Prospect of hydrocarbon AUTHORS

associated with fossil-rift Nayyer Alam Zaigham ⬃ Professor,

Department of Geology, University of Karachi,
structures of the southern Karachi, Pakistan; zaigham@gerrys.net
Nayyer Alam Zaigham received his B.Sc.,
Indus basin, Pakistan M.Sc., and Ph.D. from University of Karachi.
He started his career as an exploration
geophysicist in 1970 and has worked in
Nayyer Alam Zaigham and Khalil Ahmad Mallick various capacities with the Geological Survey
of Pakistan. In connection with his
professional activities, Zaigham has traveled
extensively in the United States and Canada.
ABSTRACT Presently, he is working as professor in the
The southern Indus basin (550 ⳯ 250 km) is characterized by tec- Geology Department of Karachi University.
tonic upwarping on the western margin of the Indo-Pakistan sub- Khalil Ahmad Mallick ⬃ Professor,
continent. Several hypotheses have so far been proposed to explain Department of Geology, University of Karachi,
the origin of these crustal features, but these basement upwarps Karachi, Pakistan; mallick@ibm.net
remain puzzling. Aeromagnetic data have been analyzed and inter-
Khalil A. Mallick is professor and chairman of
preted, supplemented with seismicity and geological information. the Geology Department and also director of
From the integrated study, we inferred basement configuration and the Evening Program at the University of
developed models for tectonic evolution of these exotic crustal fea- Karachi, Pakistan. He has 40 years of teaching
tures and their impact on hydrocarbon potential associated with the and research experience at the university
southern Indus basin. The southern Indus basin is identified as an level. He received an M.S. degree in applied
extension basin resulting from an inferred fossil-rift crustal feature geochemistry from McGill University, Canada,
overlain by a thick sedimentary sequence. Extension was a conse- a Ph.D. from Karachi University, and a
quence of temporal divergence of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent postdoctoral scholarship from Technical
from Gondwanaland during the early Paleozoic. Based on magnetic- University of Norway, Trondheim. He has
anomaly trends, the Indus basin fossil-rift feature is characterized directed 17 Ph.D. and M.Phil. students.
by horst and graben structures, together with a system of trans-
current faults. The association of seismicity events and basement ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
crustal features suggests that Tertiary reactivation of individual seg-
ments of the inferred rift structure has deformed overlying se- We very much thank AAPG referees R. V. In-
quences of the Indus basin and also the surrounding areas, particu- gersoll, H. J. White, and one who is anony-
mous for their painstaking reviews that helped
larly the fold and thrust belt of Pakistan on the western side of the
to improve the quality of the manuscript. We
basin. The proposed geological models also illustrate the potential
also thank I. H. Quraishi of the Geological
for appropriate environments for development of hydrocarbon Survey of Pakistan for his useful comments.
source rocks, sufficient heat for thermal maturity, and structures for
reservoirs and seals, suggesting more bright prospects in the south-
ern Indus basin.

INTRODUCTION

The vast sedimentary basin extending approximately between 24⬚

and 28⬚N and from 66⬚E to the eastern boundary of Pakistan,

Copyright 䉷2000. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received March 19, 1998; revised manuscript received May 3, 1999; final acceptance April
15, 2000.

AAPG Bulletin, v. 84, no. 11 (November 2000), pp. 1833–1848 1833

named the southern Indus basin, is characterized by
several structural highs (SibiJaccobabad, Khairpur,
Mari-Khandkot, and Hyderabad) (Figure 1). Many
previous workers considered these highs to be subsur-
face fingerlike extensions of the Indo-Pakistan shield
(Wadia, 1931, 1957; Krishnan, 1960; Gansser, 1964;
Kazmi and Rana, 1982; Kazmi and Jan, 1997). How-
ever, these features are enigmatic. We undertook the
present study to elucidate the plausible interpretation
for the deep-seated tectonic features within the south-
ern Indus basin and their relationships with the thin-
skinned geological structures found on the surface.
We compiled aeromagnetic data covering the
study area from several sources (Raza and Medvedev,
1965, personal communication; Quadri and Shuaib,
1986; Phillips Petroleum Co., 1987, personal com-
munication) and reinterpreted them in the context of
plate tectonics. Similar aeromagnetic studies of the
Bela ophiolites (Zaigham, 1991) provided pertinent
information about the crustal rock units at the surface
and at different depths in the southern part of the
axial fold and thrust belt of Pakistan.
We also incorporated analysis of regional seismic-
ity to analyze the structures and their relationships to
the tectonic movements through time, as well as the
present tectonic picture of the region. We collected
data from earthquake events occurring from 1905 to
1981 from several sources (Ahmed, 1974; Khan and
Lawrence, 1983, personal communication; Pakistan
Meteorological Department, 1996, personal commu-
nication). This article describes the results of the anal-
ysis of magnetic data from the southern Indus basin
in the context of tectonic evolution of the basin and
the hydrocarbon prospects.
In addition to the Badin Block, Sui, Khankot,
Khairpur, Mari, Mazarani, Sari-Hundi, and other oil
and gas fields in the vicinity of the southern Indus
basin, vast tracts still await exploration in the basin.
Better understanding of the geological evolution of the
basin may provide strategies for new oil and gas dis-
coveries in Pakistan.
GEOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE
SOUTHERN INDUS BASIN
In the present plate tectonic setting, Pakistan lies be-
tween the northwestern corner of the Indian plate, the
southern part of the Afghan craton, and the northern
part of the Arabian oceanic plate (Figure 1). The east-
ern part of Pakistan was affected by Tertiary plate
1834 Fossil-Rift Structures (Pakistan)
convergence, having intense collision between the In-
dian and Eurasian continents in the Karakoram thrust
zone to the north, and the translation between the
Indo-Pakistan subcontinent and the Afghan craton in
the northwest (Chaman transcurrent fault system).
The western part of the country also was affected by
the Tertiary convergence between the Arabian oce-
anic plate and the Afghan craton (the Chagai arc and
the Makran flysch basin), and between a segment of
the Arabian oceanic plate and the western rifted mar-
gin of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. The suture
zones are marked by ophiolites.
The western margin of the Indo-Pakistan sub-
continent (i.e., the eastern part of Pakistan) is char-
acterized by a broad north-south–trending sedimen-
tary basin (i.e., southern Indus basin) having thick
Tertiary sequences underlain by Mesozoic and older
rocks and overlain by Quaternary sediments (flood-
plain deposits of the Indus River). The southern Indus
basin is about 250 km wide and bounded by the Thar
desert on the east and by the mountainous region of
fold and thrust belts in Pakistan on the west. It had
been relatively tectonically stable during the Meso-
zoic, but the intensity of shallow Tertiary folding in-
creases westward and becomes more pronounced in
the strongly folded and faulted areas of the axial fold
and thrust belt. The Indus river appears to more or
less follow the axis of the basin.
Cretaceous and Jurassic/Triassic(?) strata are ex-
posed only along the extreme margins of the Indus
basin (Figure 2). On the eastern margin, Mesozoic
strata are exposed only in the Jaisalmer area of India
(Brown et al., 1928). On the other side, the western
margin is characterized by a narrow north-trending
zone of Mesozoic strata that have been intensely de-
formed (Gansser, 1979). In the southeast, Mesozoic
rocks are exposed in the Rann Kutch part of India. In
the southern Indus basin, the Mesozoic rocks are
largely marine, calcareous and argillaceous (Kadri,
1995; Kazmi, 1995).
The Wulgai Formation of the Triassic has been en-
countered in wells drilled in the southern Indus basin.
This formation consists of indurated dark gray mud-
stone and shale having intercalations of thin limestone
and calcareous mudstone and sandstone. The thickness
of the Wulgai Formation is about 1200 m.
The Jurassic sedimentary sequence has three litho-
stratigraphic divisions, the Shirinab Formation, the
Chiltan Limestone, and the Mazar Drik Formation.
The Shirinab Formation consists of interbedded lime-
stones and shales that grade downward into a dominant
Figure 1. Salient tectonic features of Pakistan.
shale lithology of the Wulgai Formation of the Triassic.
The limestone is thin to medium bedded, gray to dark
gray and black. Argillaceous limestone is present at dif-
ferent levels and is generally associated with shale. The
lower part locally includes sandstone intercalations.
The associated shales are gray to dark gray, but in
places orange, yellow, and red varieties are also pres-
ent. The thickness of the Shirinab ranges between
1500 and 3000 m. The Chiltan Limestone is typically
massive, thick bedded, dark limestone. It contains pi-
solitic limestone beds locally. The texture varies from
fine grained, sublithographic to oolitic, reefoid, and
shelly. Its upper contact with the Mazar Drik Forma-
tion is gradational, but in many areas this upper for-
mation is not developed and the Chiltan has direct con-
tact with the Sember Formation of the Cretaceous.
The Mazar Drik Formation is not developed through-
out the southern Indus basin. In the type area in the
northern part of the basin, it is 30 m thick and consists
of interbedded gray limestones and dark shales.
Cretaceous sedimentary rocks are exposed exten-
sively in Pakistan. At many places, the Cretaceous se-
quence contains volcanic rocks, obducted masses of
melanges, ophiolites, and igneous intrusions. The het-
erogeneous lithological characteristics of the Creta-
ceous formations have resulted from a variety of prov-
enance and different processes of sediment transport.
Lithology of Cretaceous sediments varies from shale
to sandstone to conglomerate to limestone in the
southern Indus basin. The Sember Formation of Neo-
comian age is composed mainly of clastic rocks, pri-
marily shales followed by sandstones and siltstones
having minor limestones. The sandstones, probably
derived from the Indian shield, are more abundant to-
ward the eastern limits of the basin. However, shale
and siltstone units are more abundant toward the
western side, decreasing proportionately to the east.
The thickness ranges from Ⳮ760 to Ⳮ1000 m. The
Goru Formation of Albian–Aptian age is dominantly
black to gray and locally maroon shale or mudstone.
Zaigham and Mallick 1835
Figure 2. Index map of Pakistan and general geology in and around the southern Indus basin overlain by aeromagnetic total
intensity magnetic contours. Line AB is the location of a geological cross section shown in Figure 6D. Geological legend: (1) Quaternary
sediments, (2) desert dune sands, (3) Neogene sediments, (4) Paleogene sediments, (5) Jurassic sediments, (6) ophiolites and
melanges, (7) Deccan traps, (8) Precambrian units, (9) Malani beds (rhyolites), (10) aeromagnetic total intensity contours, and (11)
tectonic upwarps. Modified after Brown et al., 1928; Hunting Survey Corporation, 1960: Bakr and Jackson, 1964; Raza and Medvedev,
1965, personal communication; Kazmi and Rana, 1982.

Sandstone is uncommon in the upper part but in-
creases significantly in the lower part. Environment
appears to have been generally marine having rela-
tively deep water, as indicated by the pelagic fauna.
The thickness of the Goru Formation is about 2360
m in the Badin area. The Parh Limestone of
Cenomanian–Turonian age occurs widely throughout
the southern Indus basin. It is a light gray, white,
cream to tan, thin bedded argillaceous limestone that
exhibits lithographic to porcellaneous character. Max-
imum thickness of the Parh Limestone, approximately
600 m, is found west of the Kirthar range. The
Moghal Kot Formation of Maastrichtian age has a
more restricted distribution than the underlying Parh
Limestone in the southern Indus basin. It is deposited
in a narrow but deep basin. The lithofacies pattern
is quite varied. In general, the clastics account for the
thick accumulations and the carbonates, having fine
clastics, were deposited in thinner sequences. The
formation generally consists of a dark gray, calcareous

1836 Fossil-Rift Structures (Pakistan)

mudstone having scattered intercalations of quartzose
and argillaceous limestone. A dark limestone, com-
monly sandy, at the top of the formation is widely
distributed. The limestone increases in amount away
from the main areas of clastic deposition. In the
southern Indus basin, most of the Moghal Kot dep-
osition consists of limestone and shale. The Pab
Sandstone of Maastrichtian age is areally the most
restricted unit of the Cretaceous formations. The Pab
is light gray to light tan to brown, quartzose, fine to
coarse grained, hard to soft sandstone. The interca-
lations of dark gray shales are common, and at places
it locally contains interbeds of argillaceous, micritic
limestone.
Thick Cenozoic strata are exposed along the
western margin of the Indus basin in the Kirthar fold
and thrust belt. A few small isolated outcrops of Ter-
tiary are exposed near Khairpur in the northern part
and Hyderabad in the southern part. Tertiary strata
have also been reported from the Jaisalmer and Rann
Kutch areas (Biswas, 1982). Unconsolidated Quater-
nary sediments range between 30 and 200 m thick
in the southern Indus Plain (Kazmi, 1977). Cenozoic
and Mesozoic sequences have been encountered to a
depth of 4500 m in bore holes drilled for oil explo-
ration (Quadri and Shuaib, 1986). These sediments
continue deeper than current drilling depths, dem-
onstrating that the basement is overlain by signifi-
cantly thick Cenozoic and Mesozoic (also possibly
older) formations in the southern Indus basin. The
results of the stratigraphic investigations in the south-
ern Indus basin have been summarized in Figure 3.
GEOPHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF THE
SOUTHERN INDUS BASIN
The aeromagnetic anomaly contours shown in Figure
2 show a north-trending zone (about 150 km wide)
of broad magnetic anomalies of relatively high mag-
netic relief under the extensive Quaternary cover on
the western margin of the Indo-Pakistan subconti-
nent. The magnetic anomalies indicate the presence
of relatively highly magnetized crustal features at a
few kilometers depth beneath the thick sequence of
relatively nonmagnetic sediments.
Profiles of the total-intensity magnetic data were
produced from the available aeromagnetic contour
map and analyzed for a definition of anomalies, mag-
netic gradients, and measurement of gradients using
the maximum slope technique. This technique de-
termines depth to the magnetic basement, the loca-
tion of magnetic contacts, measurements of anomaly
amplitude to determine rock magnetization, and
anomaly shape to interpret magnetic-bedding atti-
tude. The analysis of the magnetic profiles was based
on prismatic models (Vacquier et al., 1951; Bhatta-
charya, 1964, 1977; Spector, 1968; Spector and Pi-
chette, 1981; Grauch and Cordell, 1987) and their
model curves computed for the magnetic parameters
in Pakistan (i.e., field inclination ⳱ 40⬚ and decli-
nation ⳱ 0⬚) (Grant and Martin, 1966; Spector and
Grant, 1970; Zaigham, 1991). The computed suscep-
tibility factor was used to convert magnetic anomaly
amplitude to susceptibility contrast once the appro-
priate model was selected. From the profile analysis,
overlays were compiled showing magnetic contacts,
anomaly amplitude, bedding dip determination, and
basement depth determination (Figure 4). The cal-
culated magnetic susceptibility range (3500–10,000
⳯ 10ⳮ6 cgs unit) of this zone corresponds to an oce-
anic type of crust (Zaigham, 1991).
On the basis of the present analysis, we have in-
ferred a fossil rift structure buried by a thick se-
quence of Cenozoic–Mesozoic in the southern Indus
basin along the western margin of the Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent (Figure 5). This structure is likely to
have developed during the initial stage of separation
of the Indo-Pakistan plate from Gondwanaland. Fossil
rift structures similar to the Indus basin have also
been reported by Johnston and Kanter (1990) from
other parts of the world, such as New Madrid,
Kutch, Basel, and Hainan Island. The fossil rift struc-
ture appears to have been an important factor in tai-
loring the tectonic history of the overlying thin-
skinned sedimentary crust of the southern part of
Pakistan. From the linear continuations of inferred
magnetic contacts associated with the geometry of
the Indus basin magnetic bodies, we distinguish a
complex system of transverse faults that has de-
formed the Indus basin fossil rift (Figure 5). Oblique
movements, both lateral and vertical, of individual
segments of the inferred incipient oceanic crust along
the faults have developed horst and graben struc-
tures. The sense of movement indicates that the up-
thrown southern and the northern segments have
moved diagonally toward the west or northwest
with respect to the central graben segment. In gen-
eral, the depths of these inferred rift segments are
estimated as ⬎5 km for southern, ⬎9 km for central,
and ⬎7 km for northern (Figure 5). The west and
northwest movements of horst segments appear to be
Zaigham and Mallick 1837
Figure 3. Generalized strati-
graphic sequence and occur-
rence of hydrocarbons in the
southern Indus basin (modified
after Shah, 1977; Raza et al.,
1990).

responsible for thin-skinned tectonic deformations of
the axial fold and thrust belt of Pakistan that consists
of the Kirthar fold and thrust belt, Bela ophiolite
zone, Khuzdar Knot, and other exotic features along
the Bela-Makran subduction zone in the west of the
southern Indus basin (Zaigham, 1991).
In general, earthquakes require a region weak-
ened by the tectonic processes to relieve the stresses.
From a study of earthquakes in the New Madrid and
Kutch stable continental crust areas, Johnston and
Kanter (1990) inferred that faults were reactivated
millions of years after their development and gener-

1838 Fossil-Rift Structures (Pakistan)

Figure 4. Magnetic anomaly and geological contacts map: (a) magnetic contacts and other relevant data interpreted from the
analysis of several east-west–oriented magnetic profiles (b) a profile illustrating an example of magnetic intensity data analysis, and
(c) example of a total intensity profile of a Prism model where anomaly amplitude is normalized to 1000 gammas. Parameters A and
B are prism half width given in units of H ⳱ 1.

ated earthquakes. Faults created in the continental covered by a blanket of sediments. Later on, com-
rifted margins by ancient extension stresses may be pressive stresses may reactivate a fault that slips in
dormant for millions of years and, thus, gradually be reverse direction, either vertically or horizontally or

Zaigham and Mallick 1839

Figure 5. Inferred deep-seated fossil failed rift of southern Indus basin and associated tectonic features, along with the overlays of
surface geology and recorded earthquake epicenters (from 1905 to 1981). Geological legend: (1) Quaternary sediments, (2) Neogene
sediments, (3) Paleogene and Cretaceous sediments, (4) Jurassic sediments, (5) ophiolites and melanges, (6) oceanic crust inferred
as a deep-seated fossil failed rift, (7) deep-seated transcurrent faults associated with the fossil rift, (8) water depth contours in the
Arabian Sea, and 9) city location.

both, generating an earthquake and causing tectonic
deformation of the upper crustal cover of the sedi-
ments. Similarly, progressive Tertiary compression
within the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent might have
reactivated these older transverse faults associated
with the inferred fossil rift, causing them to move
obliquely and to generate earthquakes. Figure 5
shows seismicity patterns associated with the western
margin of the Indo-Pakistan continental plate. The
association of the epicenters with the peripheries of
the Indus basin horst and graben segments indicates
that the northwestward movement of the complex
and the irregular western margin of the plate is still
in progress.

1840 Fossil-Rift Structures (Pakistan)

STRUCTURAL MODEL OF THE
SOUTHERN INDUS BASIN
A geological history of a basin can be compiled by
considering the basin-forming tectonics and deposi-
tional sequences (Kingston et al., 1983). The western
margin of the Indo-Pakistan continental plate is char-
acterized by past extension tectonics resulting in rifted
protocontinent and new oceanic crust created during
sea-floor spreading (Powell, 1979; Biswas, 1982;
Zaigham, 1991). We infer that new oceanic crust was
formed at a rate matching the rate of continental sep-
aration, similar to divergent phenomena associated
with the fossil rifts in Africa, Europe and the North
Atlantic (Dingle and Scurtton, 1974; Jackson, 1980;
Dickinson, 1982; Emery, 1982).
From data analysis we found that during rifting
the lithosphere was stretched and consequently
thinned. Simultaneously, the basaltic magma formed
in the upper part of the asthenosphere, causing broad
tectonic upwarping and eruption of volcanic materials
onto the surface. Full-fledged spreading centers did
not develop in the beginning, but instead the conti-
nental crust stopped stretching, and subsequently the
edges cooled and subsided. Hence, the stretched crust
subsided into a broad sediment-filled basin or trough.
The proposed model (Figure 6) illustrates the de-
velopment of the fossil rift structure on the western
margin of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. The first
step of the model (Figure 6A) corresponds to the ini-
tial rifting of the supercontinent of Gondwanaland,
probably during the Paleozoic (Smith and Hallam,
1970; Powell, 1979). The divergent phenomenon in-
cludes the formation of basaltic magma in the upper
part of the asthenosphere, causing broad tectonic up-
warp, and the thinning of the overlying lithosphere,
probably resulting from plastic flow in the lower part
and extension faulting in the upper part. Continued
lithospheric thinning eventually resulted in collapse of
the tectonic upwarp over the magma blister, and sub-
sequently the process of sea-floor spreading began,
with basaltic magma upwelling to the earth’s surface
as oceanic lithosphere (Figure 6B). Extension forces
broke the brittle upper crust into blocks separated by
active faults during sea-floor spreading. Continued ex-
tension of the crust, just before the Mesozoic, allowed
magma to rise. It appears that the stretching of the
initial rifted part stopped at some geological time dur-
ing very late Paleozoic to very early Mesozoic(?), as
was observed in the case of the Thar rift (Ahmad and
Zaigham, 1993). The stretched crust remained as the
Indus basin failed rift, in which sediments started to
accumulate.
The third step (Figure 6C) represents subsidence
of the stretched continental crust and simul-
taneous accumulation of the Mesozoic and Tertiary
sediments in the Indus basin. The initial subsidence
seems to stem from thermal decay of heated litho-
sphere, and subsequent sediment loads caused addi-
tional flexural subsidence, which increased offsets of
the rifted blocks along the tectonically created normal
faults.
The fourth step (Figure 6D) illustrates the mod-
ifying tectonic environments. The deformation of the
basin and the mountain ranges in the west are the
result of combined effects of the northward move-
ment and the counterclockwise rotation of the Indo-
Pakistan continental mass (Powell, 1979). Based on
the paleomagnetic studies, it is estimated that during
initial rifting the rate of northward drift of the sub-
continent was on the order of about 0.7 cm/yr, which
increased very rapidly to a rate of about 16 to 25 cm/
yr from the Cenomanian to mid-Eocene and finally
settled down to about 2 cm/yr to the present (John-
son et al., 1976; Wyllie, 1976; Powell, 1979; Patriat
and Achache, 1984; Klootwijk et al., 1992). Contin-
ued compression on the western margin of the plate
has reactivated the east-west–trending transcurrent
faults associated with the deep-seated fossil-rift crust
of the Indus basin, resulting in 1) the modification of
the southern Indus basin by movement of the horst
and graben segments of the fossil rift, 2) strike fault-
ing between the Afghan craton and the Indo-Pakistan
plate, 3) deformation of the southern branch of the
Himalayan suture zone (i.e., the axial fold and thrust
belt of Pakistan), and 4) subduction of a segment of
the Arabian oceanic plate in the Bela region
(Zaigham, 1991).
HYDROCARBON PROSPECTS IN THE
SOUTHERN INDUS BASIN
The western margin of the Indo-Pakistan subconti-
nental plate is characterized by several rift systems
from Bombay (India) in the south to the southern
Indus basin (Pakistan) in the north. These include the
Narmada, Combay, Rann Kutch, and Thar rifts.
Combay rift (India) has known oil and gas discovery
(Biswas, 1982). On the western limb of the Thar rift,
a giant oil and gas field (Badin Block) was discovered
by Union Texas at Khaskheli, about 150 km east of
Zaigham and Mallick 1841
Figure 6. Proposed schematic tectonic models illustrating stages of evolution of the southern Indus basin. (A) Incipient breakup of
Gondwanaland during the Late Paleozoic as phenomena of thinning of the overlying lithosphere resulting from plastic flow in the
lower part and extension faulting in the upper part. (B) Continued stretching of the upper crust causing thinning, tilted block faulting,
and upwelling of magma that appears to stop just before the end of the Paleozoic, giving birth to the Indus failed rift. (C) Subsidence
of the stretched crust due to subsequent sedimentation of the Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments in the tectonic basin. New and
complete spreading center developed sometime in the Cretaceous. (D) Model illustrates the modifying tectonic environments and
present-day geological setting in the southern Indus basin. The location of the cross section is shown in Figure 2.

Karachi, in 1981 (Shuaib, 1982; Quadri and Shuaib, rani, 1994; Zaigham and Ahmed, 1996). Table 1
1986; Raza et al., 1989). The eastern limb of the shows the exploration activities in the southern Indus
Thar rift is potentially rich in coal (Fassett and Dur- basin.

1842 Fossil-Rift Structures (Pakistan)

Table 1. Exploration Activities and Discoveries of Oil and Gas Fields in Southern Indus Basin of Pakistan*

Name of Status of Year of Location in Name of Status of Year of Location in

S. No. Well Field Discovery S. Indus Basin S. No. Well Field Discovery S. Indus Basin
1 Sui Gas 1952 Northern part 51 Kadanwari-1 Gas 1989 Northern part
2 Zin Gas 1954 Northern part 52 Bhatti-1 Oil 1989 Southern part
3 Uch Gas 1955 Northern part 53 Rind-1 Oil & gas 1989 Southern part
4 Khairpur Gas 1957 Northern part 54 Qadirpur-1 Gas 1990 Northern part
5 Mari Gas 1957 Northern part 55 Kandra-1 Gas 1990 Northern part
6 Mazarani Gas 1959 Northern part 56 Gorwar-1 Gas 1991 Northern part
7 Kandhkot Gas 1959 Northern part 57 Dhamrakhi-1 Oil 1991 Southern part
8 Sari Singh Gas 1966 Southern part 58 Noor-1 Gas 1991 Southern part
9 Hundi Gas 1971 Southern part 59 Qadirpur X-2 Gas 1991 Northern part
10 Kothar Gas 1971 Southern part 60 Buzdar-1 Gas 1991 Southern part
11 Pirkoh Gas 1978 Northern part 61 Mian Ismail-1 Oil 1991 Southern part
12 Khaskheli Oil 1981 Southern part 62 Bobi North-1 Oil 1991 Southern part
13 Laghari Oil 1983 Southern part 63 Mahi-1 Gas 1992 Southern part
14 Golarchi Gas 1984 Southern part 64 Bari-2 Oil 1992 Southern part
15 Tando Alam Oil 1984 Southern part 65 Nakurji-1 Gas 1992 Southern part
16 Tajedii Oil 1984 Southern part 66 Buzdar North-1 Oil & gas 1993 Southern part
17 Mazari Oil 1984 Southern part 67 Miano-1 Gas 1993 Northern part
18 Dabhi Oil 1984 Southern part 68 Bachal-1 Oil & gas 1993 Southern part
19 Nari Oil & gas 1985 Southern part 69 S. Mazari Deep-1 Oil & gas 1993 Southern part
20 Loti Gas 1985 Northern part 70 Jalal-1 Gas 1993 Southern part
21 Turk Oil & gas 1985 Southern part 71 Buzdar South-1 Oil 1993 Southern part
22 S. Mazari Oil 1985 Southern part 72 Buland-1 Gas 1993 Southern part
23 Bukhari Gas 1985 Southern part 73 Zaur-1 Oil & gas 1994 Southern part
24 Dabhi South Gas 1986 Southern part 74 Badar-1 Gas 1994 Northern part
25 Matli Gas 1986 Southern part 75 Liari Deep-1 Oil 1994 Southern Part
26 Jabo Gas 1986 Southern part 76 Sara-1 Gas 1994 Northern part
27 Ghotana Oil 1986 Southern part 77 Mithrao-1 Gas 1994 Southern part
28 Makhdumpur Gas 1986 Southern part 78 Turk Deep-1 Oil 1994 Southern part
29 Liari Oil 1986 Southern part 79 Jhol North-1 Oil 1995 Southern part
30 Halipota Oil 1986 Southern part 80 Tangri-2 Oil 1995 Southern part
31 S. Lashari Oil 1987 Southern part 81 Makhdumpur D-1 Gas 1995 Southern part
32 Thora Oil 1987 Southern part 82 Chachar-1 Gas 1995 Northern part
33 Ghunghro Oil 1987 Southern part 84 Charo-1 Gas 1995 Southern part
34 Sona Oil 1987 Southern part 85 Khrewah Deep-1 Gas 1995 Southern part
35 Kunar-2 Oil & gas 1988 Southern part 86 Zaur Deep-1 Gas 1995 Southern part
36 Pir-1 Gas 1988 Southern part 87 Khipro-1 Gas 1995 Northern part
37 Paniro-2 Oil 1988 Southern part 88 Buzdar S. Deep-1 Gas 1995 Southern part
38 Duphri-1 Oil 1988 Southern part 89 Chak-5 Dim S.-1 Oil & gas 1996 Southern part
39 Bobi-1 Oil 1988 Southern part 90 Jagir-1 Oil 1996 Southern part
40 Korewah-1 Gas 1988 Southern part 91 Pali Oil 1996 Southern part
41 Injra-1 Oil 1988 Southern part 92 Sakhi-1 Oil 1996 Southern part
42 N. Akri-1 Oil 1988 Southern part 93 Sara West-1 Gas 1996 Northern part
43 Daru-1 Oil & gas 1988 Southern part 94 Bhit-2 Gas 1997 Central part
44 Bagla-1 Gas 1988 Southern part 95 Muban-1 Oil 1997 Southern part
45 Thora East-1 Oil 1988 Southern part 96 Mari Deep-1 Gas 1997 Northern part
46 Kunar-1A Oil & gas 1988 Southern part 97 Sakhi Deep Gas 1998 Southern part
47 T. G. Ali-1 Oil 1989 Southern part 98 M. Ismail Deep Gas 1998 Southern part
48 Koli-1 Oil 1989 Southern part 99 Dabhi North Oil 1998 Southern part
49 Pasahki-1 Oil 1989 Southern part 100 Hamza X-1 Gas 1998 Northern part
50 Fimkassar-1 Oil 1989 Southern part 101 Hasan X-1 Gas 1999 Northern part
*Modified from Progress, 1994.
 Continental margins are controlled by the extent
of postrift downwarping and by sedimentation after
the initial separation of continental fragments. These
processes differ on the various continental margins,
owing to differences in distance from detrital sedi-
ment source and differences in depth of water and in
bottom gradient (Thompson, 1976). Our proposed
geological models of the southern Indus basin repre-
sent a characteristic extension basin that includes for-
mation of basaltic magma in the upper asthenosphere,
thinning of the overlying lithosphere, broad tectonic
upwarp, and volcanism at the earth’s surface during
the Paleozoic to early Mesozoic(?). The divergent pro-
cess would have provided favorable conditions for el-
evated temperatures, imperative for thermal maturity
of hydrocarbons within the southern Indus basin.
Concurrent tectonic subsidence provides shallow-
water depositional environments for the Mesozoic
sediments that include euxinic muds for source,
shoreline sands and carbonate reefs for reservoirs, and
argillites/evaporites(?) for seals in general.
Source rocks, reservoir rocks, seals, traps, adequate
maturation of organic matter, and migration are pre-
requisites for economic accumulation of hydrocarbons.
Within extension basins, hydrocarbon potential is in-
creased owing to higher temperature gradients (from
magmatic proximity) favorable for generation and ex-
pulsion of oil and gas. Within the rift, shallow-water
sedimentation favored the formation of the sources
and reservoirs (Thompson, 1976). Stratigraphically,
the shale series of the Early Cretaceous Sember For-
mation and the Lower Goru Formation are the main
documented oil and gas source rock units (Figure 3) in
the southern Indus basin (Hussain et al., 1991). Upper
Paleocene marine transgressive shales are the second-
ary source rock series, deeply buried in the western half
of the southern Indus basin. In the southern Indus ba-
sin, the main oil and gas productive reservoir rock units
are the Cretaceous Lower Goru sandstones. The basal
transgressive sandstones of the Early Cretaceous Sem-
ber Formation may be important hydrocarbon targets.
Moreover, hydrocarbon targets may also exist in the
Jurassic Chiltan Limestone, Paleocene, and Eocene for-
mations. The upper Goru shales are the main reservoir
seal in the southern Indus basin. In general, the trans-
gressive shales of the Cretaceous (Sember Formation)
and Tertiary (Bara-Lakhra, Laki-Ghazij, and Kirthar
formations) provide seals to Jurassic and Tertiary
reservoirs.
Figure 7 illustrates the hydrocarbon discoveries as-
sociated with the southern Indus basin and surround-
1844 Fossil-Rift Structures (Pakistan)
ing areas. Several gas fields have been discovered from
the eastern limb of the southern Indus rift, at Khairpur,
Mari-Khankot, and other places. These gas fields are
associated structurally with the northern segment of
the rift. Likewise, the Mazarani gas/oil prospect was
discovered on the western limb of this rift, the Sari,
Hundi, and other gas fields on the eastern limb, and
the recently explored Bhitt gas field on the western
limb of the southernmost segment of the Indus basin
fossil rift. No significant oil fields have been discovered
thus far in the Indus rift, as compared to oil discoveries
associated with the western limb of the Thar rift. How-
ever, the integrated, ongoing regional studies have
opened channels leading to the development of con-
ceptual models based on data.
In the Indus basin, oil and gas discoveries are
associated primarily with the Lower Cretaceous strata
of the western limb of the Thar rift in Badin Block.
In the southern Indus basin the gas discoveries are
mostly from the Paleocene sediments, except the Bhitt
gas prospect, where the gas is in the Cretaceous. It is
interesting to note that Bhitt is the first location in
the southern Indus basin where exploration for hydro-
carbon could be continued down to the Cretaceous.
The models we propose illustrate good prospects for
hydrocarbon in the southern Indus basin associated
with the horst and graben segments of the fossil rift. A
more detailed study of the basement structures asso-
ciated with the fossil rift of the Indus basin is impera-
tive for deciding the precise targets for the oil and gas
traps.
Many of the present preliminary observations are
less encouraging, because adequate subsurface data are
not available from the Indus basin at this stage of ex-
ploration. The industry has just begun to explore vast
areas of the southern Indus basin. In time, many sweet
spots will be found buried within the thick sedimen-
tary sequences in the basin.
DISCUSSION
For the origin of the well-known highs of Jaccobabad,
Khairpur, Hyderabad, and others, no plausible expla-
nation could be established by previous workers,
largely owing to the lack of subsurface geological and
geophysical information. Most of the workers consid-
ered these highs the result of subsurface northwest-
trending, narrow, fingerlike extensions of the Indian
shield, known as “re-entrances,” which caused defor-
mation of the overlying geological strata.
Figure 7. Hydrocarbon prospects and their tectonic association with the inferred fossil failed rifts in the southern Indus basin and
surrounding areas.
From the aeromagnetic study, we identified a
north-south–trending fossil rift structure that is cov-
ered by thick sequences of Mesozoic and Cenozoic
sediments in the southern Indus basin. The structure
developed as a manifestation of rifting of the Indo-
Pakistan subcontinent from Gondwanaland. Sedi-
ments deposited after the creation of the failed rift
structure were deposited under the normal subsi-
dence phenomenon. Progressively increasing com-
pressional forces were due to the northwestward
movement of the Indo-Pakistan continental plate,
along with its counterclockwise rotation. The dor-
mant transform faults associated with the failed rift
were reactivated as the transcurrent faults forced
movement of the segments of the failed rift and, sub-
sequently, created the horst and graben features.
Zaigham and Mallick 1845
Large vertical displacement of these horst and graben
structures has significantly affected the overlying sed-
iments. We now infer that concurrently developed
uplift trends in the Indus basin are responsible for
the surface manifestations known as the Sibi-
Jacobabad, Khairpur, and Hydrabad highs. The in-
ferred failed rift Indus basin structure appears to be
a vital factor in tailoring the tectonic picture of the
region in relation to exploration activities. Seismicity
associated with the inferred east-west–trending trans-
current faults indicates that past and present relative
movements of segments of the failed rift structure are
causing deformation of the thin-skinned structures in
the fold and thrust belts in the west. These structures
were developed as a consequence of divergence and
convergence phenomena along the western margin of
the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent.
Initiation of sea-floor spreading from continental
rifting may have special significance for petroleum
exploration because of the high heat flow, favoring
generation of oil and gas. Likewise, the deposition
of shallow-water deposits yields favorable sources,
reservoirs, and seals for hydrocarbons. The inferred
fossil rift opens bright prospects in the southern In-
dus basin for petroleum potential. Further systematic
exploration studies are imperative for defining the
targets for specific tracts in the basin. The southern
horst segment of the fossil rift may be a good target
because 1) in its neighboring area in the southeast
there is the Badin oil and gas field associated with
the western limb of the Thar rift (Zaigham and Ah-
mad, 1996) and 2) this segment has been displaced
upward, pushing the targets to shallower depths
than targets associated with other segments of the
Indus fossil rift. Similarly, the northern segment may
have good oil and gas potential.
Based on the stratigraphic studies of the explor-
atory data from oil and gas fields, we found that the
Sember Formation of the Upper Jurassic–Lower
Cretaceous is the major hydrocarbon source for
charging the oil and gas fields of the southern Indus
basin and surrounding areas. Hydrocarbon genera-
tion from kerogen is controlled by geothermal gra-
dient, burial depth, and duration of source rock bur-
ial (Tissot and Welte, 1978). Based on the available
bottom-hole temperature data, it has been found
that the thermal gradients increase from east to west
in the Badin-Hyderabad Block, that is, from 1.31⬚F/
100 ft (2.36⬚C/100m) in Nabisar in the east to
2.39⬚F/100 ft (4.3⬚C/100 m) in the west (Quadri
and Shuaib, 1986). In view of the westwardly in-
1846 Fossil-Rift Structures (Pakistan)
creasing trends, high geothermal gradients, more
than 4⬚C/100 m, are expected to be found in the
inferred Indus failed rift region in the southern Indus
basin. These heating events, caused by the rifting
tectonism, brought about the generation and subse-
quent migration of the hydrocarbons during the Cre-
taceous, when the main fault block traps were al-
ready in existence, as per proposed models. The
Lower Goru sandstones of the Cretaceous may be
the major reservoir rocks in the southern Indus ba-
sin, similar to the oil and gas field associated with
the western limb of the Thar rift (Badin oil block),
whereas the Sember shales are the proven source
rocks in the southern Indus basin. In addition, thick
Triassic sandstones and carbonates having secondary
porosity, Jurassic sandstones, the Ranikot formation
of the Paleocene, and the Habib Rahi Member of
the Eocene are also considered to have good reser-
voir quality.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Aeromagnetic data indicate a deep-seated, north-
south–trending fossil failed rift in the southern In-
dus basin on western margin of the Indo-Pakistan
continental plate.
2. Horst and graben structures have been identified in
the subsurface associated with the Indus fossil rift.
3. The deep and extensive sedimentary basin, known
as the southern Indus basin, appears to have devel-
oped owing to the creation of the failed rift and
subsequent subsidence and sedimentation
processes.
4. The distribution of seismic epicenters in the Indus
Plain exhibits a close association with the regional
east-west–trending system of transcurrent faults re-
lated to the Indus basin fossil rift, which seems to
be active even at present, causing deformation of
the overlying mountain ranges and geomorpholog-
ical features.
5. The presence of the fossil failed rift has identified
encouraging prospects for new discoveries of oil
and gas in the southern Indus basin, because fa-
vorable conditions related to sources, earth heat,
reservoirs, and seals prevail in the proposed geo-
logical models. The present basement interpreta-
tion, combined with the presence of known hydro-
carbon source beds, reservoirs, and structures
found in the surrounding basins, should be further
interpreted to delineate new exploration targets as
 the vast tracts await drilling in the southern Indus
basin.
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