American Society For Public Administration, Wiley Public Administration Review

Decentralization and Citizen Participation in Criminal Justice Systems
Author(s): Richard A. Myren

Source: Public Administration Review, Vol. 32, Special Issue: Curriculum Essays on Citizens,
Politics, and Administration in Urban Neighborhoods (Oct., 1972), pp. 718-738
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the American Society for Public Administration
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/975235
Accessed: 23-09-2019 13:53 UTC
REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/975235?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms
American Society for Public Administration, Wiley are collaborating with JSTOR to
digitize, preserve and extend access to Public Administration Review
This content downloaded from 49.150.1.21 on Mon, 23 Sep 2019 13:53:07 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
718
Decentralization and Citizen Participation
In Criminal Justice Systems
Richard A. Myren, State University of New York at Albany
Criminal justice systems are one of the mecha- which expects to publish its report by September
nisms relied on by modern states to establish and 15, 1972.
preserve that minimal level of internal stability Not all of the critical attention fixed on
necessary for growth and development. Such criminal justice has been on the part of govern
systems are formal, legal, and governmental; sup- ment. The journals published by the law schools
plemented by a variety of informal, nonlegal, the country have dealt extensively with cri
nongovernmental social control mechanisms. problems (30-39). Special issues of other scholar
For the purpose of this essay, a criminal justice and popular magazines have also focused on
system is defined as the aggregate of agencies criminal justice (40-46). Films are becoming suf
(police, prosecution, courts with jurisdiction over ciently common to merit catalogs (47). Nor
violations of the criminal law, probation, parole, the critical comment been limited to schola
correctional agencies, and specialized agencies such journals and heavy governmental reports.
as New York's Narcotic Addiction Control Com- popular press too has highlighted problems in
mission and Division for Youth) that have respon-
segments of the criminal justice system (48-64)
sibility for enforcement of the criminal law. In Citizen concern with the seriousness of the
another context, the criminal justice system would
crime problem has been evidenced in a number of
be defined to include the legislative process that
ways. Acting through Congress, the people of the
produced the substantive criminal law enforced by
United States have, since 1960, established a
the system thus defined, the procedural criminalnumber of successive new agencies to lead a
law (including the law of evidence) that governsnationwide war against crime, culminating in the
how that enforcement can proceed, and theLaw Enforcement Assistance Administration of
charters or enabling acts creating the agencies ofthe U. S. Department of Justice (65). Operating
the system. Only peripheral mention will be made primarily through block grants to the states, the
of these aspects of criminal justice systems in the
agency has generated a new level of participation
current discussion.
in criminal justice planning by requiring that each
The criminal justice systems of the United state administer its share of the funds through a
States (as subsystems of federal, state, county, andboard widely representative of state and local
city governments) are in trouble. The critical governments and of the public at large. Most states
literature includes a massive outpouring of govern- have, in addition, established regional criminal
mental reports (1-19, 25-29), a phenomenon justice planning groups with similar broad repre-
paralleled in Canada (20-24). This year (1972) sees sentation. Typically, these boards sit as policy-
yet another massive study on the part of the Lawmaking groups whose decisions are implemented
Enforcement Assistance Administration of the by professional staffs. In addition, some states use
U.S. Department of Justice. Administrator Jerris a variety of advisory groups that bring into active
Leonard has appointed a National Advisory Com- participation an even broader range of local
mission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals officials and citizens (66).
CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEMS 719
Beyond this primary effort in the cal.

Department
The top officials remain free to revoke the delegation
at any time.
of Justice, crime and delinquency control The subordinate officials remain dependent
compo-
nents have been made part of almostinallnumerous ways upon the pleasure of their superiors.
proposals
Political decentralization, by contrast, involves the trans-
in the Model Cities Program of the Department of
fer of authority to officials whose dependence is upon the
Housing and Urban Development. Less obviously
subjurisdictional clientele. The assumption must be that
related but with an important impact nonetheless
such officials will not be manipulable by the former
has been the Legal Services Program possessors
of the ofOffice
the transferred authority.
Community
of Economic Opportunity. This program control means the exercise of authority
brings
by the democratically organized government of a neigh-
legal assistance to poor people facing a wide
borhood-sized jurisdiction. There is no consensus on how
variety of personal and family problems, many of
neighborhoods should be defined.... Nor is there any
which could, unattended, become criminogenic consensus about the precise amount of authority that
(67)(68). such a government would have to possess in any given
In addition to acting through their electivepolicy arena for the label "community control" to be
officials, private citizens have evidenced theirjustified. What the term does clearly denote is a category
of proposed reforms: transfers of authority from the
concern through support of private nonprofit
governments of large cities to the governments of much
agencies, the most prominent of which is the
smaller sub-units within them. Such transfers would
constitute
National Council on Crime and Delinquency political decentralization. At the same time, it
should be emphasized that they would remain subject to
(69-71). Citizens are also showing their concern
modification by higher levels of government-just as are
through a variety of actions on the local level. One
the charters of cities and suburbs today (70, pp. 64-65).
evidence of citizen concern for crime is the
political support given to "law and order" candi- Altshuler also sets out the claims that motivate the
dates in local elections (72). Another is supportdesire for participation: "These claims seem to
for and participation in local vigilante-like groupsfocus on three values: political authority, group
(73-75). A variation on this self-help approach is representation in public bureaucracies, and the
the growing tendency of cooperative neighbor-private income (wages and profits) generated by
hood associations to hire a protective service togovernmental activity" (79, p. 64). Police depart-
regularly patrol their neighborhood (76, p.ments are one of the primary targets in the
277)(77). One last kind of local expression ofcriminal justice system for those advocating de-
concern is the court-watcher program. This kind ofcentralization and citizen participation through
citizen's group, established to monitor the per-community control.
formance of various local criminal justice agencies,
is spreading (78).
In summary, the criminal justice systems of the in Police Agencies
United States are in difficulty-and the people
know it. The balance of this essay looks at the Police departments can perform at least the
extent to which decentralization and citizen par- following functions: enforcement of the tradi-
ticipation present a viable alternative in meeting tional law, enforcement of convenience norms,
that difficulty. performance of service activities, suppression of
In the discussion, Alan A. Altshuler's definition
political opposition, and the combating of external
of the key terms will be used:
aggression. In the United States, the police agen-
to decentralize means to distribute authority morecies of our large cities legally carry out the first
widely-that is, to a greater number of individuals. three of these (80). What is sometimes spoken of
Decentralization can take many forms. One of the most
as the order maintenance function of the police is
vital is to substitute decisions by individuals in the
actually achieved through these three kinds of
marketplace for decisions by governmental officials. We
shall be concerned. . . however, with a specific type ofactivity. Other authors have described police func-
decentralization: that within government, from officialstions in other terms (81-83) (19, Vol. 17, pp.
at the center of a jurisdiction to those in geographically53-71).
defined subjurisdictions (i.e., states within the nation, Police departments in the United States are
localities within states, and so on).
organized as classical hierarchical bureaucracies
Within this type, it is of crucial importance to
distinguish administrative decentralization from politicalmodeled after the military. They are strongly
decentralization. The former involves delegation fromcentralized and strenuously resist control by
superior to subordinate officials within a bureaucracy."civilian" officials. Labor is divided into func-
The organizing principle of bureaucracy remains hierarchi- tional specialties, with activities conducted accord-
720 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION REVIEW
ing to standardized operating procedures. vital force despite some consolidation and that as
Career
routes are well established and have a commonmuch local governmental control as is reasonable
should be preserved while increasing the quality
entry point with promotions based on impersonal
evaluations by superiors. Management proceedsand quantity of service. It then goes on to consider
through a monocratic system of routinized the pros and cons of coordination and consolida-
tion of police staff services, auxiliary services, and
superior-subordinate relationships. Status among
selected field services. It also discusses police
employees is directly related to their positions
(jobs) and ranks (83). This theoretical model is in a consolidated jurisdiction and the
service
obstacles
actually found among police departments only in a existing to coordination and consolida-
tion. The conclusion is reached that there exist
relatively few, generally middle-sized departments
with honest civil service systems. Social relation-
many areas in policing in which coordination and
ships, political ties, and corruption lead to modifi-
cooperation will result in better programs, but that
cation of this centralized ideal.
"comprehensive reorganization under a metropoli-
Decentralization tan-type government offers the best possibilities
for fully unifying police services on an area-wide
There are perhaps no more often-quoted para-basis" (9, p. 72).
graphs in the Task Force Report on Police of the In exploring obstacles to consolidation, the task
President's Crime Commission than the two that
force recognizes that the most formidable is local
describe the fragmentation of policing in the
home-rule sentiment that leads "even the smallest
United States. After identifying 40,000 separate local governmental jurisdictions . . .to believe
police agencies in the U. S., the report notes thatthat they can provide at least minimal needed
only 50 of these are federal, 200 state, and that police services." It goes on to support broad
the remaining 39,750 are in local units of joint-exercise-of-powers legislation permitting
government. Of this massive number of local many types of intergovernmental agreements as
agencies, 3,050 are in counties, 3,700 in cities, and the most promising authority for accomplishing
33,000 are in the boroughs, towns, and villages (9, coordination and consolidation. Policing of one
Vol. 9, p. 7). Some regard this fragmentation of jurisdiction by another under a formal contract is
police services as centralization pushed to its units. one of the possibilities opened up by such legisla-
In facing the problem of fragmentation of tion, and is commonplace in California under the
police services, the task force report recognizes "Lakewood Plan."
that police often work at cross purposes in the There appears to have been very little police
investigation of the same or similar crimes. It coordination and consolidation inspired by the
further states that what is customarily referred to report in the four-plus years since its release. On
as "close cooperation" is actually no more than "a November 18, 1971, Fayette County and
lack of conflict." As possible paths to improve- Lexington (Kentucky) police departments
ment, the report explores consolidation and announced they would merge the two forces by
cooperation or coordination. These concepts are January 15, 1972. Merger of seven major functions
defined as follows: (training, records, computerized information
systems, fingerprinting and identification, photo-
Consolidation is the merging, in whole or in part, of
governmental jurisdiction, or function thereof, with labs, planning and research, and a computerized
another governmental jurisdiction, or function thereof. digital communications system) is also underway
Cooperation or coordination presupposes a formal for the Jefferson County and Louisville
agreement between two or more governmental jurisdic- (Kentucky) departments. Both have been aided by
tions each with defined reponsibilities to jointly provide a
common service (9, pp. 69-70).
Kentucky Crime Commission block grant funds
(85). But, Lexington is an exception to the basic
Cooperation or coordination is defined as "The fact that little consolidation of police work has
English common law concept of a region (or resulted from the task force report.
community) as an area having a commonality of Texts on the administration of large-city police
interests is accepted as a definition of a region in departments have, since World War II, stressed the
this study; thus it is not restricted to defined dangers and disadvantages of too much decentral-
political boundaries" (9, p. 70). The task force ization to precinct stations, the local neighbor-
also posits as two basic assumptions underlying its hood police office (86, p. 90) (87, p. 71) (88, p.
discussion that local government will continue as a 73) (89, p. 122) (90, p. 26) (9, Vol. 4, p. 123).
The reasons given are these: patrolmen with motor scooters as well as the new
1. Precinct buildings with their staffs are
portable an With the latter making communi-
radios.
expensive fixed overhead cost cation possible, need for service in a distant part of
2. Precinct stations foster a breakdown in the beat reachable rapidly with the scooter can be
executive control
made known to the officer. The best-managed
3. These stations seduce citizen reliance from departments today use a mix of patrol styles to
central headquarters to their own location achieve a somewhat closer relationship with
4. This decentralization raises special questions
residents of the beats than in the recent past, while
of control over functional specialists still preserving the advantages of mobility.
5. Modern communication and motorization
Team Policing
make local stations unnecessary
6. Transfer of information, instructions, andRecognition that police agencies, in their push
records, and the custody and transferforof
efficiency, had lost touch with the neighbor-
prisoners, property, and evidence is made
hoods being served led many law enforcement
more complicated leaders to attempt to return greater responsibility
7. Local precinct stations facilitate influence
to those doing the actual policing. These attempts
by ward politicians. Such is the conventional
have taken a number of forms, several of which are
wisdom. The textbooks seem to have in- referred to as "team policing." A concept intro-
fluenced reality as witnessed by reductions duced into this country from Europe (91), team
in the use and number of district stations in policing has been tried in communities as scattered
such scattered cities as Seattle, Chicago, as Washington, D.C., New York City (92-99),
Oakland, and Kansas City (Missouri), and Detroit (100), Syracuse (101-111), Los Angeles
many other places (90, p. 26). (112-114), Palo Alto (115-188), Holyoke (119,
During the same period, beat patrol has been 83), Dayton (83), and Louisville (83), and has
transformed from an officer walking a relatively doubtless spread to others about whose efforts
restricted area to one patrolling a much larger beatpublished reports are not yet available. Patrick V.
while riding in an automobile or on a motorcycle. Murphy, now commissioner of police in New York
The Task Force Report on Police summarizes well City, who has also held similar posts in Washington
the rationale for this development: and Detroit, was one of the early experimenters.
A decision to use foot patrols should be made only after His plan for Washington has been implemented as
careful analysis, since it is a highly expensive form of the "Model Precinct Project," for Detroit as the
coverage, geographically restrictive in nature, and can be "Beat Commander," and in New York City as
wasteful of manpower. Without transportation at hand, it
"Operation Neighborhood."
provides extremely inflexible and rigid close patrol for
specifically limited geographical areas, and does not This New York version of team policing is
permit the ready reassignment of the personnel to based on assumptions common to all: that street
surrounding locations when and where police services may patrolmen and their first-line supervisors are
be specifically requested. Moreover, close supervision of
capable of shouldering a great deal more responsi-
foot patrolmen has proven very difficult (9, Vol. 9, p.
54). bility than has been given to them in the past; that
support of the citizens living and working in the
It is recognized that motorized patrol has taken many discrete neighborhoods of our metropolitan
the policeman out of touch with the people in the areas, which is absolutely necessary for successful
area that he patrols. He must stay in contact with policing, can best be achieved by having a police
his car radio to be available for dispatch to trouble subunit permanently assigned to each neighbor-
sites made known to headquarters by telephone. hood; that the personnel of these subunits must
A number of technological advances have made get to know the people in the neighborhood
inroads on this problem. Early devices made it through positive efforts to promote continuous
possible to activate the red light or horn of the dialogue in both formal and informal settings; and
police car from headquarters to recall the officer that assistance to the people, both in handling
to the car and radio. Development of small, their crime problems and in helping them to make
compact radio devices that the officer could take contact with the proper agencies to handle the
with him when out of his car was a recommenda- myriad other problems of big city living, is the
tion of the police task force. Several such devices best means of achieving respect for and support of
are now available. Another task was to equip foot police operations.
Operation Neighborhood, begun oninawhich

bility" model small
the Basic Car (A unit) is
supplemented
scale in January 1971, has spread by otherMost
rapidly. cars (X units) when
precincts now have experimental teams, and one,
necessary.
labelled as a "model precinct," now
In addition operates
to the familiarity between people
entirely on a team basis. Used and police
as thethat comes with placing primary re-
training
sponsibility for
ground for recruits fresh out of the academy, thepolicing a specific geographic
district on a specific
precinct is also experimenting with female super- team of police officers,
additional mutual
visors and patrolmen resident in the areas they understanding is sought in
police. monthly meetings. Criticisms of these meetings
Syracuse is experimenting with crime control center around the fact that they are structured by
teams in a project designed with the assistance of the police rather than the residents, that they
the General Electric Company. Based on a strategy avoid discussion of controversial subjects, and that
of offensive rather than defensive deployment of they draw primarily those residents who have no
police resources, Syracuse committed its first team complaints about police operations.
of eight officers and a captain to an average beat in Chief of Police E. M. Davis seems convinced
July 1968. Control of crime was made its sole that crime and disorder have been decreased by
responsibility. Traffic control and general services the Basic Car Plan. The Los Angeles Times
to citizens for the beat were handled by other concludes that "exactly how - or whether the
units. Investigation of committed crimes is con- Basic Car Plan has affected the city's crime rate
tinued only as long as there is a high probability (up 4 per cent for the first 11 months of 1970) is
that they will lead to successful conclusions. When hard to determine."
success appears dubious, the investigation is turned Still a fourth approach to team policing in the
over to headquarters to be dropped or assigned to United States is that advocated by John P. Kenney
some other unit. This policy has been established of the Department of Criminology at Long Beach
because a team member, while investigating one State College and being tried experimentally by
crime, is not in a position to deter or intercept the Palo Alto, California, Police Department.
other crimes.
Kenney calls his approach the "Colleague Model":
On the basis of careful evaluation, the project
has been expanded considerably. The judgment of Essentially the colleague model is based on a team
success is based on a comparatively high clearance approach to organization. Relationships are circular rather
rate in known cases, coupled with more subjectivethan hierarchical. The top level of organization reflects an
impressions that the people who lived and workedassemblage of top management personnel each with
particular expertise in a functional or program area
in the team area thought that they were getting
working together to provide direction to the organization.
better police service and that policemen on theThe lower levels of an organization are discrete subassem-
team thought the new method of operation wasblies for the performance of specific programs. Essential
contributing more toward achieving police objec- expertise is included in each lower level team (115, pp.
8-9).
tives. The project designers point out, however,
that the result might be attributable to "usingTeam assignments are functional and temporal
above average policemen, superior leadership, the rather than spatial. This application of the team
Hawthorne effect, or a combination of these and concept in policing obviously has little direct
other unrecognized factors." Two disappointmentsrelationship to neighborhood control, although it
were expressed: "the lack of any demonstration of may be an organizational structure more easily
a Team member's ability to pick up the ball andadapted to that end than are more traditional
run with it;" and the "failure of the Team to policing models.
significantly increase the number of interceptions
Democratic Team Model
made of crimes in progress." One of the greatest
problems encountered was selling the team con- A fifth adaptation of team policingthat prob-
cept to that part of the police department not ably has greater significance than any other for
involved in the project. decentralization and citizen participation in
That difficulty was overcome in Los Angeles, municipal policing is the democratic team model
which extended its Basic Car Plan to the entire proposed by John Angel (83). His proposal would
city within six months of initiation. This was split the entire police department into general
facilitated by use of a less rigid "total responsi- service sections (neighborhood teams) supported
then continually re-examining the police-com-

by a specialized service section and a coordination
munityfor
and information section. Basic responsibility interaction. Specialists from the other two
crime prevention and control would lie sections are available to the teams as resource
in the
general service sections, teams of about 25 men
persons for such meetings. Team members are als
policing a relatively small area (results in about
expected to attend intra-organizational meetings
five men on duty at all times). Supervision lies such as communication and trainin
for purposes
Evaluation is multifaceted. Each team member
primarily in the team itself acting democratically,
with an elected team representative serving as others and overall team performance
evaluates the
Specialists
contact man for the other general service sectionsevaluate team performance in the area
and for the support sections. There are of
notheir expertise. The coordination and informa
formal
ranks or supervisors. Differences in pay tion
comesection
onlyevaluates how well each team is
with team-recognized superior contribution. achieving
It is its goals and adhering to its polici
assumed that this would result from native intelli-Procedures are not evaluated. The community c
gence, education, experience, and dedication lead- also be tapped for evaluation. Survey resear
ing to maturity and wisdom. Control would be techniques can be used to monitor the extent
through a system of checks and balances in which which the community is free from fear of crim
some authority lies in the general services section, and from fear of the criminal justice system.
some in the coordination and information section, The special services section employs a team or
and some in the specialized services section. It teams of various functional specialists to meet th
would be possible for the general services sections needs of the general service sections. These speci
to be at the neighborhood level, the specialized ists are on call for assistance and support of th
service section at the city level, and the coordi- generalists. Policy on their use is established
nating and information section at a county or each team. When called, a specialist serves at th
regional level. pleasure of the generalist or team calling him. He
Specialized services would contain those spe- responsible for the performance of his specialty
cialized activities currently classified as line units but free from interference from, the caller, to
(investigative, juvenile, traffic, etc.), which would whom he makes his report. The use to which th
be available on call to general service section report is put is up to the generalist or team.
personnel. Coordination and information would Education and training of all personnel is
do the "housekeeping" (central records, communi- primarily preservice. Supplemental, refresher, an
cation, research, etc.) and coordination for both retraining is the responsibility of the coordinati
general and special service. and information section. Any specialty for whi
General service sections consist entirely of there is a felt need can be developed.
police generalists all of equal rank with no Among the functions of coordination and
formally assigned supervisor. The team would be information would be the coordination of the
responsible for all law enforcement and order general service sections, functional supervision,
keeping in the geographic area assigned. Team planning, training, development of ethical stan-
members would determine who would lead them, dards, detention of prisoners, keeping of central
with leadership expected to develop situationally records, and maintenance of area communications.
as circumstances dictate and to change from time Performance of the coordination function would
to time. There would be no procedural guidelines not include establishment of enforcement policy,
imposed on teams except very broad ones designed but such tasks as definition of the areas to be
to prevent extreme behavior. Each team draws up policed by the various general service sections and
its own guidelines (119). This allows them to assignment of members to those sections. In so
adopt goals and policies consistent with the needsdoing, an attempt is made to pick generalists with
and desires of the people and the methods thecomplementary skills and attitudes. Constant
team believes best to pursue those goals and
monitoring and evaluation of team functioning are
policies. Registration of the goals, policies, and
designed to alert for assignments not working out.
procedures adopted with coordination and infor- If a team is not functioning properly, it is a
mation might be required. Each team maintains acoordinating and information section responsi-
community office as its local headquarters. Teamsbility to break it up, reassign its members, and
are expected to hold periodic meetings with select a new team for the area.
members of the community for working out and The chief coordinator is chosen for a term of
years. He is eligible for reappointment. He might

ate, or, more narrowly, a subjurisdictional clien-
be chosen by a search committee composed
tele." This is of the concepts
the difference between
members of the department,ofrepresentatives of
decentralization and community control
citizens in the area served, andthrough
executive represen-
citizen participation.
tatives of the governmental units involved. He
Citizen
would be chosen for his ability Participation
and expertise in
coordinating and managing human organizations.
It is possible for the citizenry being policed to
He serves as spokesman for the entire department
participate in the process in at least four
when one is needed, and as a contact man with
ways: the simple lending of support of various
other community institutions.
kinds to the police agency, actual assumption of
Anticipated advantages of the democratic
police duties under the direction of regular police
police team model include more influence for area
officers, formal evaluation of police performance,
residents in the making of police policy decisions, and the setting of policy for police operations.
greater flexibility and adaptability in policy for- Residents of a community can support their
mulation, improvement in the quality of police- police agency in a number of ways. They can make
community interaction, elevation of the profes- it clear to appointed and elected officials who
sional standing and prestige of police careers, control the budget that they want their police
provision for lateral entry, and an increase in the department to have a high level of financial
effectiveness and morale of all- department support. This can be done by working on behalf of
employees. Among the assumptions underlying the and voting for candidates for office who agree
model are that education and training will be with their view, appearing and making supportive
primarily preservice, emphasizing behavioral and statements at budget hearings, and writing letters
social science concepts that lead to better under- of support to the fiscal authorities and to the mass
standing of self and society; that inservice training media. They can cooperate with the department in
will be primarily seminar discussion and other high the actual execution of its duties, assisting police
participation types; that salary will be determined officers at the scene of crimes or other events
by expertise and experience and not by position; requiring police action when requested to do so.
that greater trust will be placed by everyone in the They can also report suspicious activities and other
police generalist; that the generalist will be able to information of value to the department in its
accept and deal realistically with the greater
work. They can cooperate in interviews about
responsibility; and that he can learn to live with an
events they may have seen, agreeing to serve as
ambiguous, unstructured, and insecure job situa-
tion.
witnesses in court when the knowledge they
possess is deemed relevant and important to a
All of these team policing models fall into
police case. They can take an active part in crime
Altshuler's category of administrative decentraliza-
prevention activities and campaigns and urge their
tion. About that concept, he has this to say:
friends and neighbors to do likewise.
Most whites, liberal and conservative both, today agree Since World War II police agencies have done a
that a great deal of administrative decentralization is
great deal to encourage this kind of support
called for in the nation's big cities, and that a decisive test
of good administration is responsiveness to reasonable through the establishment of public relations or,
client desires. What they generally have in mind, however, more recently, community relations units. The
is the delegation of authority within bureaucracies to field former sought primarily to let the public know
officers... who will be instructed to seek "good com- about what the agency was trying to do, how
munity relations"-but who, if perchance they "go
native," can be slapped down at will by their superiors at
successful it was, and what support it needed.
central headquarters. There are substantial variations in Community relations, in contrast, not only seeks
the degrees of client responsiveness considered desirable, to impart but to obtain information. It attempts
but few indeed seem prepared to make client responsive- to get feedback from the community on whether
ness in the big city ghettoes a function of neighborhood
department policies have community support,
authority as opposed to city government grace (79, p.
16). what the image of the department is in the
neighborhoods, and what it should do differently
He goes on to argue that what is needed today is to meet more effectively the needs and wishes of
political decentralization, permanent and irrevo- the community. Police-community interaction
cable "transfer of authority to officials whose literature is far too great to summarize here (9,
dependence is upon the subjurisdictional elector- Vol. 9, pp. 144-207, 221-228) (90, pp. 215-246).
One of the frequent products of Civilian Review Boards and Ombudsmen

police-com-
munity relations programs is an attempt to build
Evaluation of police service by the populace
bridges between the police and the residents of the
being policed is not a common occurrence. Ever-
area in which they work by a variety of means:
day complaints to command officers or other
giving the beat officers (an area team) both
governmental officials might be considered a kind
responsibility and time for more face-to-face dis-
of informal evaluation (120), but the ineffective-
cussion with residents when encountered on the
ness of this indirect approach led to the next
street; seeking appointments for those officers
logical step: formulation of civilian review boards.
with residents to talk about area police problems;
Few innovations in municipal government have
setting up small group meetings for officers to
resulted in such violent controversy or in such a
meet and talk with a group of neighbors on the
voluminous literature (120, pp. 170-181). Walter
same topics; and setting up a team that will stay in
Gellhorn summarizes the work of the only two
an area with an area office, in effect becoming a
wholly independent review boards that existed at
neighborhood police department that draws
the height of the popularity of the idea in 1966 in
heavily on neighborhood sentiment in establishing these words:
its policies and procedures. Recruitment of young
men and women indigenous to a neighborhood for Neither of these two boards has had clear sailing. They
employment as police community service officers were at first perhaps inadequately publicized. The
in that neighborhood was recommended by the Philadelphia board, having no investigators under its own
control, necessarily called on the police to make whatever
President's Commission on Law Enforcement and
investigations were needed; and this may have raised
Administration of Justice (9, Vol. 9, p. 123). doubts about its independence. The Rochester [New
Although a police employee, the community York] board, confined to dealing with physical brutality,
service officer does not possess full law enforce- rejected complaints about other types of misbehavior that
ment powers nor does he carry arms: had galled local residents. Both boards were beset by
litigation commenced by policemen's organizations and
The duties of the CSO would be to assist police officers in were at times enjoined from functioning. These and other
their work and to improve communications between factors have contributed to the boards' thoroughly
police departments and the neighborhood as a uniformed unspectacular records (120, p. 180).
member of the working police. He would render certain
carefully selected police services to these neighborhoods. After pointing out that supporters allege a deter-
rent effect arising from the mere fact of the
The concept of the community service officer is existence of such a board and that detractors
tailor-made for our largest cities. Having residents allege that a board destroys police morale,
of each neighborhood working for the police in Gellhorn states his own conclusion that, although
the neighborhood is expected to increase citizen the general purposes of civilian review boards are
knowledge about and support for police opera- commendable, it is doubtful if they can achieve
tions. But, the community service officer idea the desired results. He concludes that, "stronger
connotes that neighborhood employees of the medicine is going to be needed to cure community
police department are second-class policemen. ills" (120, p. 181).
Another form of direct citizen participation in Nor does it appear that Gellhorn believes that
police operations is through service in police the ombudsman is that stronger medicine,
auxiliary or reserve units. Such units became although Gellhorn is probably the nation's leading
widespread during World War II when manpower authority on the ombudsman. After careful study
was short. Their effectiveness then led to their of the office that originated in the Swedish
continuation or reconstitution after the war (87, Constitution of 1908 and spread to Finland,
p. 445) (9, Vol. 9, p. 23). With sworn officers, Denmark, Norway, and New Zealand, as well as of
civilian police reserves conduct patrol, handle offices with similar functions in Yugoslavia,
crowds during parades and other special events, Poland, the Soviet Union, and Japan, he concludes
assist in search and rescue operations, and direct that the ombudsman is only a device for making a
traffic. In some circumstances, they work alone. sound system work better (121). He maintains
This kind of participation in the police role can that a successful ombudsman operation requires a
lead to greater understanding of police problems basically effective set of administrative institu-
on the part of the citizens involved. It is not apt to tions; appointment by officials who believe in the
be attractive, however, to those inner-city resi- importance of his office and want him to succeed;
dents already alienated from the police agency. appointment of an individual with outstanding
personal education and experiencearguments

credentials; and
of the professors there gathered for
a supportive body of good citizens who will
quiet discussion werenot
heard again more stridently
attempt to corrupt officials to advance their
in a political own
contest in Berkeley, California - a
selfish purposes, who do not balk at over
contest paying
whetherthe
an amendment to the city
taxes the services necessitate, and who do not charter should be adopted that "would re-arrange
indiscriminantly withhold the respect and appre- city government to permit direct control of the
ciation that might encourage faithful public ser- police by the people in three administrative (and
vants.
neighborhood) districts" (125, p. 3). The charter
Whether these required conditions for amendment
success- failed at the polls in April 1971, a
defeat
ful ombudsmanship exist in the federal and that leaves the United States without an
state
governments of the United States is an open in community control of segments of a
experiment
question that may never be answered metropolitan
(122). police department.
Agitation for appointment of ombudsmen atProponents
those of the Berkeley charter amendment
levels seems to have peaked and declined. argued
In New that there was no effective citizen control
York State, legislative hearings produced of almost
the city police department. They alleged that
solid opposition to the proposal from state the theoretical authority of the city manager was
officials in all departments, not only from those not in fact exercised, and that, even had the
comprising the criminal justice system (123)(124). manager been in control, he was insulated from
One possible evaluative technique that has not citizen supervision by a requirement of a two-
been systematically attempted on a jurisdiction- thirds majority in the city council to override his
wide basis over time is use of survey research decision. To overcome this situation, they advo-
methods to determine the extent to which resi- cated splitting the city into three neighborhoods:
dents of the jurisdiction are both free of fearInof
the Berkeley community, Jefferson's "wards" are the
criminal attack and free of fear of suppressive
three distinct areas defined by the Community Control
criminal justice system tactics. It would seem
Amendment: the black community, the campus/youth
possible to blend such an attitudinal survey with community,
a and the middle-class Northside/Hill Com-
validating survey of community behavioral indica- munity. Of course, these are not completely distinct
tors related to the attitudes check. The results over areas. The "black" community defined in the Amend-
ment is actually one-forth white. The "hill" community
time should give some indication of criminal contains a generation gap. The "campus" community
justice system health. contains students, freaks, and many long-time Berkeley
Because citizen participation in communityresidents. Nevertheless the communities are distinct from
policing through simple lending of support ofeach other, each with its common hang-outs, common
life-styles, common shopping and recreation areas, com-
various kinds to the police agency, through actual
mon problems (125, p. 3).
assumption of police duties under the direction of
regular police officers, and through formal evalua-Each of the three communities was to be divided
tion of police performance seem to many to beinto precincts on a population basis. A precinct
too slow and ineffective for what they perceive torepresentative would be elected by the people of
be needed change in police organization and that area to sit on a District Police Council.
operation, some citizens seek to participateBecause of population differences, the black and
through achievement of a voice in setting policy middle-class communities were each to have two
for the local police agency. This is what Altshulerdistinct councils and the campus/youth com-
calls community control through political decen- munity one. Each district was to comprise 15
tralization.
precincts, with its council being called the Council
Community Control of Fifteen. Each of the councils would have
elected a commissioner to a five-man police
One of the early discussions of the wisdom of commission for the City of Berkeley. Other duties
vesting political control of the police working in a of the councils would include the follow-
big-city neighborhood in the people of that neigh- ing: continual review of all policies of the police
borhood took place at a Seminar on Violence department; formulation of recommendations to
conducted by the New York State Joint Legisla- the police commission for policy changes when the
tive Committee on Crime, Its Causes, Control and needs or will of the neighborhood they served
Effect on Society in New York City in July 1968 were no longer being met by the policies; creation
(67, pp. 142-178). Less than three years later, the and operation of a grievance procedure to hear
complaints against police in the 15 precincts of the

team policing coupled with a practice of con-
district; and discipline of members of thewith
sulting police
neighborhood groups as to how police
department for violations of law or policy in can
operations their
best serve community needs. A city
district. Each Council of 15 was to bewith that kind
required toof tradition might well opt for
politically
meet regularly at times when interested guaranteed community control. A com-
persons
bination
could attend. Council members would of John Angell's democratic team
be subject
policing
to recall on petition of 20 per cent of thosemodel
who with a John Kenney colleague
voted in the last precinct election. model coordination and information section
Administrative coordination of the would
threeseemessen-
apt for such a trial. Broad policy
tially autonomous neighborhood police
could bedepart-
set by an elected neighborhood council,
ments was to be vested in the five-member
with the team
police
establishing procedures designed to
commission, which would have assumedimplement
many theof
policies. Such an experiment would
be well Responsi-
the functions of the current police chief. worth trying.
Among
bilities of the commission would include: serious students of police operations,
setting
policy for all city police; determining qualifica-
there is little agreement about the advisability of
citizen participation in setting policy. James Q.
tions for employment in the police department;
establishing compensation levels for Wilsonall sees some advantages in administrative
police
employees; meting out punishment decentralization
to policewith central command control,
officers found guilty of violation of but
lawcriticizes
or policy;democratic decentralization and
entering into necessary agreements political
with decentralization:
other
police departments and governmental agencies;
A decentralized, neighborhood-oriented, order mainte-
and facilitating agreements among the three
nance sepa-
patrol force requires central command to insure a
rate departments for the operation, reasonably maintenance,common definition of appropriate order, a
and staffing of facilities of common reduction interest, in thesuch
opportunities for corruption and favor-
as weapons, vehicles, laboratories, and vehicle itism, and the protection of the civil liberties of suspects
and witnesses (126, p. 293).
repair stations. Financing would have continued to
be through appropriation by the city council with Albert J. Reiss, Jr., seems to come out with the
the budget distributed to the three constituent same result:
forces on a population basis. Every police officer
There is a substantial risk that local political control will
would have been required to live in the neighbor- become merely a substitute for central bureaucratic
hood to which assigned for duty (125, passim). control. Neither central nor local control guarantees or
Although the Berkeley neighborhood policing thwarts broad citizen participation in governments or the
charter amendment was defeated at the polls, it is nature of the accountability of the agency to
citizens.... In mass democratic societies, the central
probably only a matter of time before some such
problem for citizens is how they may be brought closer to
scheme of political decentralization of the police the centers of political power that control the acquisition
department is tried in an American city. Cities and allocation of resources, not whether administrative
with strong team policing under administrative control is centralized or decentralized in the bureaucracy
(127, pp. 211-212).
decentralization are likely candidates.
An Assessment An alternative view of complete political decen-
tralization, and its merits, is strongly put forward
There is little direct citizen participation in the by Karl Hess:
establishment of police policies and procedures in
the large cities of the United States. There are Many who oppose decentralization are haunted by a
specter of resurgent plantationism in the South. But local
some general support projects of a police- power there certainly need not mean Klan power over
community relations nature, some cities in which everyone. Rather, localism could mean a chance for black
lay persons perform actual police duties under communities to have the sort of local identity which can
defend against depredations by making the black com-
supervision of regular police officers, and isolated
munity something more than just a niggertown appended
instances of formal citizen evaluation of policeto the white establishment's turf...
performance. But these do not offer promising But it is in the cities that the neighborhoods have been
vehicles for broadscale citizen participation. Whenmost abused. They have been gobbled up by the urban
such participation does occur, it will probably be imperialism of downtown rentiers. They have been
in a city in which administrative decentralization insulted as ethnic or racial while the downtown Wasps
milked them dry for votes or zoning. And yet theV
has established a strong tradition of neighborhood persist -occupied by strange police, harassed by
criminals who have more connections(a)downtown

The office of prosecutor,
than any as the chief law enforce-
of the victims, impoverished by absentee landlords
ment official and is an agency of the
of his jurisdiction,
executivehospitals
tax collectors, abandoned by megalopolitan branch of government
and which is charged
treated like Skinnerian mice by visiting with the duty
school to see that the laws are faithfully
teachers.
They need not take it. They do notexecuted
need andit. They
enforced to maintain the rule of law.
should rise. They should secede (131).(b) The prosecutor is both an administrator of justice
and an advocate; he must exercise sound discre-
Short of secession, they might at tion
least try onofan
in the performance his functions.
experimental basis the modified(c)democratic team
The duty of the prosecutor is to seek justice, not
policing model suggested above. It merelytoconvict...
is probably(19, Vol. 15, p. 25 and
true
Supplement, p. 2).
that administrative decentralization of bad police
operations will not alone lead
Theto improvement.
report goes on to specify that:
Present policies to which neighborhoods react
negatively, particularly ghetto The prosecution function should
neighborhoods, can be performed by a
public prosecutor who is a lawyer subject to the standards
be made responsive to neighborhood wishes only
of professional conduct and discipline (19, Vol. 15, p.
through political decentralization,
26). and through
citizen participation in setting police policies
(132). Another section deals with the interrelationship of
prosecution offices within a state:
(a) Local authority and responsibility for prosecution
in Prosecution and Adjudication is properly vested in a district, county or city
attorney. Wherever possible, a unit of prosecution
Although decentralization (both administrative should be designed on the basis of population,
caseload and other relevant factors sufficient to
and political) of police operations is a burning
warrant at least one full-time prosecutor and the
issue, there is much less discussion of its applica- supporting staff necessary to effective prosecu-
bility to court determination. When considering tion.
the adjudication of criminal cases, most persons (b) In some states conditions such as geographical area
think of the personnel involved as lawyers. And and population may make it appropriate to create
lawyers are prominent as judges, prosecutors, and a statewide system of prosecution in which the
state attorney general is the chief prosecutor and
defense attorneys. But nonlawyer professionals,
the local prosecutors are his deputies.
probation officers, and court administrators, are
(c) In all states there should be coordination of the
increasingly present. In addition, ordinary citizens prosecution policies of local prosecution offices to
have historically played formal roles as grand and improve the administration of justice and assure
trial jurors and as witnesses. Their involvement has the maximum practicable uniformity in the en-
become increasingly less frequent, however, as the forcement of the criminal law throughout the
state. A state council of prosecutors should be
percentage of convictions based on a plea of guilty established in each state.
rather than based on a trial decision has increased
(d) In cases where questions of law of statewide
(133). Albert J. Reiss, Jr., points out that the
interest or concern arise which may create impor-
processing of a criminal charge has become largely tant precedents, the prosecutor should consult
the work of "pro's with pro's," prosecutors and advise with the attorney general of the state.
working out settlements with defense attorneys or (e) A central pool of supporting resources and man-
public defenders later ratified by judges (134). power, including laboratories, investigators, ac-
countants, special counsel and other experts, to
Decentralization
the extent needed should be maintained by the
government and should be available to all local
Adjudication of criminal cases is initiated by prosecutors (19, Vol. 15, pp. 26-27).
prosecutors. Although police officers determine
the charge used as a basis for on-view arrests, that Against this organizational ideal must be set the
reality found by the President's Commission on
charge is invariably reviewed and frequently
Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice:
changed by the prosecutor or an assistant prior to
trial. Federal prosecutors (U.S. Attorneys) are In larger communities, the prosecutor has a staff of
appointed, but local prosecutors are elected in all
assistants, as many as 216 in Los Angeles County or 153
but four states (9, Vol. 4, p. 73). The American
in Chicago. But the great majority of the country's more
than 2,700 prosecutors serve in small offices with at most
Bar Association Project on Standards for Criminal
one or two assistants, and frequently the prosecutor and
Justice has defined the function of the prosecutor
his assistants are part-time officials.... The conception of
as follows:
the prosecutor's office as a part-time position is one of
the consequences, as it is one of the causes, of the (b) The

lowbasic duty the lawyer for the accused owes to
the administration of justice is to serve as the
salaries paid to prosecutors and their assistants.... While
accused's counselor and advocate, with courage,
direct conflicts of interest between the prosecutor's
devotion and to the utmost of his learning and
public office and his private practice are clearly unlawful
and, we may assume, rare, there are many indirect ability, and according to law.
(c) The defense lawyer, in common with all members
conflicts that almost inevitably arise.... The high political
orientation of the prosecutor's office contributes of tothe
thebar, is subject to standards of conduct stated in
problems of low pay and part-time service.... The statutes,
prose- rules, decisions of courts, and codes, canons
cutors in most cities select a high proportion of ortheir
other standards of professional conduct. He has no
assistants primarily on the basis of party affiliation dutyand
to execute any directive of the accused which
the recommendations of ward leaders and elected officials does not comport with law or such standards; he is
(9, Vol. 4, p. 73). the professional representative of the accused, not his
alter ego ... (19, Vol. 16, p. 153).
As the discussion in the report and the new
standards makes clear, the trend in organization of In addition to devoting one of its reports to
prosecution offices, if one exists, is toward full- providing defense service to those accused of crime
time offices that may serve a region rather than a who cannot afford them (19, Vol. 6), the stan-
single city or county, and towards statewide dards also contain the following polite urging
coordination if not control. addressed to private practitioners:
Much the same situation exists in the courts
(a) The bar should encourage through every available
that have jurisdiction to try criminal cases (9, Vol.
means the widest possible participation in the defense
4, passim). The trend is toward a criminal part ofofa criminal cases by experienced trial lawyers. Law-
yers active in general trial practice should be encour-
general trial court with broad subject matter and
aged to qualify themselves for participation in crimi-
geographic jurisdiction and away from the separate
nal cases both by formal training and through
and independent criminal courts. experience as associate counsel.
Two controversies plague the organization of (b) All qualified trial lawyers should stand ready to
undertake the defense of an accused regardless of
probation services for courts with jurisdiction over
crimes: whether the probation officer should public hostility toward the accused or personal
distaste for the offense charged or the person of the
function under the direct supervision of the local
defendant.
judge or as part of an independent probation
(c) Qualified trial lawyers should not assert or an-
agency, and whether independent probation agen-
nounce a general unwillingness to appear in criminal
cies should be locally organized or part of a cases; law firms should encourage partners and associ-
statewide system. It seems clear from the Presi-ates to appear in criminal cases (19, Vol. 16, p. 155).
dent's Commission Report that the trend is toward
It remains to be seen whether this urging will be
separation from the court and inclusion in state-
sufficiently heeded by the American bar to fill the
wide systems (9, Vol. 4, pp. 35-37). In fact, there
unmet need:
appear to be strong pressures to include probation
It is clear that the legal manpower needs as esti-
in the general correctional services unit of the
state.
mated...are not now being met. Data furnished by the
National Legal Aid and Defender Association show that
Offices of court administration, designed toabout 900 defenders in the United States, of
there are
relieve judges from administrative andwhom
clerical
about half are full-time. At the Airlie House
detail, are generally appended to court systemsit was estimated that there are between 2,500
Conference
and 5,000 lawyers who accept criminal representation
rather than to individual independent courts (9,
more than occasionally. Where counsel must be provided
Vol. 4, pp. 80-96) (46, passim). This possibility
as a matter of constitutional or statutory requirement, the
creates part of the pressure toward unified
needcourt
is often met by the appointment of lawyers who are
systems. unfamiliar with the criminal process and sometimes who
The role of defense counsel in criminal cases is have had no trial experience. In many States, counsel are
not appointed for misdemeanor defendents who are
also clearly stated by the American Bar Associa-
unable to retain a lawyer, and in most States counsel are
tion Project on Standards for Criminal Justice:
not provided for probation or parole revocation hearings
(9, Vol. 4, p. 56).
(a) Counsel for the accused is an essential component
of the administration of criminal justice. A court
In summary, there is little indication that
properly constituted to hear a criminal case must be
viewed as a tripartite entity consisting of the judge further administrative decentralization is likely in
(and jury, where appropriate), counsel for the prose- the adjudication portion of the criminal justice
cution, and counsel for the accused. systems.
Citizen Participation to court, participation in policy-making, formally or

informally, the volunteer as a source of ideas; (12) public
Because lawyers, as principal relations,
participants in
public education, and related impact on the
adjudication of criminal cases, regard administra-
community; and (13) contributions of money, materials,
facilities, or help
tion of the criminal law as a matter in securing them
requiring from others (e.g., fund
raisers) (135, pp. 15-16).
professional expertise, there is little political de-
centralization of that process. Appointed and
elected officials exercise both responsibility and
authority with little contact with Perhapscommunity
some of the growth of the probation
volunteer is attributable to the rise of national
residents except at election time. Nor is there
much pressure in the United States organizations
fortosuchserve it. One is the National
Information Center on Volunteers in Courts (P. O.
measures as civilian judges without law training.
Dissatisfaction with the justice ofBox
the2150, Boulder,
peace Colorado) which publishes the
system
Volunteer Courts Newsletter. Another is Volun-
has, in fact, resulted in movement to eliminate the
remaining lay judges. teers in Probation, Inc. (200 Washington Square
Plaza,possibly
One decision point that might Royal Oak, Michigan
be 48067) (136) which
has just joined forces with NCCD:
influenced by formal citizen input is the charge
determination of the prosecutor. JustCouncil
The National as police
on Crime and Delinquency, the
country's
teams might respect neighborhood largest voluntary
policy on how agency in the criminal justice
field, and Volunteers in Probation, Inc., the largest
limited enforcement resources should be em-
volunteer probation program, will merge operations this
ployed, so prosecutors might respect formally
month. VIP will become a major part of NCCD's citizen
stated community wishes as to how limited prose-
action program (137).
cution and court resources should be focused.
Another path for citizen participation is This merger should assure a long-range future for
volunteers in probation.
through probation volunteer programs:
An Assessment
The ghost of John Augustus rose again in 1960, looking
somewhat different, when Royal Oak, Michigan, began
There is little decentralization, either adminis-
easing into the use of volunteers with misdemeanants.
Juvenile courts at Lawrence, Kansas, and Eugene, Oregon, trative or political, in the adjudicative phase of the
had experimented with this kind of volunteer usage, since criminal justice process. The expertise of lawyers
the mid-fifties. Judge Horace B. Holmes began using dominates the process of determination of guilt or
volunteers at the Boulder, Colorado, Juvenile Court in
1961. But not until 1967 did the court volunteer
innocence. Only after the decision is made to leave
the convicted defendant in the community on
movement really take hold. Today, some 50,000 citizens
contribute several million hours of service a year, in probation
1,000 is there any appreciable role played by
court probation departments, and at least one new court a
ordinary citizens.
day is estimated to be launching its venture into volun-
teerism(135, p. 12).
Decentralization and Citizen
Nor is the volunteer movement limited in its Participation in Corrections
functions:
At least since the publication in 1967 of the

Thus, in the area of direct contact with probationers,
final report of the President's Commission on Law
volunteers can offer services such as: (1) support-
friendship, sincere warmth; (2) "mediation," facilitation Enforcement and Administration of Justice, there
of social-physical environment (get jobs, intercede with has been a growing emphasis on the system aspects
teacher, etc.); (3) behavior model, good example; (4) of administration of justice. This has led to a
limit-setting, social control, conscience; (5) teacher-tutor
realization that the individual agencies (whether
of skills, academic, vocational or social; (6) observation-
police, prosecution, courts, or corrections) do not
information-diagnosis-understanding (extra eyes and ears
(a) on the probationer, (b) on the community, or even, have separate functional goals but share the one
(c) on court operations); and (7) advisory or decision- goal given by society to the system: reduction of
making participation in formulation or modification of
crime. Despite this emphasis, it has recently been
probation plan.
pointed out that there may be system subdivisions
Volunteers can also do many things not primarily
involving direct contact with probationers. Among these that bear separate scrutiny. In discussing how the
are: (8) administrative, office work, and related facilita- governor and legislature of a new state might
tion; (9) help recruit, train, and supervise other volun- organize its criminal justice system, it is suggested,
teers; (10) expert consultant to regular staff; (11) advisor among other considerations, that they:
... Divide the total criminal justice system into

regulative three
functions like administering subsidies and in-
mutually supportive but administratively separate
specting parts
and licensing programs operated by units of local
and avoid mixing the functions of thegovernment
three parts justagencies with which the state or
or by private
because it may seem expedient or customary. Each have
local government part contracted for services (138, p.
calls for different emphasis, disparate attitudes,
619). different
professional training, and occupational skills.
Logically, these three major criminal In program,
justice the "Directions for the Future"
subparts
are (a) the police, (b) the courts, and (c) correctional outlined by the President's Commission on Law
agencies (138, p. 618). Enforcement and Administration of Justice rely
In defining his terms, the author states that: heavily on "Reintegration of the Offender into the
"Correctional services" includes all of those activities Community" (9, Vol. 3, pp. 6-7). This is to be
designed for the purpose of controlling, managing, coun- achieved largely through increased use of proba-
seling, treating, and processing juvenile and adult persons tion in lieu of incarceration (139), and earlier and
placed in custody or under official supervision after more extensive use of parole after imprisonment
having been charged with or found guilty of delinquent or
(9, Vol. 3, p. 9). Also envisaged are new kinds of
criminal acts. These functions include detention halls for
juveniles, common jails, correctional schools, reforma- institutions in the home communities that attempt
tories, prisons, probation and parole services, and any to carry out the resocialization process in the
other programs by whatever name which have like community into which the prisoner is to be
purposes (138, p. 616). reintegrated (9, Vol. 3, pp. 9-11 and 38-45). One
of the hopes expressed is that this decentralization
In answer to his own question about the current
status of "correctional services" in the United of program will lead to greater involvement of
both individuals and organized groups in the
States, he suggests the following:
community in the rehabilitative process.
First, we are obviously in a state of groping for new,
more rational, and more efficient ways to organize and Citizen Participation
support this agglomeration of closely related public
services. Paralleling the experience with probation dis-
Second, it is apparent that the organizational structure cussed above has been a more general use of
for correctional functions, viewed from a national per- volunteers in corrections (140). One expert de-
spective, is passing through a painful period of evolution
scribes the situation this way:
which so far has produced an almost incomprehensible
mixture of organizational patterns, most of which were Since the latter part of the 1950's, there has been a
never really "organized" but. . . "just grew." growing emphasis on bringing more citizens into correc-
Third, no state or major jurisdiction in the nation can tional affairs. And yet, the extent of such involvement is
yet be said to have devised and implemented a total relatively small. An important reason is a failure to
correctional system which makes full use of what we
recognize the varying roles which citizens can play in
know about organizational principles and sound correc- corrections and the different strategies which must be
tional practice (138, p. 618). employed to recruit them and maintain their participa-
With these suggestions about the basic nature of tion. Four key roles can be identified: the correctional
volunteer, those who work directly with correctional
the target in mind, discussion now turns to the
clients; the social persuader, persons of influence in the
apparent impact of administrative decentralization dominant social system who are willing to persuade others
on correctional services.
to support correctional programs; the gate-keepers of
opportunities, custodians of access to important social
Decentralization
institutions; and the intimates, members of offenders'
traditional peer groups and their communities. Each of
It seems safe to say that there are trends in
these roles induces supportive and resistant forces within
corrections today toward decentralization of pro- the correctional system. These must be successfully
gram and toward centralization of organizational manipulated if widespread citizen participation is to be
structure. These movements lead the author achieved (141, p. 99).
quoted above to suggest for his mythical new stateAs the author goes on to point out, no correction-
that:
al system is doing an adequate job of utilizing
At the apex of the state system there should be a single citizen talent across this broad spectrum of possi-
authority responsible to the governor for all correctional
functions as defined heretofore .... ble participation.
The state government will normally engage in two It is interesting to note that the typology does
broad classes of correctional services. First, there are not include citizens participating through estab-
those which are direct operational functions like manag- lishment and control of policy in correctional
ing prisons and correctional schools, or supervising state agencies. This may be due to the belief that
parolees. Second, there are the standard-setting and correctional policy setting is regarded as a profes-
sional task in which lay talentsthe

are a resource
criminal to
justice system behowever, in the
may,
used as the specialist sees them fitting
future in.
be affected But it by decentralization
dramatically
may also be attributable to lack of broad-based
experiments at the system threshold - in police
citizen interest in corrections. There have not been
agencies. Only time will tell.
the citizen campaigns for control of corrections This substantive discussion seems to lead logi-
that have arisen for control of neighborhood cally, in a curriculum essay, to a question about
police and neighborhood schools. This may be the role of higher education in the preparation of
because the impact of correctional policy on the young men and women for careers in the criminal
community is indirect rather than direct, a failure justice system. There is no doubt that the relative-
to realize that a part of what is seen as a police ly new field of criminal justice studies is one of the
problem of failure to suppress crime on the streets fastest growing in academia (142). Neither is there
is at least partly a correctional problem of failure any doubt that it does not fit neatly into
to reintegrate former inmates into the society to traditional discipline-dominated college and uni-
which they return. versity structures. Criminal justice programs in
higher education comprise integrated, interdisci-
Summary and Conclusions plinary, scholarly teaching and research in the
behavioral and social sciences (defined to include
This essay has only begun to explore the broad law and public administration) focused on a social
topic of decentralization and citizen participation problem, the problem of crime. As such, they are
in the criminal justice system. Most attention has neither disciplinary nor professional. For this
been given to the impact of these trends on reason, they seem best taught in a separate
policing in the United States. This seems defensi- department, school, or college of criminal justice
ble for a number of reasons. First, it is in the (143, p. 12).
police component where most of the decentraliza- As a field of study in higher education, criminal
tion and citizen participation action has been justice must concern itself with at least five areas:
found. This is probably attributable to the fact the nature of crime and its relationship to other
that police action is painfully obvious to the kinds of deviance as well as to conformity; the
residents of a neighborhood and its impact felt nature of society's reaction to crime, both histori-
immediately and directly. It also is a governmental cally and in the present, which requires explora-
subsystem manned by persons without special tion of all past and current crime control theories
preservice education, which makes the ordinary and mechanisms, informal as well as formal, legal,
citizen believe that he is qualified to comment on and governmental; in-depth consideration of crimi-
and participate in police operations. nal justice systems as one common social control
Second, what happens at the police level mechanism; the nature of personal, organizational,
determines to a large extent what the balance of and institutional change along with the skills and
the criminal justice system can do. The primary strategies of achieving such change; and the design
sorting out of "criminals" from "ordinary citi- of research so badly needed to expand our meager
zens" is done by policemen. Police officers deter- knowledge about crime together with the method-
mine, in one way or another, the limits of ologies most useful for implementation of those
community tolerance in their exercise of discre-
designs in a generally inhospitable research setting.
tion as to how limited resources for enforcement
This field of study goes far beyond the scope of
are to be deployed. It is literally impossible for traditional criminology as a sub-field in sociology,
them to enforce all of the law all of the time. Only far beyond criminal law and procedure as one
those arrested by the police can be adjudicated by small part of law school curricula, far beyond
the courts and "rehabilitated" by corrections. abnormal psychology as one concern of social
In our police organizations are found some of psychology, and far beyond public administration
the most interesting experiments and social cam- with its traditional preoccupation with bureau-
paigns for both administrative and political decen- cratic structure and process.
tralization. But there is much less experimentation Professors capable of integrating the insights
in both courts and corrections with administrative and approaches of all of these traditional disci-
and political decentralization, although there are plines have not generally been available, but are
definite trends toward the decentralization of beginning to emerge from the less than a handful
programs in corrections. Both of these segments of of strong graduate programs created or recreated
in the late '60's. Meanwhile, the difficult problemgraduates to join such faculties, t
brightest
of integration can best be achieved through inter-
helping to build recognition of the need f
disciplinary faculties functioning in a separate
new programs in more colleges and univer
and through effective exploration of a
academic unit. Neither simple joint appointments
nor complex consortium arrangements can do the
mutual interest when they come into bein
extremely difficult job of building this new
such field.
area is certainly the utility of adminis
Schools of public administration and public
andaffairs
political decentralization in the organi
can best assist through urging a fewand of operation
their of criminal justice systems.
R efere n ces
References are listed in order of occurrence in the 3. Frank W. Miller, Prosecution: The Decision to
text.
Charge a Suspect with a Crime (Boston: Little,
Brown and Company, 1969).
1. National Commission on Law Observance and En- 4. Donald J. Newman, Conviction: The Determina-
forcement, (Washington, D. C: U. S. Department of tion of Guilt or Innocence Without Trial
Justice, 1931), 14 nos.: (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1966).
No. 1. Preliminary Report on Observance and 5. Robert O. Dawson, Sentencing: The Decision as
Enforcement of Prohibition. to Type, I.ength, and Conditions of Sentence
No. 2. Report on the Enforcement of the Prohibi- (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1969).
tion Laws of the United States. 5. President's Commission on Civil Rights (Washing-
No. 3. Report on Criminal Statistics. ton, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office,
No. 4. Report on Prosecution. 1961), 5 vols.:
No. 5. Report on the Enforcement of the Depor- Vol. 1. Voting.
tation I.aws of the United States. Vol. 2. Education.
No. 6. Report on the Child Offender in the Vol. 3. Employment.
Federal System of Justice. Vol. 4. Housing.
No. 7. Progress Report on the Study of the Vol. 5. Justice.
Federal Courts.
6. President's Committee on Juvenile Delinquency and
No. 8. Report on Criminal Procedure. Youth Crime. (An operational entity rather than a
No. 9. Report on Penal Institutions, Probation study commission, established in 1961 by executive
and Parole.
order, composed of the Attorney General, the
No. 10. Report on Crime and the Foreign Born. Secretary of Labor, and the Secretary of Health,
No. 11. Report on Lawlessness in Law Enforce- Education, and Welfare; no report issued.) For an
ment.
account of the work of this committee, see Daniel
No. 12. Report on the Cost of Crime. P. Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding
No. 13. Report on the Causes of Crime. (New York: The Free Press, 1969), pp. 61-74.
No. 14. Report on Police. 7. Attorney General's Committee on Poverty and the
2. Attorney General's Conference on Crime, Proceed-
Administration of Federal Criminal Justice, Poverty
ings (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing
and the Administration of Federal Criminal Justice
Office, December 1934).
(Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing
3. Attorney General's Survey of Release Procedures Office, 1963).
(Washington, D. C: U. S. Department of Justice, 8. National Conference on Bail and Criminal Justice,
1939), 5 vols.:
Proceedings and Interim Report (Washington, D. C.:
Vol. I. Digest of Federal andState Laws on Release Office of the Attorney General, 1965).
Procedures.
9. President's Commission on Law Enforcement and
Vol. II. Probation.
Administration of Justice, "Katzenbach Report"
Vol. III. Pardon.
(Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing
Vol. IV. Parole.
Office, 1967), 10 vols., 5 field surveys:
Vol. V. Prisons.
Vol. 1. The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society.
4. The American Bar Foundation's Series on the
Vol. 2. Task Force Report Assessment of
Administration of Criminal Justice in the United Crime.
States:
Vol. 3. Task Force Report: Corrections.
1. Lawrence P. Tiffany, Donald M. McIntyre, Jr., Vol. 4. Task Force Report: The Courts.
and Daniel L. Rotenberg, Detection of Crime Vol. 5. Task Force Report: Drunkenness.
(Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967) Vol. 6. Task Force Report: Juvenile Delinquency.
2. Wayne R. LaFave, Arrest (Boston: Little, Brown Vol. 7. Task Force Report: Narcotics and Drug
and Company, 1965). A buse.
734 PUBL IC ADMINISTRATION REVIEW
Vol. 8. Task Force Report:

13. Joint Commission Or
of Correction
Vol. 9. Task Force Report:
Training (Washington, Th
D. C.: Ameri
Vol. 10. Task Force Report: Science and Tech- Association, 1969), 15 vols.:
nology. 1. Final Report: A Time to Act.
Field Surveys: 2. Staff Report: Perspectives on Correctional Man-
I. Report on a Pilot Study in the District of power and Training.
Columbia on Victimization and Attitudes To-
3. Staff Report: Manpower and Training in Cor-
ward Law Enforcement, (prepared under a grant rectional Institutions.
by the Office of Law Enforcement Assistance, 4. Research Report: Developing Correctional Ad-
U.S. Department of Justice, to the Bureau of ministrators.
Social Science Research, Inc.). 5. Seminar Report: Differences that Make the
II. Criminal Victimization in-the United States: A Difference.
Report of a National Survey (prepared under a 6. Seminar Report: Targets for In-Service Train-
grant by the Office of Law Enforcement Assis- ing.
tance, U. S. Department of Justice, to the 7. Seminar Report: Research in Correctional Re-
National Opinion Research Center). habilitation.
III.Studies in Crime and Law Enforcement in Major 8. Seminar Report: Offenders as a Correctional
Metropolitan Areas (prepared under a grant by Manpower Resource.
the Office of Law Enforcement Assistance, U. S. 9. Seminar Report: Criminology and Corrections
Department of Justice, to The University of Programs.
Michigan), 2 vols. 10. Survey Report: The Public Looks at Crime and
Correctio ns.
IV. The Police and the Community (prepared under
a grant by the Office of Law Enforcement 11. Survey Report: Corrections 1968: A Climate
Assistance, U.S. Department of Justice, to the for Change.
University of California at Berkeley). 12. Survey Report: Volunteers Look at Correc-
V. A National Survey of Police and Community tions.
Relations (prepared under a grant by the Office 13. Consultant's Paper: The Future of the Juvenile
of Law Enforcement Assistance, U. S. Depart- Court: Implication for Correctional Manpower
ment of Justice, to Michigan State University). and Training.
10. First National Conference on Crime Control, Pro- 14. Consultant's Paper: The University and Correc-
ceedings (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government tions: Potential for Collaborative Relationships.
Printing Office, 1967). 15. Consultant's Paper: The Legal Challenge to
11. National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, Corrections: Implication for Manpower and
"Kerner Report" (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Govern- Training.
ment Printing Office, 1968), 2 vols.: 14. President's Commission on Campus Unrest,
Vol. 1. Report. "Scranton Report," Campus Unrest (Washington,
Vol. 2. Supplemental Studies. D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970).
12. National Commission on the Causes and Prevention 15. Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, Report
of Violence, "Eisenhower Report," (Washington, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing
D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1969), 15 Office, 1970), with ten technical reports to the
vols: commission:
Final Report: 7'o Establish Justice, ?'o Insure Do- Vol. I Preliminary Studies (1971).
mestic Tranquility. Vol. 11 Legal Analysis (1971).
Vol. 1. Violence in America: Historical and Com- Vol. 111 'he Marketplace: The Industry (1971).
parative Perspective, Part I. Vol IV The Marketplace: Empirical Studies (1971).
Vol. 2. Violence in America: Historical and Com- Vol V Societal Control Mechanisms (1971).
parative Perspective, Part II. Vol. VI National Survey(1971).
Vol. 3. The Politics of Protest: Violent Aspects of Vol. VII Erotica and Antisocial Behavior (1971).
Protest & Confrontation. Vol. VIII Irotica and Social Behavior (1971).
Vol. 4. Rights in Concord: The Response to the Vols. IX & X (not yet released).
Counter-Inaugural Protest Activities in 16. President's Task Force on Prisoner Rehabilitation,
Washington, D. C. The Criminal Offender: What Should Be Done?
Vol. 5. Shoot-Out in Cleveland: Black Militants
(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing
and the Police. Office, 1970).
Vol. 6. Shut It Down: A College in Crisis. 17. National Commission on Reform of Federal Crim-
Vol. 7. Firearms and Violence in American l.ife. inal Laws (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Vol. 8. Assassination and Political Violence. Printing Office):
Vol. 9. Violence and the Media, Part 1. 1. Working Papers, Vols. 1 and 2 (1970).
Vol. 9a. Violence and the Media, Part 11. 2. Study Draft of Proposed Revision of Federal
Vol. 10. l.aw and Order Reconsidered. Criminal L.aw, 7itle 18(1970).
Vol. 11. Crimes of Violence, Part 1. 3. Final Report (1971).
Vol. 12. Crimes of Violence, Part 11. 18. President's Commission on Drugs (in progress),
Vol. 13. Crimes of Violence, Part III. Preliminary Report (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1971). 16 proved by House of Delegates, February

19. American Bar Association Project on Standards
1971).for
17. Function of the Police (Tentative Draft, April
Criminal Justice, (Chicago: American Bar Associa-
tion), 18 vols. 1971).
Standards Relating to: 18. Function of the Judge (In process).
1. Fair Trial and Free Press (Tentative Draft, 20. Committee on Junvenile Delinquency, "Macleod
December 1966; Supplement, includes all Stan- Report" (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1967), 1 vol. in
dards, March 1968; approved by the House of French and English.
Delegates, February 1968, with amendments as21. Canadian Committee on Corrections, "Ouimet Re-
shown in Supplement). port" (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1969), 1 vol. in
2. Post-Conviction Remedies (Tentative Draft, French and English.
January 1967; approved by the House of 22. Commission of Enquiry into Civil Rights, "McRuer
Delegates, February 1968, as proposed in Ten- Report" (Toronto: Queen's Printer, 1970), 7 vols.
tative Draft). (see particularly vol. 6: Justice).
3. Pleas of Guilty (Tentative Draft, February 23. Commission of Enquiry into the Administration of
1967; Supplement, includes amendments only, Justice on Criminal and Penal Matters in Quebec,
March 1968; approved by the House of Dele- "Prevost Report" (Quebec: Quebec Official Publish-
gates, February 1968, with amendments as er, 1970), 18 vols. in French, 5 vols. in English.
shown in Supplement). 24. Commission of Enquiry into the Non-Medical Use
4. Appellate Review of Sentences (Tentative of Drugs, "LeDain Report" (Ottawa: Queen's
Draft, April 1967; Supplement, includes Printer, 1970, Interim Report; 1971, Final Report
amendments only, March 1968; approved by in French and English).
the House of Delegates, February 1968, with 25. Kentucky Department of Law, "Law Enforcement
amendments as shown in Supplement). in Kentucky: Report to the Committee on the
5. Speedy Trial (Tentative Draft, May 1967; ap- Administration of Justice in the Commonwealth of
proved by House of Delegates, February 1968, Kentucky," Kentucky Law Journal, Vol. 52, No. 1
as proposed in Tentative Draft). (1963), entire issue.
6. Providing Defense Services (Tentative Draft, 26. Governor Rockefeller's Conference on Crime, Pro-
July 1967; approved by the House of Delegates, ceedings (Albany, N.Y.: Executive Department,
February 1968, as proposed in Tentative 1966).
Draft). 27. New Jersey Governor's Select Commission on Civil
7. Joinder and Severance (Tentative Draft, Disorder, Report for Action (Trenton, N.J.: Office
November 1967; Supplement, includes amend- of the Governor, 1968).
ments only, September 1968; approved by the 28. New York Governor's Special Committee on Crim-
House of Delegates, August 1968, with amend- inal Offenders, Preliminary Report (Albany, N. Y.:
ments as shown in Supplement). Executive Department, 1968).
8. Sentencing Alternatives and Procedures (Tenta-
29. New York City Mayor's Committee on the Adminis-
tive Draft, December 1967; Supplement, in- tration of Justice Under Emergency Conditions,
cludes amendments only, September 1968; Report (New York: Office of the Mayor, 1968).
approved by House of Delegates, August 1968, 30. Comments and Research Reports, Yale Kamisar,
with amendments as shown in Supplement). "Some Reflections on Criticizing the Courts and
9. Pretrial Release (Tentative Draft, March 1968; 'Policing the Police,' " Journal of Criminal Law,
Supplement, includes amendments only, Criminology and Police Science, Vol. 53 (1962), pp.
September 1968; approved by House of Dele- 453-462.
gates, August 1968, with amendments as shown 31. Yale Kamisar, "On the Tactics of Police-Prosecution
in Supplement). Oriented Critics of the Courts," Cornell Law Quar-
10. Trial By Jury (Tentative Draft, May 1968; terly, Vol. 49 (1964), pp. 436-477.
Supplement, includes amendments only, 32. Robert J. Bowers, "Nature of the Problem of Police
September 1968; approved by House of Dele- Brutality," Cleveland-Marsball l.aw Review, Vol. 14
gates, August 1968, with amendments as shown (1965), pp. 601-609.
in Supplement). 33. Herman Goldstein, "Police Policy Formulation: A
11. Electronic Surveillance (Tentative Draft, June Proposal for Improving Police Performance,"
1968; approved by House of Delegates, Michigan Law Review, Vol. 65 (1965), pp.
February 1971). 1123-1145.
12. Criminal Appeals (Tentative Draft, March 1969; 34. Herman, Goldstein, "Administrative Problems in
approved by House of Delegates, August 1970). Controlling the Exercise of Police Authority,"
13. Discovery and Procedure Before 'Irial (Tenta- Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police
tive Draft, May 1969; approved by House of Science, Vol. 58(1967), pp. 160-172.
Delegates, August 1970). 35. Ellwyn R. Stoddard, "The Informal 'Code' of Police
14. Probation (Tentative Draft, February 1970; Deviancy: A Groups Approach to 'Blue Coat
approved by House of Delegates, August 1970). Crime,' "Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and
15 The Prosecution Function and the Delense Police Science, Vol. 59(1968), pp. 201-213.
& Function (Tentative Draft, March 1970; ap- 36. Frank J. Remington, "The Role of Police in a
Democratic Society," Journal of Criminal System of theLaw,Courts Here," The New York Times,
Criminology and Police Science, Vol.December 6, 1971,
59 (1968), pp.p. 43C., c.l.
361-365. 57. "The Push to Streamline the Courts," Business
37. Note, "Grievance Response Mechanisms for Police Week (December 4, 1971), pp. 46-47.
Misconduct," Virginia Law Review, Vol. 55 (1969), 58. Leslie Oelsner, "Prisoner's Rights: What Rights for
pp. 909-951. the 'Slave of the State'?" The New York Times,
38. Note, "The Unconstitutionality of Plea Bargaining," December 26, 1971, p. 5E, c.1.
Harvard Law Review, Vol. 83 (1970), pp. 59. "Prisons: Attica's Legacy," Newsweek, Vol. 78, No.
1387-1411. 14 (October 4, 1971), p. 23.
39. Note, "Police Practices and the Threatened Destruc- 60. "Prisons:Attica Aftermath," Time, Vol. 98, No. 15
tion of Tangible Evidence," Harvard Law Review, (October 11, 1971), p. 24.
Vol. 84 (1971), pp. 1465-1498. 61. Arthur I. Waskow, "I Am Not Free," Saturday
40. "The Police in a Democratic Society: A Sym- Review (January 8, 1972), pp. 20-21.
posium," Public Administration Review, Vol. 62. "Attica Prison's Bloody Monday," Life, Vol. 71,
XXVIII, No. 5 (September/October 1968). No. 13 (September 24, 1971), p. 26.
41. "The Police and the Rest of Us: A Special Supple- 63. "Justice on Trial," Newsweek (March 8, 1971), pp.
ment," The Atlantic, Vol. 223, No. 3 (March 1969). 16-46.
42. "The Cops: Nine Inquiries Into the Institutions, 64. "Urban Affairs: The U.S. Gets its First Walled
Traditions and Practices of the Contemporary Police City," Business Week (March 6, 1971), p. 28.
Force," The Nation, Vol. 208, No. 16 (April 21, 65. Law Enforcement Assistance Act of 1965 estab-
1969). lished the Office of Law Enforcement Assistance in
43. "Police and Society," American Behavioral Scien- the U. S. Department of Justice. The Omnibus
tist, Vol. 13, Nos. 5 & 6 (May/June and July/August Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968
1970). replaced OLEA with the Law Enforcement Assis-
44. "Symposium on Five Pieces in Penology," Public tance Administration (LEAA) in the Department.
Administration Review, Vol. XXXI, No. 6 (Nov- Related units dealing with juvenile delinquency have
ember/December 1971). had a similar history in the Department of Health,
45. "Special Police Issue," Law and Society Review, Education, and Welfare.
Vol. 6, No. 2 (November 1971). 66. Orange County (California) Criminal Justice
46. "Symposium on Judicial Administration," Public Council, Criminal Justice: An Integrated Systems
Administration Review, Vol. XXXI, No. 2 (March/ Approach, 1972.
April 1971). 67. State of New York Joint Legislative Committee on
47. Police Film Catalog. A comprehensive listing of Crime, Its Courses, Control and Effect on Society,
available law enforcement training films arranged in Seminar on Violence (Albany: Committee Docu-
four major subject areas: Police and Their Profes- ment, July 1968), p. 124.
sion, Police and the Law, Police and Society, and 68. American Bar Foundation series on Legal Services
Films for the Police. International Association of
for the Poor (1155 East 60th Street, Chicago,
Chiefs of Police, Eleven Firstfield Road, Gaithers- Illinois 60637):
burg, Maryland 20760. Price $1.50. Lee Silverstein, Eligibility for Free I.egal Services
48. Murray Kempton, "Cops" (a review of four books (40 pp., 1967).
about the police), New York Review of Books, Vol. ,Waiver of Court Costs and Appointment of
15 (November 5, 1970), pp. 3-7. Counsel for Poor Persons in Civil Cases (36 pp.,
49. David Burnham, "Study Scores City's Police and 1968).
Courts as Inefficient," The New York Times, Staff of the Duke Law Journal, The Legal Problems
March 14, 1971, p. 1, c.6. of the Rural Poor (131 pp., 1969).
50. "G-Man Under Fire," Iife, Vol. 70, No. 13 (April 9, Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr., Social Justice Through Civil
1971), pp. 39-45. Justice (14 pp., 1969).
51. Tom Buckley, "Murphy Among the 'Meat Eaters,"' Audrey D. Smith, The Social Worker in the I egal
The New York Times Magazine (December 19, Aid Setting: A Study of Interprofessional Rela-
1971), pp. 8-49. tionships (14 pp., 1970).
52. James Mills, "I Have Nothing to Do with Justice: Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr., Law Reforming in the
Brilliant and Cynical, A Legal Aid Lawyer Wins Anti-Poverty Effort (16 pp., 1970).
Freedom for Thousands of Muggers, Rapists and Felice J. Levine and Elizabeth Preson, Community
Thieves," ILife, Vol. 70, No. 9 (March 12, 1971), pp. Resource Orientation Among Low Income
56-67. Groups (36 pp., 1970).
53. "Excerpts from President Nixon's Address to Na- Staff of the Denver Law Journal, Rural Poverty and
tional Conference on Judiciary," The New York the Law in Southern Colorado (85 pp., 1971).
Times, March 12, 1971, p. 18C, c. 1. Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr., Legal Problems Peculiar to
54. Jack Star, "Jam-Up: Crisis in our Criminal Courts," the Poor (16 pp., 1971).
I ook (March 23, 1971), pp. 32-39. Kenneth P. Fisher and Charles C. Ivil, Franchising
55. "Improve Justice, Law Expert Asks," The New Justice: The Office of Economic Opportunity
York Times, April 20, 1971, p. 16C, c. 3. Legal Service Program and Traditional I egal Aid
56. Leslie Oelsner, "Rise in Crime Straining Probation (18 pp., 1971).
F. Raymond Marks, Jr., The Legal Needs of the

84. Gordon E. Misner, "Recent Developments in Metro-
Poor: A Critical Analysis (17 pp., 1971). politan Law Enforcement, Part II," Journal of
Dorothy Linder Maddi, Public Welfare Caseworkers
Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, Vol.
and Client Referrals to Legal Services (1051, pp.,
No. 2 (1960), pp. 265-272.
1971). 85. "Two Precedent-Setting Mergers of Principal Law
Dorothy Linder Maddi and Frederic R. Merrill, The Enforcement Agencies," Crime Control Digest (Jan-
Private Practicing Bar and Legal Services for Lowuary 7, 1972).
Income People (21 pp., 1971). 86. V.A. Leonard, Police Organization and Management
Barbara A. Curran and Sherry L. Clarke, Use of (Brooklyn: The Foundation Press, Inc., 1951).
Lawyers' Services by Low-Income Persons 87. International City Managers' Association, Municipal
(1971). Police Administration, 4th edition (Chicago: Inter-
69. National Council on Crime and Delinquency, Goals national City Managers' Association, 1954).
and Recommendations: A Response to 'The Chal- 88. O.W. Wilson, Police Planning, (Springfield, Ill.:
lenge of Crime in a Free Society,' the Report of the Charles C. Thomas, 2nd edition, 1957).
President's Commission on Law Enforcement and89. John P. Kenney, Police Management Planning
Administration of Justice (New York: NCCD, (Sprinfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1959).
1968); , Citizen Action to Control Crime and 90. Institute for Training in Municipal Administration,
Delinquency: Fifty Projects (1968). Muncipal Police Administration (Washington, D.C.:
70. "Murphy to Head Law Enforcement Council," International City Managers' Association, 6th
NCCD News, Vol. 50, No. 5 (November-December edition, 1969).
1971), p. 3. 91. Samuel G. Chapman, Police Patrol Readings,
71. Westchester Citizens Committee of the National Chapter V, "British Patrol and Team Policing"
Council on Crime and Delinquency, Fact Sheets (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1964), pp.
Concerning Law Enforcement and the Administra-
234-276.
tion of Criminal Justice in Westchester County, 92.
NewCity of New York Police Department, Press Release
York, 1969. No. 112, December 30, 1972.
72. Martin Waldron, "Houston Voters Choose a 93. "A Precinct Tries New Team Effort," The New
Mayor," The New York Times, December 8, 1971, York Times, December 5, 1971, p. 112, c.l.
p. 27C., c.1. 94. John T. McQuiston, "Murphy, in Test, Assigns
73. "75 Imperiale Supporters Block Debate With Patrolman to Home Precinct," The New York
Newark Moderates," The New York Times, January Times, January 20, 1972, p. 55C, c.l.
19, 1971, p. 46, c.3, 95. Peter Kihss, "24th Designated the First Model
74. J. Anthony Lucas, "Bad Day at Cairo, Ill.," The Precinct," The New York Times, February 3, 1972,
New York Times, February 21, 1971, VI, p. 22. p. 35, c. 1-6.
75. Thomas A. Johnson, "Who Killed the 10 Drug 96. Judy Klemesrud, "The Desk Sergeant at 24th
Pushers?" The New York Times, January 23, 1972, Precinct Doesn't Fit Stereotype," The New York
p. 55, c. 4. Times, March 6, 1972, p. 38, c. 1.
76. Thomas M. Scott and Marlys McPherson, "The 97. Ralph Blumenthal, "Harassment Drives City's 'Res-
Development of the Private Sector of the Criminal ident Policemen' From Their Home Precincts," 7'he
Justice System, "Law and Society Review, Vol. 6, New York Times, March 13, 1972, p. 31, c. 2.
No. 2 (1971), pp. 267-288. 98. , "6 New 'Resident Policemen' Volunteer,"
77. "A Precinct Tries New Team Effort," The New The New York Times, March 14, 1972, p. 47, c. 3-5.
York Times, December 5, 1971, p. 112, c.l. 99. John V. Lindsay, "A Plan for Neighborhood Gov-
78. Citizens for Law, Order and Justice, A Layment's ernment for New York City" (New York: Office of
View of the Functioning of Law, Order and Justice the Mayor, June 1970), 16 pp., mimeo.
in Schenectady, (N. Y.): Second Annual Report 100. Patrick V. Murphy and Peter B. Bloch, "The Beat
(Summer 1971). Commander," Police Chief, Vol. 37, No. 5 (May
79. Alan A. Altshuler, Community Control: The Black 1970).
Demand for Participation in Large American Cities 101. W. H. T. Smith, R. D. Priest, and J. F. Elliott, "An
(New York: Pegasus, 1970). Exploratory Program of The Syracuse Police De-
80. Richard A. Myren, The Role of the Police (a paper partment and General Electric Company in Law
submitted to the President's Commission on Law Enforcement Problems," Police, Vol. XII, No. 3
Enforcement and Administration of Justice, 1967). (1968), p. 92.
81. William P. Brown, Goal Direction in Police Work 102. J. F. Elliott, "The Concept of the Offensively
(unpublished working paper), p. 18. Deployed Police Force," Police, Vol. XIII, No. 1
82. Thomas E. Bercal, "Calls for Police Assistance: (1968), p. 65.
Consumer Demands for Governmental Service," 103. - , "Random Patrol," Police, Vol. XIII, No. 2
American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. XIII, Nos. 5 and (1968), p. 51.
6 (May-June, July-August 1970), p. 686. 104. , "The Crime Control Team," Police, Vol.
83. John E. Angell, "Toward an Alternative to the XIII, No. 5 (1969), p. 35.
Classic Police Organizational Arrangements: A 105. , "Project Management Approach to Con-
Democratic Model," Criminology, Vol. 9, Nos. 2 & trolling Urban Crime," Aerospace Management, Vol.
3 (August/November 1971). IV, No. 2 (1969), p. 59.
106. , "Crime Control Team," Event, Vol. IX, No. ties (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968).
3(1969), p. 16. 127. Albert J. Reiss, Jr., The Police and the Public (New
107. , "The Police - How Effective Are They?" Haven: Yale University Press, 1971).
Event, Vol. X, No. 1 (1969), p. 34. 128. Elinor Ostrom, "Institutional Arrangements and the
108. _ ,J. F. O'Connor, and Thomas J. Sardino, Measurement of Policy Consequences: Applications
"The Detection and Interception Capability of One- to Evaluating Police Performance," Urban Affairs
and Two-Man Patrol Units," Police, (November- Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 4 (June 1971), p. 447.
December, 1969), p. 24. 129. ,_ and Gordon Whitaker, "Does Local Com-
109. , --, , "Experimental Evaluation munity Control of Police Make A Difference? Some
of the Crime Control Team Organization Concept," Preliminary Findings," Midwest Journal of Political
Police (May-June 1970), p. 44. Science, in press.
110. Thomas J. Sardino, "The- Crime Control Team," 130. , , "Black Citizens and the Police:
FBI l.aw Enforcement Bulletin (May 1971), p. 16. Some Effects of Community Control," d
111. J. F. Elliott and Thomas J. Sardino, "Crime Control the 1971 Annual Meeting of the America
Team: An Experiment in Municipal Police Depart- Science Association, Copyright 1971 by The
American Political Science Association.
ment Management and Operations"(Springfield, Ill.)
112. Los Angeles Police Department, Basic Car Plan (Los 131. Karl Hess, "Breaking Up City Hall: Why Neighbor-
Angeles: Office of the Chief of Police, 1971). hoods Must Secede," New York Times, January 31,
113. Robert Rawitch, "Police Basic Car Plan: Review a 1972, p. 26, c. 41, c. 5.
Year Later," The Los Angeles Times, February 21, 132. Richard Danzig, A Complementary Decentralized
1971, Sec. C, p. 1, c. 5. System of Criminal Justice (working paper pre-
114. E. M. Davis, "The Los Angeles Basic Car Plan," pared for the Association of the Bar of the City of
address delivered to the 1970 International Associa- New York, September 1970).
tion of Chiefs of Police Annual Conference in 133. Jerome H. Skolnick, Justice Without Trial: Law
Enforcement in a Democratic Society (New York:
Atlantic City, October 6, 1970 (Los Angeles: Office
of the Chief of Police, 1970). John Wiley, 1966).
134. Albert J. Reiss, Jr., unpublished remarks at the
115. John P. Kenney, Team Policing Organization: A
1972 annual conference of the Academy of Crim-
Theoretical Model, working paper (1971), 21 pp.,
mimeo. inal Justice Sciences, Boston, February 24, 1972.
135. Ivan H. Schier, "The Professional and the Volunteer
116. James C. Zurcher, Palo Alto Police Adopt "Team
in Probation: An Emerging Relationship," Federal
Management/Team Policing" Reorganization Plan,
Probation, Vol. 34, No. 2 (June 1970).
working paper (1971), 9 pp., mimeo.
136. Royal Oak Municipal Court Probation Department,
117. Leo E. Peart, "Team Management/Team Policing
Concerned Citizens and A City Criminal Court
Organization Concept," The Police Chief Magazine
(1969).
(April 1971).
118. "Management By Goals Concept Tried In Palo 137. National Council on Crime and Delinquency,
Alto," Criminal Justice Newsletter, Vol. 2 (May 3, "Volunteer Probation Organization Becomes Part of
1971), p. 67. National Council on Crime and Delinquency," press
119. Holyoke (Massachusetts) Police Department, Policy release, January 3, 1972.
and Procedure Manual, Model Cities Police Team 138. Richard A. McGee, "The Organizational Structure
Project (December 1970). of State and Local Correctional Services," Public
120. Walter Gellhorn, When Americans Complain: Gov- Administration Review, Vol. XXXI, No. 6 (Nov-
ernmental Grievance Procedures (Cambridge: ember/December 1971).
Harvard University Press, 1966). 139. Robert L Smith, A Quiet Revolution: Probation
121. - .Ombudsmen and Others: Citizens' Pro-
Subsidy (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government
tectors in Nine Countries (Cambridge: Harvard
Printing Office, Stock Number 1766-0007; DHEW
University Press; 1966). Publication No. (SRS) 72-26011; 1972).
122. "The Ombudsman or Citizen's Defender: A Modern
140. Gordon H. Barker, Volunteers in Corrections (a
Institution," The Annals of the American Academy paper submitted to the President's Commission on
of Political and Social Science, Vol. 337 (May Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice,
1968), entire issue. 1967).
123. A legislative Proposal to Create the Office of 141. Vincent O'Leary, "Some Directions for Citizen
Ombudsman, An Ombudsman for the State of New Involvement in Corrections," The Annals of the
York (Albany: Senate Finance Committee on the American Academy of Political and Social Science,
Ombudsman, August 1969). Vol. 381 (January 1969).
124. Subcommittee Report and Recommendations on a142. Richard A. Myren, Education in Criminal Justice
Legislative Proposal to Create an Ombudsman for (report prepared for the Coordinating Council for
the People of New York State (Albany: Senate Higher Education in California, Council Report
Finance Subcommittee on the Ombudsman, 1970). 70-5, September 1970).
125. The Red Family, The Case for Community Control 143. National Academy of Sciences and Social Science
of Police (Berkeley: The Red Family, 1971), 49 pp. Research Council, The Behaviorat and Social
126. James Q. Wilson, Varieties of Police Behavior: The Sciences: Outlook and Needs (Englewood Cliffs, N.
Management of Law and Order in Fight Communi- J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969).

American Society For Public Administration, Wiley Public Administration Review

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

American Society For Public Administration, Wiley Public Administration Review

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

American Society For Public Administration, Wiley Public Administration Review

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Decentralization and Citizen Participation in Criminal Justice Systems

Author(s): Richard A. Myren

Decentralization and Citizen Participation

In Criminal Justice Systems

Richard A. Myren, State University of New York at Albany

Beyond this primary effort in the cal.

Operation Neighborhood, begun oninawhich

then continually re-examining the police-com-

years. He is eligible for reappointment. He might

One of the frequent products of Civilian Review Boards and Ombudsmen

personal education and experiencearguments

complaints against police in the 15 precincts of the

criminals who have more connections(a)downtown

the consequences, as it is one of the causes, of the (b) The

Citizen Participation to court, participation in policy-making, formally or

At least since the publication in 1967 of the

... Divide the total criminal justice system into

sional task in which lay talentsthe

Vol. 8. Task Force Report:

ment Printing Office, 1971). 16 proved by House of Delegates, February

F. Raymond Marks, Jr., The Legal Needs of the

You might also like