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Lecture No.6
Fuel and Combustion
6.1 Fuel
Fuel may be chemical or nuclear. Here we shall consider briefly chemical fuels
only. A chemical fuel is a substance which releases heat energy on combustion.
The principal combustible elements of each fuel are carbon and hydrogen. Though
sulphur is a combustible element too but its presence in the fuel is considered to be
undesirable.
6.2. Classification of Fuels
Fuels can be classified according to whether :
1. They occur in nature called primary fuels or are prepared called secondary
fuels ;
2. They are in solid, liquid or gaseous state. The detailed classification of fuels can
be given in a summary form as follows : Type of fuel Natural (Primary) Prepared
(Secondary)
Solid
Wood
Peat
Lignite (brown coal)
Bituminous coal
Coke
Wood charcoal
Briquetted coal
Pulverised coal
Liquid
Petroleum (crude oil)
Gasoline
Kerosene
Heavy fuel oil
Alcohol
Gaseous
Natural gas
Petroleum gas
Producer gas
Coal gas
Blast furnace gas
6.3. Solid Fuels
Coal is a familiar solid fuel. Its composition varies considerably with the location
from which it is mined. For combustion calculations, the composition of coal
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is usually expressed as an ultimate analysis. The ultimate analysis gives the
composition on a mass basis in terms of the relative amounts of chemical elements
(carbon, sulfur, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen) and ash.
The ultimate analysis gives the chemical elements that comprise the coal
substance, together with ash and moisture. The coal substance consists of organic
compounds of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen derived from the original vegetable matter. The
analysis shows the following components on mass basis: carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), moisture (M) and ash (A). Therefore
6.4. Liquid Fuels
Liquid hydrocarbon fuels are commonly derived from crude oil through distillation
and cracking processes. Examples are gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, and other
types of fuel oil. Most liquid fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons for which
compositions are usually given in terms of mass fractions.
Advantages :
1. Require less space for storage.
2. Higher calorific value.
3. They have nearly constant calorific value
4. Easy control of consumption.
5. Staff economy.
6. Absence of danger from spontaneous combustion.
7. Easy handling and transportation.
8. Cleanliness.
9. No ash problem.
10. Non-deterioration of the oil in storage.
Disadvantages:
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1. Higher cost.
2. Greater risk of fire
3. Costly containers are required for storage and transport.
6.5. Gaseous Fuels
Gaseous hydrocarbon fuels are obtained from natural gas wells or are produced in
certain chemical processes. Natural gas normally consists of several different
hydrocarbons, with the major constituent being methane, CH4. The compositions
of gaseous fuels are usually given in terms of mole fractions.
Advantages :
1. Better control of combustion.
2. Much less excess air is needed for complete combustion.
3. Economy in fuel and more efficiency of furnace operation.
4. Easy maintenance of oxidizing or reducing atmosphere.
5. Cleanest of all type of fuels.
6. No problem of storage if the supply is available from public supply line.
7. The distribution of gaseous fuels even over a wide area is easy through the pipe
lines and as such handling of the fuel is altogether eliminated.
8. Gaseous fuels give economy of heat and produce higher temperatures (as they
can be preheated in regenerative furnaces and thus heat from hot flue gases can be
recovered).
9. It is free from ash and mixes well with air to undergo complete combustion
producing very little smoke.
Disadvantages:
1. They are readily inflammable.
2. They require large storage capacity.
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6.6 Heating Value or Calorific Value
It is defined as the heat liberated in kJ by complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel
(solid or liquid). For gaseous fuels, the normal practice is to express calorific value
in kJ/m3. Calorific value is further classified as (i) Higher Heating Value (HHV)
and (ii) Lower Heating Value (LHV).
HHV: It is the total amount of heat produced when unit quantity of fuel is
completely
burnt and the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature (25 oC).
LHV: It is the net amount of heat produced when unit quantity of fuel is
completely burnt and the products of combustion are NOT cooled to room
temperature but are allowed to escape.
6.7. Requirements of a Good Fuel
Though there are many requirements of a good fuel, yet the following are
important from the subject point of view:
1. A good fuel should have a low ignition point.
2. It should have a high calorific value.
3. High burning efficiency.
4. It should not produce harmful gases.
5. It should produce least quantity of smoke(ash) and gases.
6. It should be economical (cheaper)
7. Easy to store and convenient for transportation.
6.8. Combustion
In this Chapter, we deal with combustion reactions expressed by chemical
equations of the form
reactants → products
or
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fuel + oxidizer → products
When dealing with chemical reactions, it is necessary to remember that mass is
conserved, so the mass of the products equals the mass of the reactants. The total
mass of each chemical element must be the same on both sides of the equation,
even
though the elements exist in different chemical compounds in the reactants and
products. However, the number of moles of products may differ from the number
of
moles of reactants.
For example consider the complete combustion of hydrogen with oxygen
In this case, the reactants are hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is the fuel and
oxygen is the oxidizer. Water is the only product of the reaction. The numerical
coefficients in the equation, which precede the chemical symbols to give equal
amounts of each chemical element on both sides of the equation, are called
stoichiometric coefficients.
1 kmol H2 + (1/ 2) kmol O2 → 1 kmol H2O
Note that the total numbers of moles on the left and right sides of equation above
are not equal However, because mass is conserved; the total mass of reactants must
equal the total mass of products. Since 1 kmol of H, equals 2 kg, (1/ 2)kmol of O2
equals 16 kg, and 1 kmol of H2O equals 18 kg,
2 kg H2 +16 kg O2 → 18 kg H2O
6.9 Combustion Reactions
Combustion is the high temperature oxidation of the combustible elements of a
fuel with heat release. The combustible elements in coal and fuel oil are carbon,
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hydrogen and sulphur. The basic chemical equations for complete combustion are
When insufficiently oxygen is present, the carbon will be burned incompletely
with the formulation of carbon monoxide.
In order to burn a fuel completely, four basic conditions must be fulfilled:
1. Supply enough air for complete combustion of fuel.
2. Secure enough turbulence for thorough mixing of fuel and air.
3. Maintain a furnace temperature high enough to ignite the incoming fuel air
mixture.
4. Provide a furnace volume large enough to allow time for combustion to be
completed.
Oxygen is required in every combustion reaction. Pure oxygen is used only in
special applications such as cutting and welding. In most combustion applications,
air provides the needed oxygen. For the combustion calculations the following
model is used for simplicity:
All components of dry air other than oxygen are lumped together with
nitrogen. Accordingly, air is considered to be 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen on a
molar basis. With this idealization the molar ratio of the nitrogen to the oxygen is
0.79/0.21 = 3.76. When air supplies the oxygen in a combustion reaction,
therefore, every mole of oxygen is accompanied by 3.76 moles of nitrogen.
We also assume that the nitrogen present in the combustion air does not
undergo chemical reaction. That is, nitrogen is regarded as inert. The nitrogen in
the products is at the same temperature as the other products, however.
Accordingly,
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nitrogen undergoes a change of state if the products are at a temperature other than
the reactant air temperature. If a high enough product temperature is attained,
nitrogen can form compounds such as nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. Even trace
amounts of oxides of nitrogen appearing in the exhaust of internal combustion
engines can be a source of air pollution.
6.10 Air–Fuel Ratio
Two parameters that are frequently used to quantify the amounts of fuel and air in
a particular combustion process are the air–fuel ratio and its reciprocal, the fuel–air
ratio. The air–fuel ratio is simply the ratio of the amount of air in a reaction to the
amount of fuel. The ratio can be written on a molar basis (moles of air divided by
moles of fuel) or on a mass basis (mass of air divided by mass of fuel). Conversion
between these values is accomplished using the molecular weights of the air, Mair,
and fuel, Mfuel,
̅̅̅̅( )
where ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ is the air–fuel ratio on a molar basis and AF is the ratio on a mass basis.
For the combustion calculations of this book the molecular weight of air is taken as
28.97. Tables (6-1) provide the molecular weights of several important
hydrocarbons.
Since AF is a ratio, it has the same value whether the quantities of air and fuel are
expressed in SI units or English units.
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Table (6.1.) Symbols with atomic mass and molecular mass. Substance Symbol
Atomic mass Molecular mass Hydrogen
H2
1
2 Oxygen
O2
16
32 Nitrogen
N2
14
28 Carbon
C
12
-- Sulphur
S
32
--
6.11 Theoretical and Actual Combustion Processes
It is often instructive to study the combustion of a fuel by assuming that the
combustion is complete. A combustion process is complete if all the carbon in the
fuel burns to CO2, all the hydrogen burns to H2O, and all the sulfur (if any) burns
to SO2. That is, all the combustible components of a fuel are burned to completion
during a complete combustion process.
The minimum amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a fuel is called
the stoichiometric or theoretical air. Thus, when a fuel is completely burned with
theoretical air, no uncombined oxygen is present in the product gases. The
theoretical air is also referred to as the chemically correct amount of air, or 100
percent theoretical air. A combustion process with less than the theoretical air is
bound to be incomplete. The ideal combustion process during which a fuel is
burned completely with theoretical air is called the stoichiometric or theoretical
combustion of that fuel. For example, the theoretical combustion of methane is
Notice that the products of the theoretical combustion contain no unburned
methane and no C, H2, CO, OH, or free O2.
In actual combustion processes, it is common practice to use more air than the
stoichiometric amount to increase the chances of complete combustion or to
control the temperature of the combustion chamber. The amount of air in excess of
the
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stoichiometric amount is called excess air. The amount of excess air is usually
expressed in terms of the stoichiometric air as percent excess air or percent
theoretical air. For example, 50 percent excess air is equivalent to 150 percent
theoretical air, and 200 percent excess air is equivalent to 300 percent theoretical
air. of course, the stoichiometric air can be expressed as 0 percent excess air or 100
percent theoretical air. Amounts of air less than the stoichiometric amount are
called deficiency of air and are often expressed as percent deficiency of air. For
example, 90 percent theoretical air is equivalent to 10 percent deficiency of air.
The amount of air used in combustion processes is also expressed in terms of the
equivalence ratio, which is the ratio of the actual fuel–air ratio to the
stoichiometric fuel–air ratio.
Example 6.1 One kmol of octane (C8H18) is burned with air that contains 20 kmol
of air. Assuming the products contain only CO2, H2O, O2, and N2, determine the
mole number of each gas in the products and the air–fuel ratio for this combustion
process.
Solution
The chemical equation for this combustion process can be written as
where the terms in the parentheses represent the composition of dry air that
contains 1 kmol of O2 and x, y, z, and w represent the unknown mole numbers of
the gases in the products. These unknowns are determined by applying the mass
balance to each of the elements—that is, by requiring that the total mass or mole
number of each element in the reactants be equal to that in the products:
Substituting yields
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Note that the coefficient 20 in the balanced equation above represents the number
of moles of oxygen, not the number of moles of air. The latter is obtained by
adding 20 × 3.76 = 75.2 moles of nitrogen to the 20 moles of oxygen, giving a total
of 95.2 moles of air. The air–fuel ratio (AF) is determined by taking the ratio of the
mass of the air and the mass of the fuel,
That is, 24.2 kg of air is used to burn each kilogram of fuel during this combustion
process.
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Example 6.2 Determine the air–fuel ratio on both a molar and mass basis for the
complete combustion of octane, C8H18, with (a) the theoretical amount of air, (b)
150% theoretical air (50% excess air).
Solution
(a) For complete combustion of C8H18 with the theoretical amount of air, the
products contain carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen only. That is
The air–fuel ratio expressed on a mass basis is
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Solving this set of equations, b = 8, c = 9, d = 70.5, e = 6.25, giving a balanced
chemical equation
H.W.6.1 Propal alcohol (C3H7OH) is burned with 50 percent excess air. Write the
balanced reaction equation for complete combustion and determine the air-to-fuel
ratio. Answer: 15.5 kg air/kg fuel
H.W.6.2 Propane (C3H8) is burned with 75 percent excess air during a combustion
process. Assuming complete combustion, a) Find the air fuel ratio. b) determine
product analysis based on volume and mass.
Answer: 27.5 kg air/kg fuel
H.W.6.3 A certain fuel oil has the composition C10H22. If this fuel is burned with
150% theoretical air, what is the composition of the products of combustion?
Answer: C10H22 + 23.25 (O2 + 3.76 N2) → 11 H2O + 10 CO2 + 87.42 N2 + 7.75 O2
H.W.6.4 One kmol of ethane (C2H6) is burned with an unknown amount of air
during a combustion process. An analysis of the combustion products reveals that
the combustion is complete, and there are 3 kmol of free O2 in the products.
Determine (a) the air–fuel ratio and (b) the percentage of theoretical air used
during this process.
Answer:
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(a)
(b) the percentage of theoretical air= 186%
6.12 Determining dew-point temperature of the products
Since water is formed when hydrocarbon fuels are burned, the mole fraction of
water vapor in the gaseous products of combustion can be significant. If the
gaseous products of combustion are cooled at constant mixture pressure, the dew
point temperature is reached when water vapor begins to condense. Since water
deposited on duct work, mufflers, and other metal parts can cause corrosion,
knowledge of the dew point temperature is important.
EXAMPLE 6.3 Determine the air-fuel ratio when octane, C8H18, is burned with
200% theoretical air, and determine the dew point of the products if the pressure is
0.1 MPa.
Solution
The equation for the combustion of octane with 200% theoretical air is
C8H18 + 12.5(2)( O2 + (3.76) N2) → 8 CO2 + 9H2O + 12.5O2 + 94.0N2
Total kmols of product = 8 + 9 + 12.5 + 94.0 = 123.5 Kmol.
AF=
PH2O=
The partial pressure of the water is 7.29 kPa, so the saturation temperature
corresponding to this pressure is 39.7◦C,which is also the dew-point temperature.
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EXAMPLE 6.4 Ethane (C2H6) is burned with 20 percent excess air during a
combustion process. Assuming complete combustion and a total pressure of 100
kPa, determine (a) the air–fuel ratio and (b) the dew-point temperature of the
products (c) the product analysis based on volume and mass.
Solution
The combustion products contain CO2, H2O, N2, and some excess O2 only. Then
the combustion equation can be written as
where ath is the stoichiometric coefficient for air. We have automatically accounted
for the 20 percent excess air by using the factor 1.2ath instead of ath for air. The
stoichiometric amount of oxygen (athO2) is used to oxidize the fuel, and the
remaining excess amount (0.2athO2) appears in the products as unused oxygen.
Notice that the coefficient of N2 is the same on both sides of the equation, and that
we wrote the C and H balances directly since they are so obvious. The coefficient
ath is determined from the O2 balance to be
(a) The air–fuel ratio is determined by taking the ratio of the mass of the air to the
mass of the fuel,
That is, 19.3 kg of air is supplied for each kilogram of fuel during this combustion
process.
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(b) The dew-point temperature of the products is the temperature at which the
water vapor in the products starts to condense as the products are cooled at
constant pressure. The dew-point temperature of a gas–vapor mixture is the
saturation temperature of the water vapor corresponding to its partial pressure.
Therefore, we need to determine the partial pressure of the water vapor Pv in the
products first. Assuming ideal-gas behavior for the combustion gases, we have
Tdp = Tsat @ 13.96 kPa = 52.3°C
H.W.6.5 Propylene (C3H6) is burned with 50 percent excess air during a
combustion process. Assuming complete combustion and a total pressure of 105
kPa, determine (a) the air–fuel ratio and (b) the temperature at which the water
vapor in the products will start condensing (c) the product analysis based on
volume and mass.
Answer: (a) AF=22.2 kg air/kg fuel (b) Tdp=44.5oC
6.13 Incomplete combustion
When the amount of air supplied is less than the theoretical amount of air, the
products may include both CO2 and CO, and there also may be unburned fuel in the
products. Unlike the complete combustion cases considered above, the products of
combustion of an actual combustion process and their relative amounts can be
determined only by measurement.
The combustion process is incomplete if the combustion products contain any
unburned fuel or components such as C, H2, CO, or OH.
Insufficient oxygen is an obvious reason for incomplete combustion, but it is not
the only one. Incomplete combustion occurs even when more oxygen is present in
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the combustion chamber than is needed for complete combustion. This may be
attributed to insufficient mixing in the combustion chamber during the limited time
that the fuel and the oxygen are in contact. Another cause of incomplete
combustion is dissociation, which becomes important at high temperatures.
Oxygen has a much greater tendency to combine with hydrogen than it does with
carbon. Therefore, the hydrogen in the fuel normally burns to completion, forming
H2O, even when there is less oxygen than needed for complete combustion. Some
of the carbon, however, ends up as CO or just as plain C particles (soot) in the
products.
EXAMPLE 6.5 Methane (CH4) is burned with atmospheric air. The molar analysis
of the products on a dry basis is as follows:
CO2 =10.00%
O2=2.37
CO=0.53
N2=87.10
Calculate the air–fuel ratio and the percent theoretical air and determine the
combustion equation.
Solution
From the analysis of the products, the following equation can be written, keeping
in mind that this analysis is on a dry basis.
a CH4 + b O2 + c N2 → 10.0 CO2 + 0.53 CO + 2.37 O2 + d H2O + 87.1N2
A balance for each of the elements will enable us to solve for all the unknown
coefficients:
Nitrogen balance: c = 87.1
Since all the nitrogen comes from the air
Carbon balance: a = 10.00 + 0.53 = 10.53
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Hydrogen balance: d = 2a = 21.06
Oxygen balance: All the unknown coefficients have been solved for, and therefore
the oxygen balance provides a check on the accuracy. Thus, b can also be
determined by Substituting these values for a, b, c, and d, we have
10.53 CH4 + 23.16 O2 + 87.1N2 → 10.0 CO2 + 0.53 CO + 2.37 O2 + 21.06 H2O +
87.1N2
Dividing through by 10.53 yields the combustion equation per kmol of fuel.
CH4 + 2.2O2 + 8.27 N2 → 0.95 CO2 + 0.05 CO + 2H2O + 0.225 O2 + 8.27 N2
The air–fuel ratio on a mole basis is
2.2 + 8.27 = 10.47 kmol air/kmol fuel
The air–fuel ratio on a mass basis is found by introducing the molecular masses.
H.W.6.6 Carbon (C) is burned with dry air. The volumetric analysis of the
products is 10.06 percent CO2, 0.42 percent CO, 10.69 percent O2, and 78.83
percent N2. Determine (a) the air–fuel ratio and (b) the percentage of theoretical air
used .
Answer: (a) AF= 23 kg air/kg fuel
(b) Percentage of theoretical air = 200%
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H.W.6.7 Octane (C8H18) is burned with dry air. The volumetric analysis of the
products on a dry basis is
CO2: 10.02 percent
O2: 5.62 percent
CO: 0.88 percent
N2: 83.48 percent
Determine (a) the air–fuel ratio, (b) the percentage of theoretical air used
Answer: (a) AF= 19.76 kg air/kg fuel (b) Percentage of theoretical air = 131%
H.W.6.8 In a combustion process with decane, C10H22, and air, the dry product
mole fractions are 83.61% N2, 4.91% O2, 10.56% CO2, and 0.92% CO. Find the
percent theoretical air of the reactants.
Answer: Percent theoretical air =125%
AF=18.81 kg air/kg fuel
EXAMPLE 6.6 The volumetric analysis of Producer gas from bituminous coal has
(3% CH4, 14% H2, 50.9% N2, 0.6 O2, 27% CO, 4.5% CO2) is burned with 20%
excess air. Calculate the air–fuel ratio on a volumetric basis and on a mass basis.
Solution
To calculate the theoretical air requirement, let us write the combustion equation
for the combustible substances in 1 kmol of fuel.
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If the air and fuel are at the same pressure and temperature, this also represents the
ratio of the volume of air to the volume of fuel.
H.W.6.9. A gaseous fuel with a volumetric analysis of 60 percent CH4, 30 percent
H2, and 10 percent N2 is burned to completion with 130 percent theoretical air.
Determine the air–fuel ratio.
Answers: 18.6 kg air/kg fuel
EXAMPLE 6.7 A natural gas has the following molar analysis: CH4, 80.62%;
C2H6, 5.41%; C3H8, 1.87%; C4H10, 1.60%; N2, 10.50%. The gas is burned with dry
air, giving products having a molar analysis on a dry basis: CO2, 7.8%; CO, 0.2%;
O2, 7%; N2, 85%. (a) Determine the air–fuel ratio on a molar basis. (b) Determine
the percent of theoretical air.
SOLUTION
(a) The solution can be conducted on the basis of an assumed amount of fuel
mixture or on the basis of an assumed amount of dry products. Let us illustrate the
first procedure, basing the solution on 1 kmol of fuel mixture. The chemical
equation then takes the form
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‫م‬. ‫م‬. ‫شريف شاكر هحوىد ههدي‬
The products consist of b kmol of dry products and c kmol of water vapor, each per
kmol of fuel mixture. Applying conservation of mass to carbon
which gives c = 1.93. The unknown coefficient a can be found from either an
oxygen balance or a nitrogen balance. Applying conservation of mass to oxygen
(b) The balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of the fuel
mixture with the theoretical amount of air is
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EXAMPLE 6.8 Coal from Pennsylvania which has an ultimate analysis (by mass)
as 84.36 percent C, 1.89 percent H2, 4.40 percent O2, 0.63 percent N2, 0.89 percent
S, and 7.83 percent ash (non-combustibles) is burned with theoretical amount of
air. Disregarding the ash content, determine the air-fuel ratio required for this
combustion process.
SOLUTION
Ash consists of the non-combustible matter in coal. Therefore, the mass of ash
content that enters the combustion chamber is equal to the mass content that
leaves. Disregarding this non-reacting component for simplicity, the combustion
equation may be written as
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Finally, the air-fuel mass ratio is determined from its definition to be
That is, 10.2 kg of air is supplied for each kg of coal in the furnace.
EXAMPLE 6.9 Coal has the following ultimate analysis on a dry basis,
percent by mass: Sulfur 0.6, Hydrogen 5.7 ,Carbon 79.2, Oxygen 10.0,
Nitrogen 1.5, Ash 3.0
This coal is to be burned with 30% excess air. Calculate the air–fuel ratio on a
mass basis.
Solution
One approach to this problem is to write the combustion equation for each of
the combustible elements per 100 kg of fuel. The molal composition per 100 kg
of fuel is
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H.W. 6.10. Coal having the following composition by mass is burnt with
theoretically amount of air, 86% C, 6%H, 5% O, 2% N, 1% S determine the
air fuel ratio.
H.W.6.11. The gravimetric(mass) analysis of a sample of coal is given as 80%
C, 12% H2, and 8% ash. Calculate the stoichiometric A/F ratio and the
analysis of the product by volume and mass.
Answers: A/F=13.3 kg air/kg fuel, CO2=13.6%, H2O=12.2%, N2=74.2%
H.W.6.12. A coal from Illinois which has an ultimate analysis (by mass) as
67.40 percent C, 5.31 percent H2, 15.11 percent O2, 1.44 percent N2, 2.36
percent S, and 8.38 percent ash (non-combustibles) is burned with 40 percent
excess air. Calculate the mass of air required per unit mass of coal burned
neglecting the ash constituent.
Answers: 13.8 kg air/kg fuel,
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H.W.6.13. A certain coal has the following analysis on a mass basis: 82 percent
C, 5 percent H2O, 2 percent H2, 1 percent O2, and 10 percent ash. The coal is
burned with 50 percent excess air. Determine the air–fuel ratio.
Answer: 15.4 kg air/ kg coal
H.W.6.14. In an oil fired boiler the fuel had an analysis by mass; carbon 84%,
hydrogen 10%, sulphur 3.2%, oxygen 1.6%, remained incombustible. The
analysis of dry flue gas by volume gave: combined CO2+SO2 15.72%, O2 1%,
there being no CO or SO3. Calculate per kg of fuel (a) mass of air supplied, (b)
percentage excess air supplied.
H.W.6.15. A fuel oil has following analysis by mass: C 85%, H2 12.5%, O2 2%
and the residue 0.5%. The dry flue has the following composition by volume:
CO2 9%, CO 1%, O2 7.77% and N2 82.23%. Determine the air fuel ratio and
percentage excess air supplied.
Answer: 21.4 kg air/ kg fuel
H.W.6.16. One kg C8H18 fuel is supplied to an engine with 13 kg of air.
Determine the percentage by volume of CO2 in dry exhaust gas considering
exhaust gas to consist of CO2, CO and N2.
Answer: 9.25%
H.W.6.17. A boiler is supplied with coal gas of the following composition:
53.6% H2, 9% CO, 25% CH4, 3% C4H8, 0.4% O2, 3% CO2, 6% N2. If the air
fuel ratio is 6.5/1 by volume, calculate the analysis of the dry products of
combustion by volume and mass.__