  
of  origin,  that  trade  with  its  colonies  should  be  carried  out  by  English,  in  English  ships,  with  an  
English   crew,   and   that   some   products   such   as   sugar,   tobacco   and   cotton   produced   in   the  
American  colonies  could  only  be  exported  to  British  ports;  a  practice  called  "enumeration."        

These   Acts,   which   originally   looked   for   excluding   the   powerful   Dutch   merchant   marine   British  
trade,   ended   up   serving   to   monopolize   the   English   colonial   trade.   Its   reinforcement   in   1764,  
increased  the  discontent,  leading  to  revolution  for  American  independence  from  England  in  1776.  
In  addition,  other  European,  such  as  Spain  and  France,  colonial  powers  had  similar  rules  to  those  
Acts  of  Navigation.  

4.4. End  of  mercantilism  

During  the  second  half,  the  18th  century  witnessed  major  changes  that  marked  the  end  of  the  
primacy  of  mercantilist  policies.  On  the  one  hand,  there  is  the  beginning  of  the  collapse  of  the  
colonial  powers  with  the  American  Revolution  in  1776  and  the  decline  of  absolutism  which  marks  
the  French  Revolution  of  1789,  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  beginning  of  the  Industrial  Revolution  
in  England.  Finally,  it  is  also  the  beginning  of  important  intellectual  changes  as  the  publication  of  
Adam  Smith's  "The  Wealth  of  Nations"  in  1776.  

4.5. Economic  development  in  Europe  

Economically,   the   passage   of   an   agrarian   and   rural   economy   to   an   urban   and   commercial  
economy  began,  the  capital  was  introduced  to  the  world  of  work  and  appeared  the  figure  of  the  
merchant,   who   controlled   the   process   of   production   and   sold   processed   products-­‐calling   to   this  
process  pre-­‐capitalism  or  commercial  capitalism.  Trade  acquired  a  boom  that  after  the  discovery  
of  new  territories,  came  to  have  global  dimensions.      

On  the  other  hand,  the  craftsmanship  of  "associations"  dominated  in  most  industrial  production.  
The   guild   began   to   produce   custom-­‐made/on   request,   thus   showing   the   entrepreneur   who  
manufactured  for  a  market  through  contracts  with  peasant  families  or  employees  in  a  workshop.  
The  workshop  that  produced  new  objects  such  as  weapons  or  objects  of  luxury  and  usually  owned  
by   the   monarch,   was   known   as   "manufacturing   system".   In   any   case,   the   artisan   production  
increased  dramatically.  (Moya,  2016)  

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 4.6. New  business  prosperity  

Early  societies  arose,  in  which  each  of  the  partners  contributed  a  portion  of  the  capital  and  ran  
with  the  corresponding  proportion  of  profit  and  risk.  Sometimes  capital  providers  did  not  manage  
the  trip,  instead  a  man  without  money  in  exchange  but  for  a  share  of  the  profits  did  it.  

As  the  fortune  grew,  some  merchants  expanded  their  activities  to  finance  and  became  lenders.  
Its  main  clients  were  the  kings  who  were  trying  to  finance  armies  to  the  constant  wars  of  the  15th  
and   16th   centuries   and   also   the   church,   princes   and   dukes.   Usurious   interest   rates   charged   to  
lenders  increased  their  wealth,  the  powerful  bankers  of  the  monarchs  got  important  privileges  
such  as  the  right  to  collect  taxes  or  to  exploit  metal  deposits.  

As  a  result  of  the  above,  banking  and  insurance  had  an  unstoppable  development,  what  favored  
the   circulation   of   the   currency   and   the   appearance   of   the   Exchange,   arose   because  
"corporations".   This   is   how   an   enormous   amount   of   precious   metals   came   from   America  
produced  a  terrible  inflation.  

These   large   business   required   new   accounting   practices,   calculation   and   forecasting   was  
introduced  at  each  step.  The  pursuit  of  profit  or  gain  brought  a  rational  control  of  operations.  
Came   the   first   accounting   books,   which   recorded   in   detail   income   and   expenses,   profits   and  
losses.   Companies   regardless   of   their   owners,   were   constituted   with   existence   and   its   own  
patrimony.  For  many  authors  these  changes  make  it  possible  to  speak  of  a  mercantile  capitalism.  

5. European  culture  in  the  Modern  Age  

The  fifteenth  century  is  marked  by  changes  in  mentality  at  the  time,  produced  by  an  immense  
desire  for  knowledge  that  places  man  at  the  center  of  the  universe,  this  gives  way  to  Humanism.  

5.1. Humanism  

The   modern   era   is   characterized   by   the   dominance   of   a   new   current   of   thought   that   puts   at   the  
center  of  their  concerns  to  the  human  being,  as  opposed  to  theistic  currents  that  put  God,  or  
several  gods,  as  the  center  of  interest.  The  look  changes,  moves  from  God  to  man.  We're  talking  
about  Humanism.      

Humanism  can  be  defined  as  the  intellectual  dimension  of  the  Renaissance.  Born  in  Italy,  in  cities  
like  Rome,  Venice  and  Florence  especially,  from  where  it  spread  to  other  countries  in  Europe,  
mainly   the   Netherlands.   Humanists   wanted   to   answer   the   questions   of   their   time   using   both  
Christianity  and  the  Greco-­‐Roman  philosophy,  creating  an  intellectual  system  characterized  by  
the  supremacy  of  man  over  nature.  Its  intention  was  to  develop  a  critical  spirit  and  full  confidence  
in  their  own  possibilities.  (Educarchile,  2016)  

10 POLITÉCNICO GRANCOLOMBIANO
      

Figure 1. Da Vinci Humanism  

Source: aimy27feb (s.f.)  

In  Florence  an  important  academy  was  created  with  the  support  of  the  Medicis  and  patrons  -­‐  
people  with  economic  or  political  power  that  supported,  protected  and  received  in  their  palaces  
the  new  artists  emerged.  Protected  by  the  patrons,  many  intellectuals  and  artists  could  realize  
their  works.  

5.2. The  Renaissance  

This  movement  began  in  the  Italian  and  Flemish  cities,  but  eventually  was  extending  its  influence  
to   the   rest   of   Europe.   Initially,   the   term   Renaissance   had   a   sense   above   all   cultural   and   referred  
to  a  return  to  a  "rebirth"  of  ancient  cultures  of  Greece  and  Rome.  However,  it  went  further,  there  
were   a   series   of   transformations   that   affected   the   economy,   social   structure,   the   way   to  
understand  the  government  and  the  culture  in  general.  

For  the  architecture,  development  of  proportion,  harmony  and  perspective  was  sought,  it  broke  
with   Gothic   forms   and   Roman   forms   were   imitated.   Classic   architectural   elements   like   the  
semicircular   arch,   columns   of   the   classical   orders,   centralized   plants   and   covers   of   barrel   vaults,  
were  applied  to  buildings  such  as  churches,  civil  buildings  (palaces,  hospitals,  libraries,  etc.).  

Painting   and   sculpture   were   inspired   by   classical   models.   The   topics   were   varied:   religious,  
mythological,   historical,   portraits,   daily   life,   etc.,   as   it   was   the   custom   made.   Since   then,   the  
author   would   be   recognized   as   someone   important   who   signed   his   works,   after   having   been  
entrusted  with  a  job.  

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 Outside  Italy,  Renaissance  swept  through  France  and  Germany,  where  the  painter  Albrecht  Dürer  
stands;  Netherlands,  with  Bosch  and  Brueghel  the  elder;  and  Spain,  where  the  Plateresque  style  
in  architecture  was  developed.  Sculpture  highlighted  Berruguete,  Juni;  and  painting,  “El  Greco”.  

5.3. Baroque  

The  seventeenth  century  is  the  Baroque  culture.  While  the  term  "baroque"  applies  to  art,  this  can  
be  extended  to  all  fields  of  knowledge:  science,  philosophy  and  art.      

Science  continues  the  path  begun  in  the  Renaissance  and  will  definitely  triumph  the  reason  and  
experimentation   as   knowledge   bases,   questioning   knowledge   that   had   been   taken   for   certain  
traditionally.   Highlights   the   work   of   the   philosopher   Descartes,   who   defended   his   philosophy  
classified   as   rational,   methodical   doubt,   to   employ   the   procedure   of   complete   and   doubt   to  
eliminate  every  belief  that  does  not  pass  the  test  of  indubitability  that  means,  everything  is  untrue  
until  proved  true.  

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 REFERENCES    

Educa  Madrid.  (01  de  june  de  2016).  Educa  Madrid.  Obtenido  de  Edad  moderna:  
http://www.educa.madrid.org/web/cepa.arganda/sociedad_n1/Temas/LA%20EDAD%20MODE
RNA.htm  

Educarchile.  (02  de  june  de  2016).  educarchile.  Obtenido  de  La  Epoca  Moderna  y  el  Humanismo:  
http://www.educarchile.cl/ech/pro/app/detalle?id=133380  

Gobierno  de  Aragon.  (02  de  june  de  2016).  Gobierno  de  Aragon.  Obtenido  de  Los  Reyes  
Católicos:  
http://www.aularagon.org/files/espa/espad/sociales/bloque2/Unidad_05/pagina_8.html  

Gobierno  de  España.  (02  de  june  de  2016).  Gobierno  de  España.  Obtenido  de  El  nacimiento  des  
estado  moderno:  http://iris.cnice.mec.es/kairos/ensenanzas/eso/moderna/emoderno_00.html  

Jalobeanu,  D.  (2012).  Francis  Bacon's  Natural  History  and  the  Senecan  Natural  Histories  of  Early  
Modern  Europe.  Early  Science  &  Medicine,  17(1/2),  197-­‐229.  doi:10.1163/157338212X631846  

Martini,  M.,  &  Bellavitis,  A.  (2014).  Household  economies,  social  norms  and  practices  of  unpaid  
market  work  in  Europe  from  the  sixteenth  century  to  the  present.  History  Of  The  Family,  19(3),  
273-­‐282.  doi:10.1080/1081602X.2014.933999  

Moya,  M.  (02  de  june  de  2016).  Vallenajerilla.  Obtenido  de  La  edad  moderna  europea  S  XV-­‐  S  
XVII  Millareseurcitano:  http://www.vallenajerilla.com/berceo/rioja-­‐
abierta/r1/renacimientoculturarioja.htm  

Rojas,  J.  (02  de  june  de  2016).  Pensadores  de  la  economia.  Obtenido  de  Mercantilismo:  
http://tecnologicopensadoresdelaeconomia.blogspot.com.co/2010/10/escuela-­‐
mercantilista_2410.html  

Santos,  A.  (02  de  june  de  2016).  El  legado  de  la  Historia.  Obtenido  de  La  Europa  del  Antiguo  
Régimen:  El  absolutismo  monárquico..:  
http://ellegadodelahistoria.blogspot.com.co/2011/09/la-­‐europa-­‐del-­‐antiguo-­‐regimen-­‐
el_29.html  

List of figures  

Aimy27feb. (s.f.). Hombre de Vitruvio de Leonardo Da Vinci. [Foto de archivo].

Recuperado de
http://es.123rf.com/search.php?word=35542816&imgtype=0&t_word=35542816&t_lang
=es&oriSearch=30743737&orderby=0&srch_lang=es&mediapopup=35542816  

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