Dr.

Alain Brizard
Electromagnetic Theory I (PY 302)

Dirac Delta Function

• Paradox
The Divergence Theorem of Vector Calculus
Z I
dτ ∇ · A = da · A (1)
V ∂V

presents us with an interesting paradox when we consider the vector field

r
A = (2)
r3
On the one hand, using identities presented in the September 2 lecture notes, we readily
find that
3 r·r
∇ · A = r−3 ∇ · r + r · ∇r−3 = 3 − 3 5 = 0, (3)
r r
and, hence, Z
dτ ∇ · A = 0.
V
On the other hand, choosing V to be a sphere of radius r and denoting its surface as ∂S,
we also have
I Z Z Z
π 2π
2 r π
da · A = dθ dϕ r sin θ rb · 3 = 2π dθ sin θ = 4π,
∂V 0 0 r 0

where we used the following expression for the surface element da for a sphere
!
∂r ∂r
da = × dθ ∧ dϕ = r2 sin θ dθ dϕ rb.
∂θ ∂ϕ

We immediately notice the paradox that, according to the Divergence Theorem, we find
the nonsensical result 0 = 4π.
The paradox is resolved by noting that ∇ · (r−3 r) = 0 is valid only when r 6= 0. To
reconcile the two sides of the Divergence Theorem (1), we, therefore, introduce a singular
function known as the delta function δ 3(r), defined by the identity1
 
3 r
δ (r) = ∇ · , (4)
4π r3
1
The delta function was first introduced in Physics by P.A.M. Dirac and was, at first, vehemently rejected
by mathematicians; delta functions are now part of a branch of Mathematics known as distribution theory.

1
with the property that δ 3 (r) is zero when r 6= 0 and is infinite when r = 0. Additional
properties of the delta function include

Z 
 f (q) if q is located inside V
3
dτ f (r) δ (r − q) = 
V 
0 if q is located outside V

Using the delta function δ 3(r), we now write Eq. (3) as

∇ · A = 4π δ 3(r), (5)

and, thus, Z Z
dτ ∇ · A = 4π dτ δ 3 (r) = 4π,
V V

which now satisfies the Divergence Theorem (1).

Note that the vector field (2) can also be written in terms of the gradient operator as
A = − ∇r−1 so that Eq. (5) becomes

∇2r−1 = − 4π δ 3(r). (6)

• Properties of the Delta Function

◦ Properties in One Dimension: Let f (x) be an arbitrary function of x

X δ(x − xi )
δ(f (x)) =
i |f 0 (xi )|
Z ∞ Z ∞
dx f (x) δ 0(x − a) = − dx f 0 (x) δ(x − a) = − f 0 (a)
−∞ −∞


 1 (x > a)
d
δ(x − a) = Θ(x − a), where Θ(x − a) =
dx 

0 (x < a)

◦ Properties in Three Dimensions

δ 3(r − q) = δ(x − qx ) δ(y − qy ) δ(z − qz )

δ 3(r) = J −1 δ(u1) δ(u2) δ(u3)

1
δ 3(r − q) = δ(r − q) δ(cos θ − cos θq ) δ(ϕ − ϕq )
r2

2
• Examples

◦ Charge distribution on the z = 0 plane: ρ(r) = σ(x, y) δ(z).

◦ Charge distribution on the surface of a sphere of radius a: ρ(r) = σ(θ, ϕ) δ(r − a).
◦ Charge distribution on a circle of radius a on the z = 0 plane


 λ(θ) δ(z) δ(r − a) in cylindrical geometry(r, θ, z)
ρ(r) =


a−1 λ(ϕ) δ(θ − π2 ) δ(r − a) in spherical geometry(r, θ, ϕ)