BABYLONIAN

 They imported gold, silver, copper, stone, wood and salt. Among the ancient countries, Babylon was
regarded as a flouring country. Infact, the contributions of the Babylonians to the human civilization were
immense. The Code of Hammurabi helped in building a healthy society.

 The Babylonian civilisation was an important component of the Mesopotamian civilisation. On the ravages of

the Sumerian civilisation grew up Babylonian civilisation. The Amorites were the founder of this civilisation.

The appearance of Hammurabi, the great king of the Amorites, made this civilisation progressive.

Hammurabi was the first law giver in the history of the world. The writings, literature, religion, art,
architecture and science of the Babylonians were unique in their own way.

Art of Writing and Education:

Like the Sumerians, the people of Babylon used Cuneiform writing. They used more than 350 signs in their writing.
They used to write on soft clay tablets by pen made of bone and bamboo. Then they baked tablets on sun shine and

kept one after another. During the reign of Hammurabi, the famous Emperor of Babylon, education spread in the look
and corner of that land.

He established many schools for the students. The Babylonian boys put emphasis on writing, reading and

Mathematics and girls were fond of song and dance. From the ruins of a Babylonia an inspiring sentence was written

on the wall of school. That sentence was—”He who shall excel in tablet-writing shall shine like the sun”. This shows
the love of the Babylonians for education.

Literature:

The literature of Babylon was very rich. The Babylonians wrote around 2000 books. They composed books on

religion, science, mathematics and astrology. In the domain of Babylonian literature, ‘Gilgamesh’ carved a special

position. This epic describes about king Gilgamesh, the legendary hero of Babylon. Once, god sent flood to teach
sinner Babylonians a lesson. A sage knew about this and left Babylon with others. King Gilgamesh with the help of
God Enlil defeated the flood. His heroic deeds have been described in ‘Gilgamesh’.

Code of Hammurabi:

Hammurabi was the First Law Giver of the world. He was the leader of the Amorites and a brave fighter. There were

different sets of laws in ancient Babylon concerning religion, agriculture, administration and business. Hammurabi
codified all these laws in a simple form which became famous as the ‘Code of Hammurabi’.

Religion:

Like the Sumerians, the Babylonians were polytheists. Their chief god was ‘Marduk’ who was regarded as the creator
of the world. ‘Istar’ was regarded as Mother Goddess. They also worshipped ‘Samas’ as sun god and ‘Tamuj’ as the
god of agriculture. The Babylonians believed that the gods and goddess take birth, come under sorrows, sufferings
and happiness and die.

They also marry like human beings, resort to war and sue for peace. The priests could predict future by casting a

glance on the liver of a sacrificed animal. The priests stayed at the top storey of a Ziggurat. They worshipped god or
goddess and predicted future.

Science:

The Babylonians also excelled in the field of science. The priests watched the sun, moon planet and star very

carefully and forecast the future. Like the Sumerians, the Babylonians also adopted lunar calendar. They divided one
year into 12 months and each month was divided into 30 days.

They also used sun dial and water clock to know time. They also knew the use of numbers from 1 to 9. The priests

also predicted future. They had acquired knowledge in geography, life science and astrology. All these things prove
the love of the Babylonians for science.

Art and Architecture:

The Babylonian kings were famous builders. They built big palaces. They kept the gigantic images of bulls having the

heads of man near the entrance gate of the palace. The great Ziggurat built by Hammurabi in honour of ‘Marduk’ and
big granary to preserve grains for future calamities testify the architectural skills of the Babylonians.

The figure of human beings birds and animals show their skill in the field of art. Varieties of seals have been
discovered by excavation which further shows the artistic skills of the Babylonians.

Administration:

The Babylonians were very famous in the field of administration. Besides the code of Hammurabi, laws were also

written on clay tablets. The royal orders written on 55 clay tablets have been discovered from different places of

Babylon. Hammurabi had sent message to administrators through these tablets to adopt compassion, liberal attitude

and honesty in the field of administration. Undoubtedly, the Babylonian administration was directed for the welfare of
the people.

Agriculture, Trade and Commerce:

The Babylonians were skilled agriculturists and traders. They liked to produce variety of crops. That is why they dug

canals and irrigated the corn fields. During the reign of Hammurabi a big canal was dug from the city Kish to Persian
gulf Herodotus, the father of history had lavishly Praised the wheat and barly among other crops of Babylon.
The Babylonians exported dates, food grains, oil, leather works, clay pots etc. to the outside world. They imported
gold, silver, copper, stone, wood and salt. Among the ancient countries, Babylon was regarded as a flouring country.

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION

 While much of the world was living in primitive conditions, the ancient Egyptians were inventing writing and
advancing the sciencesof mathematics, medicine and astronomy. They developed ways to measure time
and distances , and applied their knowledge to monumental architecture.

 The contribution of Egypt to the world civilization is noteworthy. The method of writing, literature, art,

architecture, religion, science of the Egyptians had compelled the people of the world to raise their
eyebrows.

Art of Writing:

To express the thinking of their mind, the Egyptians invented art of writing. Although from the very beginning they

were not acquainted with the alphabets, still then they were able to express their idea through different pictures. So,
their writing was popularly known as ‘Hieroglyphy’ or ‘sacred writing’ because those were written by the priests.

At first, the Egyptians used pictures and then they used around 2000 pictographic signs. In due course of time their

number was reduced and limited to 700 only. At last they invented 24 alphabets. They engraved those alphabets on

stone. The ‘Rosetta Stone’ preserved in the British Museum in London is its classic example. Later on the Egyptians
used pen and paper

Paper, pen, ink and inkpot:

On the banks of Nile, a plant named ‘Papyrus’ was plentily available. The leaves of Papyrus tree were joined through

gum and the long roll was prepared. By polish such rolls were glazed. In a Papyrus roll of twenty to forty feet length
and five to ten inches breadth the Egyptian wrote their idea. The modem name ‘Paper’, perhaps, has been derived
from the term ‘Papyrus’.

They took juice of plants and prepared ‘ink’ by mixing gum and water with it. In several cases they also prepared ink
by missing gum with black particles found from kitchen house or lamps.

They sharpened the edge of the steam of a plant and prepared ‘reed pen’. By dipping the pen inside the ‘ink pot’ they

wrote on Papyrus. At last, pieces of Papyrus were rolled and preserved inside the earthen pots. Writing was indeed a
noble invention of the Egyptians.

Literature:
The ancient Egyptians had created immortal literature. They composed literature concerning astrology, metallurgy,

weaving and cooking. Besides, they also reflected legends, adventures, thrilling experiences, religious thought etc. in

their literature. Among their prose writings, ‘The tale of two brothers’, ‘The tale of Sinuhi’, ‘The legend of the doomed

prince’ and ‘The story of the ship-wrecked Sailor’ were very famous. Their religious literature contained books like

‘The Pyramid Text’, ‘The Coffin Text’, ‘The Book of the dead’, ‘A dialogue between the disgusted Man and his soul’,
‘The Maxims of Ptahotep’ and ‘Hymn to Aton’ (written by Akhnaton).

Science: Calendar:

The ancient Egyptians were very good astronomers of their time. Looking at the cloudless clear blue sky, they could

predict about the solar and lunar eclipse, flood in the river Nile, time of sowing seeds etc. They could also know about
the movement of Planets and Stars. They had prepared a ‘Calendar’.

They divided a year into 360 days and 12 months, each month consisting of 30 days. Each day was divided into 24

hours or two parts and each part consisting of 12 hours. At the end of every year, they added 5 days more only to be

spent in feast and merrymaking. Julius Caesor had adopted this Calendar Pope Gregory XIII adopted this calendar
with a little modification. The Egyptian Calendar is the first recorded event of human history.

Mathematics and Geometry:

The ancient Egyptians exhibited their talent in the field of ‘Mathematics’ and ‘Geometry’. They were very efficient in

addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. They had acquired knowledge in triangle, quadrangle, square,
rectangle etc. for measuring the land.

They utilised their mathematical and geometrical knowledge in building the Pyramids. The oldest treatise on

Mathematics ‘Ahmes Papyrus’ has been found from Egypt which speaks the high mathematical and geometrical
knowledge of the ancient Egyptians.

Medical Science:

The Egyptians acquired deep knowledge in medical science. From their old library two books concerning medical

science have been discovered. Edwin Smith has translated these books. From that translation it is known that the
Egyptians knew about different diseases and also knew how to cure them.

They had idea regarding surgery. They could also preserve dead bodies by applying chemicals. The physicians of

Egypt also knew the use of castor oil. It will not be wrong if the Egyptians are termed as the ‘Father of Medical
science’.

Art and architecture: Pyramid:

The Egyptians have immortalised their name in the annals of history due to their art and architecture. Pyramid is the

classic example of it. The tomb of the Egyptian Pharaoh is known as Pyramid. The people of Egypt believed that after

death, the soul returns back to the body. So they preserved the dead body of the Pharaoh by applying chemicals in it.
This preserved body of the Pharaoh was known a ‘Mummy’. It was covered with cloth and kept inside a coffin.

That coffin was again kept inside a stone box named as Sarcophagus which contained small holes. The Egyptians

believed that the soul can again enter into that body through these holes. That box was placed inside a room in the
middle of the Pyramid. In the walls of that room the life history of the Pharaoh was written.

The wife of the Pharaoh, his servants and slaves were killed and kept inside the room with food, water, cloth and

jewels. It was believed that the soul could recognise these things and again return back to the dead body of the

Pharaoh. By covering this room, the tomb of Pharaoh or Pyramid was built by stone, bricks and limestone. It has
been rightly told regarding the Pyramid that “All the world fears time, but time fears the Pyramids”.

Among the Pyramids of Egypt, the Pyramid built by Pharaoh Josher at Sakara is the oldest. The famous and largest

Pyramid of Khufu was built at Gizeh. This is regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. This 481 feet
Pyramid is built over 13 acres of land. 2,300,000 pieces of stones were used in it.

The weight of each piece of stone is 2.5 tons. Nearly twenty years were spent for building this Pyramid. In fact,
Pyramid immortalises the Egyptians in the annals of world history.

Temple:

Temples were another classic example of the Egyptian architecture. The Pharaohs built temples to please gods and

goddesses. The Karnak temple at Thebes is world famous. This is the largest temple of Egypt. Its length is around
two kilometres. This temple rests on 12 pillars, each having 79 feet height.

The temple walls are filled up with the war scene and achievements of the Pharaohs and its top, with hieroglyphic

writings. This temple was meant for the worship of Amon-Ra or Sun-god. The temples at Luxor and Abu Simbel were
also very nice.

Sculpture:

The ancient Egyptians were skilled sculptors. Among their Sculptures, Sphinx was very famous. This gigantic stone

statue is a remarkable sculpture having the body of a lion with human head. The Great Sphinx stands at the doorstep

of the biggest Pyramid at Gizeh. It represents the head of Pharaoh Khafare of Amenhotep III. Its grave facial

appearance and a ray of laughter make it unintelligible before the viewers. Besides the Sphincs, the Egyptians built
huge images. The great statues of
Amenhotep III at Luxor, Ramesis III, his queen and family deity Amon- Ra at Abu Simbel are regarded as great

statues of the world. Innumerable statues, animals, birds, ivory, wood and terracotta testify to the fact that the ancient
Egyptians were skilled sculptors.

Religion:

Religion played a vital role in the life of the Egyptians. From the beginning they believed in Polytheism They

worshipped around 2200 gods and goddesses. They attached divinity in creatures and worshipped them. Their
crocodile god was famous as ‘Sibek’. The cat god was called ‘Pashat’ and jackle god was named as ‘Anubis’.

The Egyptians regarded ‘Ra’ as the God of the universe. His son ‘Osiris’ was famous as the ‘Lord of Egypt’ and also

as Justice of the departed soul. His wife ‘Isis’ was the goddess of fertile soil. ‘Horas’, the son of Osiris was the god of
poor and destitute. There was an influential community of priests in Egypt to worship these gods and goddesses.

Pharaoh Akhnaton or Amenhotep IV brought a revolutionary change in the field of religion. He introduced

‘Monotheism’ in Egypt. He proclaimed that there was only one God and he is ‘Aton’ or ‘Sun-god’. The priests of Egypt

had described ‘Ra’ or ‘Amon-Ra’ as a dreadful god. However, Akhnoton declared ‘Aton’ as omniscient, kind, father-
like and an incarnation of mercy.

Philosophy:

The ancient Egyptians had also attained celebrity in the field of Philosophy. Ptahotep was the greatest philosopher of

that time. He was the provincial ruler of Memphis. In his famous book entitled ‘Instructions to Ptahotep’ he had given

many advices for regulating the life. Much before Confucious, Socrates and Buddha Ptahotep had discussed the
philosophy of life.

Postal Service:

The people of ancient Egypt were aware about the postal system. The study of Papyrus leads historians to believe

that the people of that land were sending message. In an ancient Papyrus it has been written— “Write me through the

bearer of the letter”. This conclusively proves that the Egyptians were well aware about the postal service. It will not
be wrong if the ancient Egyptians are described as “The father of modern postal service”.

Historiography:

The Egyptians were the father of ‘Historiography’. The historians accompanied the Pharaoes to the battle field and

recorded their achievements. The ‘Rosetta stone’ is its classic example. By deciphering it the French palaeographer

Champollion had discerned many facts regarding the Egyptian civilisation. The history of different royal dynasties is
known due to this historiography. Thus, the ancient Egyptians were trend setters of history writing.

Agriculture and Irrigation:

In the field of agriculture the Egyptians also excelled. They were skilled agriculturists. They had invented plough and

hoe. By a device called ‘Shadur they could carry the water of Nile to the canals which helped in irrigation. The chief
crops grown by them were wheat, barley flax. They also produced fruits like orange, date-palm, melon etc.

Navigation, Trade and Commerce:

The Egyptians first used boat in case of trade and commerce. Egypt became a centre of trade in the entire

Mediterranean region. In due course of time, they established trade relation with Nubiya, Sudan Janjibar, Persia,
Crate and Phonesia. They exported ivory, gold, the feather of Ostrich and slaves.

They imported cattle, fish and wine from Asia; Precious red stones from Persia and copper from Senai. By utilising
navy for the first time, the Egyptians have enriched the human civilisation.

Craftsmanship:

The Egyptians were also expert in craftsmanship. They knew the art of melting together copper with tin to make

bronze. They made brick, cement and plaster of Paris. They also manufactured glazed pottery and coloured glass.

They were also apt in the carving of wood. From Papyrus plants they made ropes, mats and sandals. The Egyptian

workmen developed the art of enamelling and varnishing. Thus, their skilled craftsmanship was widely recognised in
the world.

System of Administration:

The Pharaoes of Egypt were administrations of superb calibre. They were very powerful. They commanded respect

from their subjects. In many cases divinity was attached to the Pharaoes. They discharged efficient administration

due to the help of ministers, provincial administrators and royal officers. This efficient administration was recognised
all over the world.

Infact, the contribution of Egyptians to human civilisation was immense. Egypt, the ‘land of Pyramid’ allured the

attention of millions due to its splendid art and architecture. In the field of writing, religion, science, administration
trade and commerce etc. the ancient Egyptians had left their indelible marks on the sea shore of time.
Writing

Perhaps the most important advance made by the Mesopotamians was the invention of writing by the Sumerians. Go
here to learn more about Sumerian writing. With the invention of writing came the first recorded laws called
Hammurabi's Code as well as the first major piece of literature called the Epic Tale of Gilgamesh.

The Wheel

Although archeologists don't know for sure who invented the wheel, the oldest wheel discovered was found in
Mesopotamia. It is likely the Sumer first used the wheel in making pottery in 3500BC and then used it for their
chariots in around 3200 BC.

Mathematics

The Mesopotamians used a number system with the base 60 (like we use base 10). They divided time up by 60s
including a 60 second minute and a 60 minute hour, which we still use today. They also divided up the circle into 360
degrees.

They had a wide knowledge of mathematics including addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, quadratic and
cubic equations, and fractions. This was important in keeping track of records as well as in some of their large
building projects.

The Mesopotamians had formulas for figuring out the circumference and area for different geometric shapes like
rectangles, circles, and triangles. Some evidence suggests that they even knew the Pythagorean Theorem long
before Pythagoras wrote it down. They may have even discovered the number for pi in figuring the circumference of a
circle.

Astronomy

Using their advanced math, the Mesopotamian astronomers were able to follow the movements of the stars, planets,
and the Moon. One major achievement was the ability to predict the movements of several planets. This took logic,
mathematics, and a scientific process.

By studying the phases of the Moon, the Mesopotamians created the first calendar. It had 12 lunar months and was
the predecessor for both the Jewish and Greek calendars.

Medicine

The Babylonians made several advances in medicine. They used logic and recorded medical history to be able to
diagnose and treat illnesses with various creams and pills.

Technology

The Mesopotamians made many technological discoveries. They were the first to use the potter's wheel to make
better pottery, they used irrigation to get water to their crops, they used bronze metal (and later iron metal) to make
strong tools and weapons, and used looms to weave cloth from wool.

Interesting Facts About Mesopotamian Technology

 The Walls of Babylon were once considered one of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the World. There were
actually two massive walls that surrounded the entire city. Archeologists estimate that the walls were over 50
miles long with each wall being around 23 feet wide and 35 feet tall. There were also massive towers at
intervals along the wall that may have been hundreds of feet tall.
 The Mesopotamians may have invented the simple machine called the Archimedes' Screw. This would have
helped to raise water to the heights needed for the plants in the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
 The Assyrians developed glasswork as well as glazes for pottery and art to help it last longer.
 Eighteen different canals have been found that brought water to the Assyrian Empire capital of Nineveh.