215

Requirements for a tidal power demonstration scheme

R M Young,BSc, PhD, CEng, MICE, MCIWEM
Binnie and Partners, Redhill, Surrey

If in the future it is decided to progress the British tidal power programme, the next logical step will be to build a demonstration
scheme. Criteria for selecting a suitable demonstration scheme site are set out and a number of candidates identi@ed,making use of a
survey of small estuaries carried out b Binnie and Partners in 1986. These candidates are compared in the light of the information they
B
are likely to produce and of the proba le investment required.
Key words: tidal power, site selection, turbines, environmental impact

1 INTRODUCTION Kingdom than in most other places in the world and

This paper is based on a study carried out in 1991 for that there are unlikely to be any unsurmountable tech-
the Energy Technology Support Unit of the then nical problems. The impact on the environment is less
Department of Energy, at a time when the prospects for well understood, however. The physical and ecological
tidal power looked reasonably promising. Circum- processes that occur in the estuaries where most
stances have changed since then and the possibility of a schemes would be located are complex and finely bal-
demonstration scheme being built now seems remote. anced. The physical changes that will result can be pre-
The arguments for such a scheme as the logical next dicted with some confidence but there is much less
step in a committed tidal power programme none the certainty about the effects on ecological processes.
less remain valid; whether such a programme should be Theoretical models of these processes are available but
pursued is a different question. their usefulness is restricted, partly because of the
overall complexity of estuarial systems and partly
because of lack of data from similar conditions that can
be used to verify them. Some information may become
2 BACKGROUND available from the amenity barrages recently built or
For over 15 years, and until very recently, the Govern- currently proposed (Tawe, Cardiff Bay, Tees), but their
ment supported a tidal power development programme method of operation is generally so different from that
covering both generic and site-specific studies. The of a tidal power scheme that its value is likely to be
generic studies looked at the resource, technical and limited.
environmental aspects of tidal power while the site- Given the will to proceed with a tidal power pro-
specific studies examined the feasibility of building gramme which aims at the generation of significant
schemes at a number of different sites in the United amounts of energy two approaches are possible: to con-
Kingdom. Since 1988 such studies have been completed tinue as before, with ever more detailed theoretical
at seven sites, listed in Table 1, varying in size from the studies which without proper data can never really be
very small (Loughour, installed capacity 5 MW) to the conclusive, or to establish the conditions in which the
very large (Severn, installed capacity 8640 MW). data can be collected by actually building a properly
The results of these studies have shown that condi- monitored tidal power scheme as a demonstration. In
tions for tidal power are more favourable in the United the present state of knowledge the latter approach has
many advantages, not least because if successful it will
give confidence in the technology and boost the chances
of other schemes being promoted. It is important,
Table 1 Details of the seven selected sites however, to set out the objectives clearly and to identify
potential candidate schemes before deciding to follow
Installed Year this approach.
capacity cost of
Scheme MW f million report
3 OBJECTIVES
Loughour 5 14 1988
Conwy 33 51 1990 The aims of building a demonstration scheme would be
Wyre 60 90 1991 to :
Duddon 100 258 1994
Humber 654 1240 1989 confirm that currently proposed methods of con-
Mersey 700 966 1991 structing tidal power schemes are technically feas-
Severn 8640 8657 1989
ible;
confirm that such schemes can be built to strict time
and cost budgets;
This lecture was presented at a conference on 'Power generation and the environ-
ment' held in London on 15-16 June 1994. The M S was received on 26 July 1994 demonstrate that the anticipated benefits (in partic-
and was acceptedfor publication on 17 January 1995. ular the power output) are attainable;
A03594 Q IMechE 1995 Prof Instn Mech Engrs Vol209
216 R M YOUNG
(d) examine the environmental impact of a tidal power
scheme and compare with impact predictions.
Ideally the scheme selected would be capable of achiev-
ing these aims and at the same time be small, inexpen-
sive and produce sufficient energy to provide a
reasonable return on the original investment. In reality,
this is unlikely to be possible and compromises will
have to be made, bearing in mind the overriding need
for credibility. It is obviously important that the results
of the demonstration scheme should be accepted as
giving a reasonable indication of what will happen if a
full-sized scheme is constructed. The criteria for selec-
ting a scheme that will achieve this are discussed below.
4 CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING SITE SELECTION
4 1 Construction methods
The method of construction proposed for all tidal
power schemes studied recently is to use caissons built
at a construction yard on the coast, towed to the site by
sea and sunk in position. Caissons have been used for a
number of engineering projects recently, notably the
submerged tube road crossing at Conwy, and there
seems little doubt that the method can be employed
successfully. Nevertheless, there are some areas of
uncertainty, particularly concerning the final manoeuv-
ring and setting down of the caissons adjacent to each
other.
If a demonstration scheme is to give any useful con-
struction information the caisson method should be
adopted, although for a small scheme this is likely to be
more expensive than in situ construction if extensive
dredging is needed to provide a suitable access channel
from the sea. The size of this channel will be controlled
by the width and depth of the largest caisson rather
than its length and will thus depend principally on the
diameter of the turbines. With a small scheme all the
equipment may be contained in a single caisson, as pro-
posed for the Conwy, which will therefore be closer in
size to those used for a prototype scheme (current pro-
posals ranging from 80 m x 77 m x 40 m high for the
Severn to 78 m x 50 m x 24 m high for the Wyre). The
size of the caisson is not the only factor to be con-
sidered, however, as the conditions in a small estuary,
and therefore the constraints on the towing and placing
operations, are likely to be quite different from those in
a large estuary.
In general, therefore, it is fair to say that the smaller
the demonstration scheme the less valuable it will be for
confirming the feasibility of the proposed method of
construction. Very small schemes may provide informa-
tion useful for small- to medium-sized prototypes, but
are unlikely to face the problems of controlling large
caissons in varying depths of water under a range of
weather and tidal conditions that will be of most
concern in large schemes such as the Mersey or the
Severn.
4.2 Construction time and cost estimates
The two major time and cost elements of a tidal power
scheme are the civil works associated with the construc-
tion of the caissons and the mechanical and electrical
works associated with the turbines and generators. The
Part A: Journal of Power and Energy
cost of both elements will be made up of fixed items
(preparation of construction yard, design and develop-
ment of turbines) and variable items, which will depend
on the number of units built. The cost of a demonstra-
tion scheme is therefore likely to be proportionately
higher than that of a larger prototype. Useful informa-
tion may none the less be obtained, even if only to show
the accuracy of the. original estimates. As before, the
larger the scheme the more useful the information is
likely to be.
4.3 Energy output
The principal benefit from a tidal power scheme is the
energy that is produced and a major aim of a demon-
stration scheme should be to show that the anticipated
output can be achieved over a period of years. This
output should be reasonable and past experience indi-
cates that to achieve this the scheme should be sited in
an estuary where the tidal range is not less than 4 m
and preferably 5 m or more. It should also have a rea-
sonable life, so any sites where there may be significant
loss of storage (due, for example, to sedimentation)
should be avoided.
A further aim should be to examine different methods
of operation to determine how the returns may be opti-
mized under a variety of different energy demand and
pricing scenarios. To do this the scheme should be rea-
sonably flexible, which will require sufficient turbines
and sluices to enable operation not to be completely
disrupted when one is taken out of service. A minimum
of three, and preferably four (or more), of each should
be provided.
The other potential benefits relate to such matters as
planning and recreation gain due to any increase in the
amenity of the estuary. These are likely to be so site-
specific that it will be impossible to draw any general
conclusions from a demonstration scheme.
4.4 Environmental impacts
4.4.1 Physical impacts
Water levels. A concern expressed during public meet-
ings is that a tidal power scheme will raise water levels
behind a barrage during river floods or tidal surges and
so increase the risk of flooding. Any demonstration
scheme should be capable of showing this is not the
case.
Sediment movements. The possibility of loss of storage
has been mentioned above. This is most likely to occur
where there are considerable volumes of fine sediment
seaward of the proposed barrage line which may be
carried through on the rising tide and trapped. There is
also concern that sediment within the basin will be
redistributed and that this will adversely affect salt-
marsh areas as well as sandflat and mudflat areas. The
demonstration scheme basin should therefore contain a
representative mix of such areas. It should also be large
enough to allow reasonable locally generated wave
activity to occur since this may play a significant part in
any sediment redistribution.
Water quality. The change in the tidal regime will alter
the retention time of water entering the estuary which
Q IMechE 1995
 REQUIREMENTS FOR A TIDAL POWER DEMONSTRATION SCHEME
may have a significant effect on the quality of the water
retained. This can best be examined if the chosen
estuary does not at present dry out fully at low water so
that there is a degree of mixing throughout the tide.
4.4.2 Ecological impacts
Vegetation. The change in tidal regime will affect the
pattern of vegetation growth in and around the estuary.
To investigate these effects the estuary should contain
significant areas of saltmarsh and adjacent wetlands
with a range of vegetation types. It would help if one of
the saltmarsh species present is Spartina anglica since its
dynamics are reasonably well understood.
Invertebrates. Changes in the invertebrate population in
an estuary may have a significant impact on the whole
ecology of the system. To ensure that a reasonable
variety of invertebrates is present the estuary should be
muddy rather than sandy since mud is biologically
more productive.
Birds. The effect of the scheme on bird populations can
best be determined if the estuary is already at or near
capacity for a number of different species and if good
quality counts have been made over a number of years.
Available information suggests that an estuary of 2-3
km2 in area should have reasonable numbers of several
common species, but there is considerable variation
from one estuary to another and some smaller estuaries,
down to 1 km2, may be acceptable. A relatively isolated
estuary would give the clearest results and other
changes that could affect bird numbers should not be
happening over the study period.
Fish. The principal concern is the effect of a barrage on
fish passing through it and, as an extension of this, the
effectiveness of fish diversion devices and fish passes.
Public interest is centred on salmon and sea trout but
other species (eel, bass, flatfish, shad) are also at risk
and the estuary should harbour populations of as many
as possible. The damage to fish during passage through
turbines is thought to depend on the diameter and
therefore the scheme’s turbines should not be too small.
4.4.3 Economic and social impacts
Commercial activities. The effect of a tidal power scheme
on commercial activities (shipping, fishing) will be
highly site-specific and few general insights are likely to
be provided by a demonstration scheme. Estuaries
where these activities are particularly important should
therefore be avoided.
Recreation and tourism. The need to quantify the poten-
tial benefits from any increase in amenity has been
referred to above. The techniques of doing this are rea-
sonably well established and so do not need to be con-
sidered when selecting a demonstration scheme site
(unless the benefits will increase the chances of the
scheme proceeding).
5 SELECTION CRITERIA
From the foregoing discussion the following selection
criteria can be established:
@ IMechE 1995
217
(a) mean tidal range not less than 4 m and preferably
more;
(b) minimum of three reasonably sized turbines;
(c) basin area not less than 1 km2 and preferably more;
(d) basin containing areas of mudflat and saltmarsh;
(e) amount of fine sediment outside estuary limited;
(f) estuary that does not dry out;
(g) estuary close to capacity for a number of bird
species;
(h) good quality bird counts over a number of years
available;
(i) estuary supporting a variety of fish species, prefer-
ably including migratory fish.
The criterion concerning bird counts is important
and is equally applicable to all aspects of the estuary’s
ecology; the more good quality background informa-
tion that is already available the less will have to be
collected specifically for the study. This will reduce the
time needed to carry out the Environmental Assessment
and prepare the Environmental Statement needed if the
scheme is to be approved by the planning authorities.
A preliminary assessment of the characteristics of a
suitable scheme can be made using a simple parametric
model originally developed by Clive Baker (1) and later
updated (2). The relationship between tidal range, basin
area, installed scheme capacity, turbine diameter and
number of turbines needed for a range of typical tides,
basin areas and turbine diameters is shown in Table 2.
The results indicate that with three turbines of about
3.5 m diameter the scheme will have an installed capa-
city of between 10 and 15 MW, depending on the tidal
range, and will need a basin area of about 1.5 km2. If
the basin area is reduced to 1 km2 the capacity of the
scheme will be between 5 and 10 MW and the turbines
will be about 2.5 m in diameter, although this could be
increased to 3.0 m if the number is reduced to 2.
These, it must be emphasized, are minimum require-
ments; the smaller the scheme the less valuable are the
results likely to be for assessing either the technical
aspects of tidal power or its environmental impact.
Indeed, to provide information that will be of some rele-
vance to very large schemes, such as the Severn, it is
likely that a demonstration scheme will have to be sig-
nificantly larger than suggested above, possibly in the
range 60-100 MW installed capacity.
6 SELECTION OF CANDIDATE SITES
6.1 Preliminary assessment
The variation of mean tidal range around the United
Kingdom is shown in Fig. 1, from which it can be seen
that there are four areas where the range exceeds 4 m:
(a) in the South-West between Land’s End and St
Davids Head;
(b) in the Irish Sea between Anglesey and the Mull of
Galloway;
(c) on the East Coast between the Humber and the
Wash;
(d) in the South-East between the Thames and Brighton.
The coastline in these areas was examined and a total of
29 sites appearing to comply broadly with the site selec-
h o c Instn Mech Engm Vol209
218 R M YOUNG

Table 2 Typical tidal power scheme characteristics

Basin area
km2
0.5 1.o 1.5 2.0
Installed Installed Installed Installed
Turbine diameter capacity Number of capacity Number of =pacity Number of capacity Number of
m MW turbines MW turbines MW turbines MW turbines
Tidal range = 4.0 m
2.0 2 5 7 10
3.0 2 1 5 2 I 3 9 4
4.0 1 1 2 2
Tidal range = 5.0 m
2.0 3 5 8 I1
3.O 3 1 7 2 10 4 14 5
4.0 1 1 2 3
Tidal range = 6.0 m
2.0 3 5 8 11
3.0 4 1 8 2 13 4 17 5
4.0 1 1 2 3
Tidal range = 7.0 m
2.0 3 5 8 11
3.0 5 1 10 2 14 4 19 5
4.0 1 1 2 3

tion criteria discussed above were identified. These are
shown in Fig. 2 together with a further six very small
sites which were also put forward for consideration.
The installed capacity, annual output and capital cost
of schemes at each of the sites shown in Fig. 2 were
determined using the updated parametric model
described in reference (2). Each site was also assessed for
basin area, potential interference with navigation, quan-
tity of fine sediment outside the estuary and the pres-
ence of saltmarsh. On the basis of these assessments six
sites, listed below and marked in Fig. 2, were selected
for more detailed study:
1 River Hayle
19 River Pembroke
20 Carew/Cresswell
23 AfonGoch
28 Urr Water
29 River Dee
The majority of the other schemes were discarded
either because they were too small or because of sedi-
ment or shipping problems. Many of them are within
the Severn Estuary (sites 5 to 12) and are therefore at
risk of silting up rapidly due to the large quantities of
fine sediment found there. The ones along the south
coast of Wales (sites 13 to 18) either have potential sedi-
ment problems or enclose large port facilities (or, in the
case of the Tawe, are no longer available due to the
construction of an amenity barrage), while the ones in
the north (sites 25 to 27) are again likely to suffer from
sediment problems.

6.2 More detailed assessment

Lines through points of approximately equal mean tidal range,
calculated as mean of Spring and Neap tide range
Fig. 1 Variation of mean tidal range around the United
Kingdom
Part A: Journal of Power and Energy
The more detailed studies suggested that sites 28 and
29, Urr Water and River Dee, would be less attractive
than the other four due to lack of information about the
estuaries, possible sediment problems and potential dif-
ficulties in assessing the impact on birds as the sites are
part of an estuary complex. Site 1, River Hayle, was
considered unlikely to be acceptable as incompatible
plans for the estuary had already received planning per-
mission. Of the remaining schemes site 23, Afon Goch,
has a higher tidal range than the other two but is
smaller, has been less well studied and is very poor in
fish.
If a demonstration scheme is to be built some degree
of subsidy will be required, the extent depending on the
capital cost of the scheme, the amount of energy pro-
@ IMechE 1995
 REQUIREMENTS FOR A TIDAL POWER DEMONSTRATION SCHEME 219

At a market price of 3p/unit, site 23, Afon Goch,

requires least subsidy, closely followed by site 20,
CarewfCresswell. At a market price of 6p/unit, however,
the scheme in the Wyre becomes much the cheapest
option, followed by the Carew/Cresswell, which is itself
closely followed by the Conwy.

22
+A5 0 17 Location reference number
0 A2 Location in small estuary
Location selected for
further consideration
1 3
Fig. 2 Sites considered for selection to build a demonstra-
tion scheme
duced and the market for this energy. To determine the
support needed for sites 19,20 and 23, River Pembroke,
Carew/Cresswell and Afon Goch, the unit cost of energy
was determined for a range of discount rates assuming a
3 year construction period, a 120 year life and an ebb-
generation operating sequence with pumping at high
water.
The support required at a discount rate of 8 per cent
was calculated for each scheme, assuming market prices
of 3 and 6p/unit. The results are given in Table 3 and
compared with the support needed for two larger
schemes that have been examined in considerably more
detail, the Conwy and the Wyre, calculated on the same
basis.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Of the three small schemes considered site 20, Carewf
Cresswell, appears to be the most reasonable choice for
demonstration purposes. Site 23, Afon Goch, is too
small to provide much useful information and the
subsidy required would be a little smaller at a market
price of 3p/unit and considerably greater if the price
rises to 6p/unit. Site 19, River Pembroke, would poss-
ibly provide slightly more information but would
require greater subsidy at both prices.
It should be understood, however, that while schemes
of this size will provide useful pointers to the effects that
projects such as the Wyre and the Conwy will have on
the environment, they will have much less value for very
large schemes in estuaries where the eco-system is much
more complex, such as the Mersey or the Severn. These
are the schemes that will need to be developed if tidal
power is to make a significant contribution to the
country’s energy supply.
If the development of these large schemes becomes a
serious aim it would be more appropriate to adopt the
Wyre as a demonstration scheme. This would require
about twice the subsidy needed for one of the smaller
schemes at a market price of 3pfunit but the amount
would fall rapidly as the price increases. It would have
much greater credibility, producing more than three
times as much energy, being built with caissons similar
in size to those proposed for the Severn and the Mersey
and having large (6 m) diameter turbines. The estuary
contains a sufficiently wide variety of habitats and of
bird and fish species to provide much useful data
without being so outstanding as to make its use for
demonstration purposes inappropriate. Furthermore, it
would probably attract support from a significant pro-
portion of the local population as it would bring invest-
ment to an area that is currently depressed and would
incorporate a crossing that would considerably improve
the local road network.
The use of relatively large diameter turbines would
provide valuable data on the effect of a major scheme
on fish as both marine species and salmonids are
present in the estuary. The effect of the scheme on the

Table 3 Funding needs for possible demonstration schemes

Unit cost of energy Funding need at 8%
Annual Capital
energy cost p/kW h E million
-
Scheme GWh f million 5% 8% 10% 15% 3pjkWh 6pjkWh
Afon Goch 9 24 17.7 26.3 32.3 48.4 21.3 18.5
River Pembroke 31 52 9.0 13.4 16.5 24.6 40.4 28.7
Carew/Cresswell 41 36 5.6 8.4 10.2 15.3 23.1 10.3
River Conwy 60 52 5.6 8.4 10.2 15.3 33.4 14.9
River Wyre 131 90 4.1 6.3 7.8 11.7 47.1 4.3

@ IMechE 1995 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 209

220
pattern of sediment movement in the estuary and on the
development of its fringing saltmarsh would also give
useful information; two areas of saltmarsh have been
designated as sites of special scientific interest as they
are the only areas of ungrazed saltmarsh in the North-
West of England and careful management would be
needed if their interest is to be maintained.
The estuary is considered to be nationally important
for black-tailed godwit while a number of other birds
are present in significant numbers. The interaction
between any changes in the local population and
changes in the larger populations in the nearby
Morecambe Bay and Ribble areas would need careful
examination.
Part A: Journal of Power and Energy
R M YOUNG
Further details about the Wyre Estuary and the
potential effects of a tidal power scheme are given in
references (3) and (4).
REFERENCES
1 The UK potential for tidal energy from small estuaries. Department
of Energy ETSU TID 4048-P1,1989.
2 Parametric model for tidal power-revised 1990 (draft). Binnie and
Partners, April 1991.
3 Young, R. and Matthews, M. The environmental aspects of small
tidal power schemes. ICE Conferenceon Tidal power, March 1992.
4 River Wyre tidal energy barrage and road crossing. Department of
Energy ETSU TID 4100,1991.
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