Seasonal Thermal Cracking of Concrete

Dams in Northern Regions

Dolice Dontsi Maken 1; Pierre Léger, M.ASCE 2; and Simon-Nicolas Roth 3
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Abstract: In several northern regions around the world, concrete dams are subjected to severe seasonal temperature variations, with up to
75°C changes from summer to winter. Those variations contribute to the degradation of the stiffness, strength, and durability of concrete dams.
Thermal stresses and related concrete cracking also need to be evaluated to ensure the structural stability of the dam and to define the initial
conditions for unusual or extreme load combinations, such as floods and earthquakes. This paper presents finite-element modeling procedures
for assessing the thermomechanical behaviors of concrete dams. The stress relaxation and mechanical properties that depend on the temper-
ature of the concrete are first investigated by considering the thermomechanical responses of simple notched beam models. Heat transfer and
thermomechanical analyses are then presented for a 31-m concrete gravity dam and a 214-m multiple arch dam located in Canada. It is shown
that temperature-dependent material properties do not significantly affect the structural response of the dam. Oblique cracks present on the
downstream face of the multiple arch dam are successfully reproduced by the proposed numerical model. Modeling of the related cracked
arch flexibility using equivalent linear continuum concrete constitutive models is also discussed. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509
.0000483. © 2014 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Gravity dam; Arch dam; Mass concrete; Thermal analysis; Finite elements; Smeared crack model; Thermomechanical
coupling; Thermal stresses; Temperature variations.

Introduction ability of FE models to reproduce the observed crack pattern on

Thermal stresses have been shown to play a significant role in the
degradation of the stiffness, strength, and durability of concrete
dams in the northern regions of Canada (Veltrop et al. 1990).
Seasonal temperature variations may range from 35°C in the
summer to −40°C in the winter. When such variations occur
and volumetric changes are restrained, thermal stresses develop
in the dams. These thermal effects lead to the initiation and propa-
gation of cracks in the concrete mass and to the disintegration of
concrete surfaces exposed to ambient air. This paper presents
finite-element (FE) numerical analysis procedures for evaluating
the thermomechanical behaviors of concrete dams subjected to
seasonal temperature variations. Transient heat transfer analysis
and thermomechanical coupled analysis are performed for simple
beam models and two dam case studies. Smeared crack concrete
constitutive models are used with or without considering near-
surface temperature steel reinforcement. The objectives are
(1) to investigate the effect of the temperature-dependent material
properties of the concrete mass (e.g., tensile strength, elasticity
modulus) on crack initiation and propagation; (2) to assess the
1
M.Sc. Candidate, Dept. of Civil, Geological, and Mining Engineering,
École Polytechnique, P.O. Box 6079, Station CV, Montréal, QC, Canada
H3C 3A7. E-mail: dolice.dontsi-maken@polymtl.ca
2
Professor, Dept. of Civil, Geological, and Mining Engineering, École
Polytechnique, P.O. Box 6079, Station CV, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C
3A7 (corresponding author). E-mail: pierre.leger@polymtl.ca
3
Junior Engineer, M.Ing., Hydro-Québec, Études de sécurité, Direction
Barrages et Infrastructures, Groupe Production, P.O. Box 75, Boul.
René-Lévesque, 3e étage, Montréal, QC, Canada H2Z 1A4. E-mail: roth
.simon-nicolas@hydro.qc.ca
Note. This manuscript was submitted on November 8, 2012; approved
on June 4, 2013; published online on June 6, 2013. Discussion period open
until October 22, 2014; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, © ASCE, ISSN 0887-3828/04014014(14)/$25.00.
the downstream face of a multiple arch dam; and (3) to develop
an equivalent three-dimensional (3D) linear isotropic concrete
model to represent the flexibility of a cracked multiple arch
dam. Stress distributions, crack patterns, and computed displace-
ments are presented for a two-dimensional (2D) model of the
La Tuque gravity dam (31 m) using the computer program
ABAQUS (Dassault Systems 2011) for a fixed smeared crack
model (FSCM) with tensile fracture energy (Gf ) conservation.
The computer program ANSYS (2007) with a FSCM and the
strength of material (SOM) crack initiation and propagation criteria
is used for a thermomechanical study of a 3D model of one arch of
the Daniel Johnson multiple arch dam (214 m high). It is shown that
the effect of temperature on material properties is not significant
and that the proposed FE procedure can reproduce the crack pattern
observed on the downstream face of the Daniel Johnson Dam.
Seasonal Thermal Cracking of Concrete Dams
Dams are subjected to internal temperature changes because of
external temperature changes and the heat of hydration, which
dissipates after time. External thermal loads that vary with time
are caused by temperature variations in the ambient air, foundation,
and reservoir water and solar radiation. These loads cause
deformations and significant volumetric changes. Stresses that
often exceed the tensile strength of concrete can develop and lead
to cracking if the volumetric changes are constrained. Moreover,
the dam deflections in the upstream direction during summer
and the downstream direction during winter, and in the longitudinal
direction, promote the spread of horizontal and vertical cracks.
Horizontal cracks mostly occur in the middle and upper parts of
the downstream face in gravity dams, which is subject to severe
climatic conditions and solar radiation. Vertical cracks occur in
the middle of the upstream and downstream faces of gravity dams
(Zhang and Ma 1991).

© ASCE 04014014-1 J. Perform. Constr. Facil.

J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 2014, 28(4): 04014014

 The types of cracks and the causes of cracking vary for different
types of dams (Malm and Anders 2011). After the completion of
the Storfinnhorsen buttress dam (40 m) in Sweden, horizontal
cracks were detected in the lower part of the frontplates, leading
to the leakage of water from the reservoir (Malm and Anders
2011). Inclined cracks from the frontplates to the foundation
and vertical cracks from the foundation have also been identified.
A 3D analysis was performed using the FE software ABAQUS.
The results showed that seasonal temperature variations caused
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high tensile stresses and led to the initiation of cracks in at least
four locations on the dam. Sheibany and Ghaemian (2006) studied
the thermomechanical behaviors of the Karaj arch dam (168 m)
located in Iran. They conducted a 3D linear FE analysis of the
dam to determine the variation in temperature throughout the year
and the related thermal stresses using a sustained concrete elastic
modulus equal to 65% of its instantaneous value. They found the
temperature load to be the main reason for cracking on the
downstream face of the arch. Cracks were observed at the heel
of the Daniel Johnson arch dam, located in Quebec, after its
construction. These cracks, called plunging cracks [Fig. 1(c)], were
found to have been caused by stress concentrations attributable to
geometric discontinuities (Veltrop et al. 1990). On the same dam,
oblique cracks, as shown in Figs. 1(c and e), were observed in the
lower part of the downstream faces of many arches (Bulota et al.
1991). These cracks resulted from severe winter temperatures.
Finite-element models have been developed to evaluate the
temperature and stress distributions in the dam. Manual iterations
for relieving excessive tensile stresses by reducing the elastic
Fig. 1. Daniel Johnson Dam: (a) dam view and characteristics; (b) arch 3-4 section; (c and d) crack patterns; (e) computed versus observed down-
stream face cracks
© ASCE 04014014-2
J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 2014, 28(4): 04014014
modulus in incremental concrete volumes were used to reproduce
the displacements and observed crack patterns and to compute re-
lated stresses (Veltrop et al. 1990). However, the manual iterative
FE method used is an ad hoc procedure that is cumbersome and
precarious to use. Some arches were thermally protected at the base
of the downstream face in 1992 to avoid further degradation of the
cracked concrete. The 3D thermomechanical behavior of the Daniel
Johnson Dam is revisited in this paper using the elastobrittle
concrete fracture model available in the ANSYS program with a
parametric study to illustrate the effects of steel reinforcements near
the downstream face in complement to the Malm and Anders
(2011) study. The Buffalo Bill gravity arch dam (107 m), located
in northwest Wyoming, showed long vertical cracks on the down-
stream face because of extreme thermal gradients, with monthly
temperatures varying from −3–21°C (Boggs 1985). In previous
studies, cracking and permanent irreversible displacements were
noted at the junction of the La Tuque gravity dam, located in
Quebec, and the intake (Caron et al. 2003). It was shown that
the cracking was because of an alkali-aggregate reaction and ther-
mal effects that promoted cracking because of longitudinal geomet-
ric discontinuities in the dam. An expansion joint was made by
making a cut in the left part of the gravity dam. The purpose of
the joint was to allow for free movement of the cyclic seasonal dis-
placements caused by thermal effects and to absorb the volumetric
expansion of the concrete. Volynchikov et al. (2011) analyzed the
Boguchany concrete gravity dam (79 m) in Russia, which experi-
ences severe climatic conditions. They suggested steel structural
reinforcement of the downstream face of the dead end section,
J. Perform. Constr. Facil.
 the downstream face of the dam at the butt joint, and the stepped
spillway face of the dam to assure protection of these surfaces and
to provide stability and strength to the structure when contraction
joints open.
Constitutive Model for Thermomechanical Analyses
Thermal Stresses
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Thermal stresses can be evaluated with the following relationship:
σT ¼ K r Es αðT − T r Þ ð1Þ
with
Es ¼ Eð1 − ψÞ ¼ E=ð1 þ ϕÞ ð2Þ
where K r = restraining coefficient of the structure; E = short-term
(instantaneous) elastic modulus; α = coefficient of thermal
expansion; T = applied temperature; T r = reference temperature
(at zero stress) often corresponding to the mean annual concrete
temperature after a long operational time (Paul and Tarbox
1991);ϕ = creep coefficient; and ψ = stress relaxation coefficient.
If the concrete structure is free to move, K r ¼ 0. Otherwise, if the
structure is restrained either externally or internally while assuming
a rigid foundation, the restraining factor is K r ¼ 1. Stress relaxa-
tion is considered using the long-term elasticity modulus Es , as
defined by Eq. (2). The stress relaxation factor ψ is assumed to vary
between 0.3–0.5 [U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) 2006,
1977]. To complement the dam analysis guidelines, experimental
evidence on the importance of using a sustained concrete modulus
to adequately compute thermal stresses from imposed thermal
strain or a slowly applied thermal load has been provided by
Chantelois et al. (1999), Shkoukani and Walraven (1994), and
Vecchio et al. (1993).
Constitutive Model Using SOM Cracking Criterion
Very often, a tensile strength criterion based on the concept of SOM
is used for the determination of crack initiation and propagation in
concrete structures. When the stress or strain occurring at the
crack-tip exceeds the tensile strength of the material, a crack is as-
sumed to propagate. Furthermore, a sudden stress drop is assumed
at fracture initiation or when principal stresses reach the tensile
strength of the material. Bažant and Cedolin (1979) criticized this
SOM criterion for its nonobjectiveness because it depends on the
choice of the FE mesh. Moreover, a comparison of the computed
tensile stress with the tensile strength of the material is often
inadequate in a cracked structure because spurious results may
Fig. 2. (a) Response of concrete to uniaxial loading under tension; (b) notched beam under three-point loading
© ASCE 04014014-3
J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 2014, 28(4): 04014014
be obtained depending on the size of the FE ahead of the
propagating crack (Bhattacharjee and Léger 1992). However, as
indicated in the Daniel Johnson Dam case study, it is also possible
to obtain good results using a SOM model.
Smeared Crack Constitutive Model with Fracture
Energy
An alternative FE analysis approach uses a criterion based on the
concept of energy dissipation by the structure when undergoing a
fracture process (Bhattacharjee and Léger 1992; Calayır and
Karaton 2005). This theory requires three tensile softening param-
eters: the fracture energy, Gf , defined as the amount of energy
required to create a crack growth (Bažant and Prat 1988); the direct
tensile strength, f t ; and the shape of the tensile softening diagram
(Rots and de Borst 1987). Herein, the fracture process is restricted
to the tensile mode (mode I) that incorporates the strain-softening
behavior of concrete in the fracture process zone (FPZ). Thermal
cracks tend to be distributed (or smeared) over a significant
concrete volume, as shown in Figs. 1(c and d). A smeared crack
propagation model (SCM) that propagates cracks as a continuum
front smeared over a representative volume associated with the
Gauss points of the elements is used herein. In a SCM, after the
initiation of cracking, the isotropic stress-strain law is changed
to an orthotropic law with fixed principal n-, s-, and t-axes of
orthotropy, in which n refers to the direction normal to the
crack, and s and t refer to the directions tangential to the crack,
as indicated by the principal stress orientation. The use of a
SCM avoids any change in the FE mesh topology along the
evolving crack patterns. Smeared crack propagation models can
be categorized into fixed or rotating crack models (Rots and
Blaawendraad 1989; De Borst 1997). The FSCM is used in this
study. In this FSCM, the crack orientation is defined at the crack
initiation based on the principal stress direction and remains
unchanged (fixed) for the rest of the analysis, which is usually
performed using incremental steps for the load application.
ABAQUS and ANSYS Concrete Model Assumptions
The ABAQUS FE computer program assumes that the tensile
response of concrete is characterized by a stress-strain relationship,
as shown in Fig. 2(a) using a FSCM. The compressive strength, the
inelastic strain, the tensile strength, the fracture energy, and the ex-
ponential shape of the tensile softening diagram are the defining
parameters of the concrete model. All of these parameters can
be temperature-dependent. In 2D applications, a four-node FE with
incompatible modes is used to prevent shear locking.
J. Perform. Constr. Facil.
 Table 1. Material Properties
La Tuque gravity dam Daniel Johnson Dam
Material properties Notched beam Concrete Foundation Concrete Foundation
Elasticity modulus E (MPa) 27,413 24,500 10,000 32,000 32,000
Sustained modulus Es (MPa) N/A 12,250 N/A 20,700 20,700
Volumetric mass ρ (kg=m3 ) 2,450 2,450 2,650 2,400 2,600=0a
Tensile strength f t (MPa) 2.87 2.7 N/A 2 N/A
Compressive strength f c (MPa) 33.5 22 N/A 40 N/A
Fracture energy Gf (N=m)
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40.3 175.4 N/A N/A N/A

Poisson’s ratio ν 0.18 0.15 0.24 0.2 0.25
Thermal conductivity k (kJ=j:m:°C) N/A 240.2 216 129.6 216
Specific heat c (kJ=kg°C) N/A 0.9 0.9 0.91 0.80
Thermal expansion coefficient α (m=m=°C) N/A 10 × 10−6 10 × 10−6 8 × 10−6 4 × 10−6
a
2,600 in heat transfer study, 0 in structural study.

In the ANSYS FE software, concrete is modeled through the 3D
solid element (SOLID65). The related triaxial concrete constitutive
model and failure envelope have been described by Willam and
Warnke (1975). The element SOLID65 takes into account both
the cracking and crushing failure modes. It is based on
elastic-perfectly plastic concrete behavior in compression with a
brittle tensile fracture condition. This element with incompatible
modes is defined by eight nodes with 3 degrees of freedom per node,
and can be used with reinforcing bars (embedded smeared steel
layers). The compressive strength and the tensile strength (each of
which can be temperature dependent) are needed to define the con-
crete failure envelope. The concrete is initially considered to be an
isotropic material. Tensile cracking, which is a concern in this study
of a multiple arch dam for which compressive stresses are quite small,
is initiated using a SOM criterion at each Gauss point. The failure
criterion of concrete under tension [Eq. (3)] is expressed as a function
of the principal stress state, FðsÞ (Willam and Warnke 1975)
FðsÞ ¼ s1 − ft ; s1 ≥ s2 ≥ s3
where ft = uniaxial tensile strength; and s1 = maximum principal
stress. There is no consideration of the concrete fracture energy. After
cracking, the material properties are adjusted using the smeared band
of cracks.
Thermomechanical Coupling
There are three categories of thermomechanical models for
concrete structures. In an uncoupled model, the transient heat flow
analysis is performed only once, irrespective of the cracks that are
likely to develop. Thermal strains and stresses and related cracking
are then evaluated by applying the computed temperature field
distribution and the temperature-independent mechanical proper-
ties of the concrete. Therefore, the thermal and mechanical
analyses are independent of one another. In a weakly coupled
model, the mechanical (cracking) analysis is conducted using
temperature-dependent material properties. Finally, in a strongly
coupled thermomechanical analysis, the transient heat flow
analysis is repeated between each mechanical analysis step to
evaluate the updated thermal field while considering the effects
of cracking on temperature intensity and distribution (e.g., reservoir
water penetration in a crack).
beams tested by Bazant and Pfeiffer (1987) is used. A variation in
temperature induces no stress in this beam. Thus, the effect of tem-
perature-dependent material properties on the peak failure load
could be investigated. The model is a notched beam under a
three-point loading, is 304.8 mm deep, 762 mm long, and
38.1 mm thick, and is made with a maximum aggregate size of
12.7 mm [Fig. 2(b)]. Table 1 presents the material properties used
(Bažant and Pfeiffer 1987).
The compressive strength of concrete has been determined from
laboratory tests, and the fracture energy value was calibrated by
Bažant and Pfeiffer (1987) to provide a good prediction of the peak
load resistance, as shown in the laboratory test. The beam is
analyzed using a displacement control increment of 10−6 m with
a maximum displacement of 1.5 × 10−4 m at the two surface nodes
in the line above the notch [Fig. 2(b)].
The laboratory test showed the ultimate load to be
Pu ¼ 7.78 kN, corresponding to the average responses of three
ð3Þ specimens of the same size. The curve at temperature 20°C in Fig. 3
is taken as the reference numerical force-displacement response of
the notched beam. The ultimate load causing a stress equal to σt ¼
2.89 MPa at the center of the beam is P ¼ 6.63 kN. This result
gives a ratio of 1.17 (Pu =P), which is approximately 15% less
than the laboratory test result. The difference between the two
values may be because of aleatory uncertainties related to material
properties that are not precisely known.

Axial and Flexural Loading—Simulations on a

Benchmark Beam Model
Fig. 3. Force-displacement response of statically determinate beam
To assess the thermomechanical capabilities of ABAQUS, the
using temperature-dependent properties
finite-element model of one of the statically determinate concrete

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J. Perform. Constr. Facil., 2014, 28(4): 04014014

 Table 2. Mechanical Properties of Concrete at Low Temperatures Relative respectively, at temperature T and Ec , ft , f c , and Gf = modulus
to þ20°C of elasticity, tensile strength, compressive strength, and fracture
E fc ft a ν energy at 20°C, whereas T = temperature in °C; and T 0 ¼ 1°C.
Lee et al. (1988) tested several concrete specimens under mon-
Temperature GPa % MPa % MPa % Value %
otonic and cyclic loadings in the temperature range of 20 to −70°C.
þ20°C 26 100 39.6 100 3 100 0.20 100 They analyzed the concrete compressive strength, splitting tensile
−10°C 27.8 107 51.1 129 4 134 0.21 109 strength, modulus of elasticity, and Poisson’s ratio and found that
−30°C 32.5 125 61 154 4.8 159 0.24 120
these properties increase as the temperature decreases. The values
a
f t Splitting tensile strength. of mechanical properties at a specified temperature are expressed as
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a percentage ratio of the value at 20°C (Table 2). These percentage

Fig. 4. Restrained notched concrete beam
The same notched beam [Fig. 2(b)] is analyzed while applying a
series of uniform temperature fields in the range of −30–30°C. The
material properties of concrete, E, ft , f c , Gf , and ν, were modified
depending on the temperature applied to the beam. The Comité
Euro-International du Béton- Fédération International de la
Précontrainte (CEB-FIP) MODEL CODE (1990) gives the
equations for evaluating the material properties of concrete for
temperature values ranging from 0–80°C
Ec ðTÞ ¼ Ec ð1.06 − 0.003T=T 0 Þ
f t ðTÞ ¼ ft ð1.1 − 0.005T=T 0 Þ
fc ðTÞ ¼ fc ð1.06 − 0.003T=T 0 Þ
Gf ðTÞ ¼ Gf ð1.14 − 0.006T=T 0 Þ
where Ec ðTÞ, f t ðTÞ, f c ðTÞ, and Gf ðTÞ = modulus of elasticity,
tensile strength, compressive strength, and fracture energy,
ratios are used to evaluate the mechanical properties of concrete in a
temperature range of −30–0°C in this study. Chantelois et al.
(1999) also showed similar experimental variations of the
mechanical properties of concrete over a temperature range varying
from 20 to −40°C.
Fig. 3 shows the force-displacement responses as a function of
temperature. The peak load increases as the temperature decreases
for a temperature range of þ30 to −30°C. From þ20 to −30°C, the
peak load increases, reaching a ratio of 1.3 with respect to the
reference value 6.63 kN (at 20°C). The ultimate load variation is
basically explained by the increase in concrete tensile strength
as the temperature decreases.
A uniform cyclic temperature variation field with a period of
365 days and amplitude of 30°C is applied to the notched concrete
beam shown in Fig. 4, which is now constrained in the
horizontal direction. The effects of temperature on the
concrete material properties E ¼ 31.4 GPa, ft ¼ 3.09 MPa,
fc ¼ 44 MPa, Gf ¼ 40.29 N=m, and ν ¼ 0.18 are considered
[Eqs. (4)–(7)], whereas the thermal expansion coefficient
(α ¼ 10 × 10−6 m=m=°C) is constant [only a slight variation
with temperature was reported by Chantelois et al. (1999)].
Figs. 5(a and b) indicate the computed thermomechanical re-
ð4Þ sponses. The horizontal reactions, R, can be obtained from
R ¼ A × E × α × ΔT, where ΔT = applied temperature variation
from the arbitrary reference value (0°C). The complete cracking
ð5Þ
temperature (ΔT) found using the short-term elasticity modulus
E(elastic crack) is −6.7°C. When using the sustained elasticity
ð6Þ modulus Es ¼ 0.58 E [ψ ¼ 0.42 in Eq. (2)], the complete cracking
temperature increases to ΔT ¼ −12°C (creep crack). These two
ð7Þ application examples illustrate that for simulations carried out with
simple beam systems, the use of temperature-dependent material
properties and the use of a sustained modulus of elasticity are
significant in assessing the related thermomechanical responses.

Fig. 5. Thermomechanical response of a constrained beam: (a) cyclic response; (b) tensile reaction

© ASCE 04014014-5 J. Perform. Constr. Facil.

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Fig. 6. Finite-element model of the La Tuque Dam, with the envelope of the minimum (November 15th to April 15th) and maximum (August 1st)
reservoir temperature distributions and ambient air temperature variations

Case Study I: Simulation of the Thermomechanical principal tensile stresses obtained in the dam based on a 1-day in-
Response of the La Tuque Gravity Dam cremental analysis. The maximum principal stress value is
1.79 MPa, which occurred on December 30th. When the mechani-
A set of simulations were performed for the 31 m La Tuque Dam to cal properties do not vary with temperature, the obtained maximum
show the effect of temperature dependent material properties on the value of the principal tensile stress is 1.7 MPa [Fig. 9(b)], and it is
structural response of such a system. remaining below the tensile strength such that no cracking occurs.
Another analysis was made by reducing the tensile strength to
Heat Transfer Analysis of the La Tuque Gravity Dam 0.675 MPa (a quarter of the measured value of 2.7 MPa) to compute
the crack penetration depth. Weak concrete lift joints and
A seasonal thermal analysis was first performed on the gravity dam. freeze-thaw deterioration cycles could lead to reduced tensile
Fig. 6 shows the FE model used and the climatic temperature con-
strength. This analysis was performed with and without
ditions of the air, reservoir, and foundation, which was actually
temperature-dependent material properties. When the mechanical
84.1 × 31 m in the model. The effect of solar radiation is taken into
properties of concrete are temperature-dependent, the results show
account by increasing the mean annual air temperature of the con-
cracked elements at a depth of approximately 1.8 m from the
crete air-interface by 5°C. This increase is based on solar radiation
downstream face. When the mechanical properties are constant,
data available from Tarbox (1977) for exposed surfaces at varying
the cracked element depth increases to 2.3 m from the downstream
slopes, orientations, and latitudes. An assumption of adiabatic
face [see Dontsi-Maken (2012) for more details]. The depth of the
boundary conditions, excluding the dam-foundation contact, was
made for the foundation boundaries. Table 1 shows the thermal crack elements is lower when the properties are temperature-
and mechanical properties of the concrete and foundation used dependent because the tensile strength increases (for a temperature
for the model (Léger and Seydou 2009). Thermal properties were range of 20 to −30°C). Displacements (considering self-weight,
considered to be constant with temperature. The initial temperature
was set to 4°C, which represents the yearly average concrete
temperature (Paul and Tarbox 1991). The transient heat transfer
analysis was carried out for 4.5 years using a step of 1 day to reach
a yearly steady-state temperature response. Fig. 7 shows the
January and July temperature distributions across section A of
the dam. Fig. 8(a) shows the temperature distribution for January
1st, when the temperatures varied from 6.9 to −10°C.

Thermomechanical Analysis of the Dam: Evaluation of

Stresses and Thermal Displacements
The mesh used for the heat transfer analysis was also used to
evaluate the stresses using the FSCM. A 1-year temperature
distribution obtained from the previous year was used to carry
out the stress analyses. A hydrostatic pressure load (water depth
of 27.74 m) and self-weight were also applied to the dam. The
mechanical properties of the concrete, except the thermal expansion
coefficient, were modified based on temperature variations
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution for section A: elevation 136.46 m
[Eqs. (4)–(7)]. Fig. 9(a) shows the distribution of the largest

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Fig. 8. (Color) La Tuque Dam: (a) January 1st temperature (°C) distribution; (b) January 1st displacements (m) based on temperature-dependent
material properties

Fig. 9. (Color) La Tuque Dam maximal principal stress distribution (Pa): (a) mechanical properties based on temperature; (b) constant mechanical
properties without temperature variations (note: Avg 75% indicates that the results computed from different elements are averaged if
they are within 75% of one another to produce a smooth plot; a discontinuity is shown if an element stress differs from the others by more
than 25%)

temperature load, and hydrostatic load) at the crest of the dam are
also computed. Fig. 8(b) shows the computed displacements and
the maximal horizontal displacement [δðT°Þmax ¼ 6.5 mm] ob-
tained at the crest of the dam for the winter (January 1st) condition
when the mechanical properties vary with temperature. For this
winter condition, the horizontal displacement value decreases by
20% [δðT°Þmax ¼ 5.2 mm] when the concrete properties do not
vary with temperature. Thus, a consideration of temperature-
dependent mechanical properties does not produce significant
differences in the results of this dam analysis.
Analysis of Water Penetration in the Dam
The effect of water penetration in a crack, with a lift joint assumed
along section A (Fig. 6), was studied for the La Tuque Dam using a
strongly coupled thermomechanical analysis. Leaking lift joints
have been observed at the dam site, which motivates the study
of this particular condition. Two cases are considered: a case with
reservoir water penetration up to the middle of the section
(half-open lift joint), and the other with water penetration through
the whole section (completely seeping lift joint). The concrete
temperatures at the corresponding nodes of the lift joint are
assumed to be equal to the water (reservoir) temperature at this
depth. A transient heat transfer analysis was conducted. A mechani-
cal analysis considering temperature load, hydrostatic pressure
load, and self-weight was also performed with mechanical proper-
ties varying with temperature. The aim of this study was to evaluate
the effect of water penetration on the computed total stresses. Water
penetration affects the stress field by locally changing the
temperature of the concrete and the related thermal gradients.
The principal stress results obtained for the half-open lift joint
are similar to those obtained for the closed lift joint with a maximal
principal tensile stress of 1.7 MPa (occurring on January 1st) at the
downstream face. When water completely penetrates the joint, the
maximal tensile stress at the downstream face is reduced to
approximately 1.0 MPa. The stresses decrease by 40% when cold
water (still liquid) completely penetrates the joint compared to a dry
joint. However, this is only valid if the water flow is such that the
water does not freeze near the downstream face during winter
conditions. In most instances, seeping water can freeze, leading
to an ice plug, which has been observed at some locations at
the La Tuque Dam, and related transitory increases in uplift
pressure. From a durability point of view, saturated concrete
subjected to freeze-thaw cycles is obviously not desirable. For

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 summer conditions, the stress field increases to exhibit local
compression (0.1 MPa) when water completely penetrates the joint
compared to very small tensile stresses for a dry joint.
Case Study II: Multiple Arch Dam—Daniel Johnson
Dam
The Daniel Johnson Dam, located on Manicouagan River in
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Quebec, Canada, is the largest multiple arch dam in the world, with
a maximum height of 214 m, a crest length of 1,315 m, and a gross
reservoir capacity of 140 × 109 m3 . The dam is composed of 13
arches and 14 buttresses [Fig. 1(a)]. Upstream face cracks, called
plunging cracks [Figs. 1(c and d)], were discovered during
reservoir filling, shortly after its construction in the mid to late
1960s (Tahmazian et al. 1989). In 1968, a system of cracks was
observed on the lower downstream faces of the arches. These
cracks were oriented with an oblique angle to the cantilever
direction and were then named oblique cracks (Veltrop et al.
1990). These cracks were found to be caused by severe winter tem-
peratures in the region, with an amplitude variation of up to 75°C.
Each winter, there are approximately 50 freeze-thaw cycles at the
site (Bulota et al. 1991). Freezing and thawing of the water con-
tained in the cracks most likely contributed to the cracking process.
Measurements of the variations in the crack openings showed that
they were particularly sensitive to sudden temperature variations.
Finally, drilling investigations have been performed for many
oblique cracks, and it has been found that the crack depths are ap-
proximately 35% of the arch thickness, despite a small opening at
the downstream face (Bulota et al. 1991). In this study, arch 3-4 of
the dam was selected to perform numerical predictions of the ob-
served oblique cracks. Figs. 1(b and c) show the section character-
istics of arch 3-4 and a developed view of the crack patterns as
found after inspection. The cracks are concentrated in the bottom
of the arch and have modified the stress distribution in the dam. A
decision was made to protect the downstream faces using insulation
walls (installed in 1992) to prevent further extension of the oblique
cracks. However, in this study, the presence of the insulation walls
is not considered. Therefore, a transient heat transfer analysis
was made with the environmental parameters established before
the installation of insulation walls (1972–1974). The FE program
ANSYS was used for all analyses because a detailed 3D model of
the dam has been developed with this program by Hydro-Québec.
Thermal Analysis
Fig. 10 shows the 3D FE model and the related boundary condi-
tions used for the heat transfer and structural analyses. The model
has nine parts, including the complete arch 3-4, buttresses 3 and 4,
the mid arches 2-3 and 4-5, downstream and upstream foundations,
the rock transition zone, and the gravity dam at the top of the arch
(Fig. 1). There are a total of 183,076 elements and 313,963 nodes.
A transient heat flow analysis is performed with a step-basis of
1 day over a long period to assure convergence. The thermal
material properties used are shown in Table 1. The reference
temperatures are computed as the mean annual concrete tempera-
ture for the nine components of the dam with different exposures to
ambient (water or air) conditions (Paul and Tarbox 1991). The
reference temperatures were set to 7°C for arch 3-4, 3°C for the
buttresses and the gravity dam, 7°C for midarches 2-3 and 4-5,
5°C for the upstream foundation and transition zone, and 6°C
for the downstream foundation. The critical temperature state re-
tained for the winter condition corresponds to February 21st, with
a minimum temperature of −15.1°C and a maximum temperature
of 6.5°C. Fig. 11(a) shows the temperature distribution through a
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Z-S cut [center of the arch, Fig. 1(e)] of arch 3-4 for February 21st.
Fig. 11(b) shows the temperature distribution through section A-A.
This temperature distribution (February 21st) was used as the
thermal load in the structural model to evaluate the stresses and
displacements.
Thermomechanical Analyses
The aim of this part of the study was to investigate the ability of the
ANSYS FSCM concrete constitutive model to predict the cracking
of the thermal (oblique) downstream face of the dam for a known
severe thermal loading condition. A long-term objective of the
structural safety assessment of the Daniel Johnson Dam is to
use a discrete crack model to represent plunging cracks (allowing
for effective modeling of the hydro-mechanical coupling as a func-
tion of crack opening) and an equivalent linear continuum concrete
material with isotropic or anisotropic properties to represent the
effects of multiple downstream oblique cracks on the stiffness
properties and related stress magnitudes and distributions. A linear
equivalent downstream face constitutive concrete model can
simplify and accelerate the computations of the dam safety indexes
for several loading scenarios, including seismic ground motions.
However, none of the Daniel Johnson Dam analyses presented
herein considered plunging cracks at this stage because this
consideration is beyond the scope of this study. Four different
modeling strategies for the oblique cracks are thus considered
herein.
1. A linear analysis considering isotropic concrete properties with
a constant sustained elasticity modulus (Es ¼ 20.7 GPa) over
arch 3-4. This analysis is the reference when no cracks are
considered.
2. A linear analysis considering an isotropically reduced
elasticity modulus over half the depth of arch 3-4 to represent
the added flexibility because of the oblique cracks in a global
manner [Fig. 12(a)]. This is a simple approach that could
easily be combined with discrete crack modeling of the
plunging cracks in future studies.
3. A nonlinear smeared crack analysis considering the sustained
elasticity modulus and using a concrete material (SOLID65)
on the downstream half of arch 3-4 [Fig. 12(b)]. This analysis
could be used as an anisotropic oblique crack predictor to
modify the concrete material properties in a group of elements
to define a linear equivalent cracked continuum on a rational
basis in further analyses.
4. A nonlinear smeared crack analysis considering a concrete
sustained elastic modulus, using a concrete material (SO-
LID65) on the downstream half of arch 3-4 with the addition
of the steel reinforcement present near the downstream face.
This analysis is included to assess the effects of near-face steel
reinforcement on thermal cracking.
The loading conditions for analyses 1) to 4) are reservoir load
(hydrostatic pressure) with a water elevation of 350.95 m,
corresponding to February 21st, dead load, and winter thermal
load. The mechanical properties used are presented in Table 1.
The properties are considered to be temperature independent.
The program ANSYS also requires a specification of the shear
transfer coefficient along cracks for concrete. This coefficient rep-
resents a shear strength reduction factor for loads that induce shear
across the crack face. The value of this parameter is set to 0.3, taken
from Dahmani et al. (2010). The reinforced concrete beam ana-
lyzed by Dahmani et al. (2010) is used as an initial benchmark
for the nonlinear concrete smeared crack analysis presented in this
study. Smeared steel layers are used to model the reinforcement
[Fig. 12(b)]. The concrete material and steel reinforcement are
J. Perform. Constr. Facil.
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Fig. 10. (Color) Daniel Johnson Dam thermomechanical model: (a) boundary conditions; (b) air temperatures; (c) reservoir temperature;
(d) foundation temperature

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Fig. 11. (Color) Temperature distribution (°C) (February 21st): (a) Z-S cut; (b) through section A-A

Fig. 12. (Color) (a) Distribution of the elasticity modulus Es over the arch for analysis 2); (b) element type modeling zones for analyses 3) and 4) and
reinforcing steel

discretized into elements with the same geometrical boundaries.
The steel reinforcement effects are averaged in layers within an
element that considers their spatial orientation. The volumetric
ratios (VR) of the reinforcing steel along the transverse
(VR ¼ 13.3%) and longitudinal (VR ¼ 6.8%) directions are
provided for each element in the first FE layer along the down-
stream face of the dam. The steel properties are density
(ρ ¼ 7,850 kg=m3 ), elasticity modulus (E ¼ 200,000 MPa),
Poisson’s ratio (ν ¼ 0.3), and yield strength (Fy ¼ 400 MPa). In
the nonlinear analysis, the total load applied was divided into
100 increments (load steps) to maintain accuracy and to reach
convergence. The ANSYS program uses the full Newton-Raphson
method for incremental load analyses. The stiffness matrix of the
model is updated after each load increment to account for nonlinear
behavior (concrete cracking).
Cracking and Displacement Response Analysis
An initial smeared crack analysis was conducted using SOLID65
concrete elements over all of arch 3-4 to compute the penetration,

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 orientation, and extent of the oblique cracks. This analysis includes Table 3. Pendulum Arch Displacement Values for Each Type of Analysis
dead load, hydrostatic load, and temperature load (for the winter Pendulum arch displacements (mm)
condition February 21st). The basic objective of this analysis
Pendulum Pendulum Pendulum Pendulum Pendulum
was to compare computed crack depth with observed crack depth Direction 1 2 3 4 5
to evaluate the developed FE model. The results showed that the
crack depth is approximately 40% of the arch total thickness, which Constant E (analysis type 1)
X −0.6 −0.8 −0.9 −0.9 −0.8
is in good agreement with field measurements (35%) from Bulota
Y −15.7 −14.6 −12.4 −9.1 −6.3
et al. (1991). Crack orientation and extent also showed satisfactory Z −11.5 −10.7 −9.6 −7.8 −6.0
agreement with field observations, as noted subsequently. Analyses
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3) and 4) were then performed by changing the elements of the Variable E (analysis type 2)
downstream half of the arch to elastic (SOLID185) concrete X −0.9 −1.1 −1.4 −1.4 −1.3
Y −19.2 −18.2 −15.6 −11.4 −7.5
elements. This decision was made to produce good comparisons
Z −13.1 −12.9 −12.1 −10.4 −8.5
with analyses 1) and 2). Fig. 1(e) presents the computed crack
pattern on the downstream face compared with the observed crack Smeared crack (SOLID65) (analysis type 3)
pattern. The result shows very good concordance between the two X −0.6 −0.7 −1.1 −0.9 −0.8
patterns, except for the large horizontal computed crack above the Y −17.4 −16.7 −13.9 −9.9 −6.7
Z −10.9 −10.1 −10.2 −8.8 −6.4
oblique ones at elevation of 312 m. The computed crack pattern
shown was obtained after the completion of analysis 4). Smeared crack with steel reinforcement (SOLID65) (analysis type 4)
Fig. 13 shows the pendulums’ positions in arch 3-4. There are X −0.6 −0.8 −1.1 −1.0 −0.7
five simple pendulums and one inverted pendulum in the founda- Y −17.4 −16.7 −14.1 −10.0 −6.7
tion. Displacements at the simple pendulums are always given Z −10.8 −10.4 −10.2 −8.8 −6.6
relative to the anchor of the inverted pendulum, which is considered
as a fixed point in the foundation. Hence, displacements at the
inverted pendulum from the model are subtracted from the which requires a sophisticated analysis when data become available
displacement value obtained at the simple pendulums to compute (Chouinard et al. 2006).
displacements. The numerical displacement values obtained for the
four analyses are presented in Table 3. There is very good concord- Stress Response Analysis
ance between the numerical displacements obtained with the four
analyses, with a maximum difference of ΔZ ¼ 2.5 mm. No at- Tensile stress distributions through a Z-S cut of the dam [Fig. 1(e)]
tempt is made to establish correlation between the computed were obtained after each analysis. There is a good concordance
and measured displacement values because (1) the presence of between analyses 2), 3), and 4). The presence of reinforcing steel
the plunging crack is not considered (this is beyond the scope does not produce significant differences, except on the skin of the
of this study); (2) there was no pendulum in place in 1972; and downstream face, as characterized by the first layer of the FE
(3) the reported numerical displacements are absolute without con- (0.2 m thick).
sideration of a measured (or computed) irreversible component, Fig. 14(a) shows the maximum principal stress distributions
along section A-A [Fig. 11(a)] for the four analyses. The section
depth is 6.19 m, with the origin located at the upstream face. The
stress responses for the four analyses are almost the same up to a
depth of 1.8 m, which is 30% of the section depth. From that point
on, the stresses for analyses 3) and 4), which are similar to one
another, diverge slightly from those of analyses 1) and 2). This
result arises because from that point on, some elements are cracked
through to the downstream face [Fig. 1(e)]. The stresses for
analyses a) and b) remain constant up to 3.10 m, which represents
50% of the section. A reduction in the elastic modulus from the
downstream face to half of the arch section for analysis 2) leads
to a reduction in the computed stress over that zone.
Fig. 14(b) presents the principal stress distributions along sec-
tion B-B, which is closer to the location of the plunging crack
[Fig. 1(c)]. This section is 6.3 m deep and goes from the upstream
face to the downstream face [Fig. 11(a)]. The stresses resulting
from analyses 3) and 4) are quite similar along this section, ranging
from 2.65 MPa at the upstream face (elastic elements) to 0.3 MPa at
the downstream face. The stresses for analysis 2) vary from 3 to
0.27 MPa at the downstream face. The stress distributions from
analyses 2), 3), and 4) are thus in very good agreement. These
results indicate that in section B-B (and even for section A-A),
an isotropic modification of the concrete stiffness properties could
be globally acceptable as a linear equivalent cracked continuum in a
first approximation of the dam’s thermomechanical behavior. The
equivalent isotropic model could later be refined by defining aniso-
tropic equivalent stiffness properties. Fig. 15(a) shows vector plots
of the principal tensile stresses projected on the downstream face
Fig. 13. Arch 3-4 pendulum positions
for analysis a) with a constant Es. The computed principal stresses

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Fig. 14. Maximal principal stress (MPa): (a) along section A-A; (b) along section B-B

Fig. 15. (Color) Distribution of tensile principal stresses (MPa) projected on the downstream face by analysis type: (a) constant Es;
(b) isotropic Es reduction; (c) smeared crack; (d) smeared crack with steel

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 are greater than 2 MPa (the tensile strength of concrete) over almost
the entire downstream face. For a variable Es (analysis 2), as shown
in Fig. 15(b), the maximum computed tensile stress over the face is
approximately 1.2 MPa. The stress pattern presented on the bottom
of the face has an oblique orientation (the crack aligns in a direction
perpendicular to the tensile stress trajectory). Fig. 15(c) presents the
tensile stress pattern obtained for analysis 3). In the bottom area of
the face, the maximum computed stress is approximately 1.2 MPa,
which reaches 1.6 MPa in the upper part of the face. Introduction of
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the steel reinforcement near the downstream face produces the ten-
sile stress pattern presented in Fig. 15(d). The maximum computed
stress over the entire face is 1 MPa. Moreover, there are some small
areas in which the computed stress is almost zero, meaning that
some Gauss points exhibited complete cracking. There is a
noticeable difference between analyses 3) and 4) regarding the
stress patterns presented on the upper part of the downstream face.
Introduction of the steel reinforcement on the downstream face pro-
duces many elements that crack just in the first layer (0.2 m thick)
of the arch (downstream face). With the presence of steel, when the
concrete cracks, the steel transmits the applied load to neighboring
elements, which then also become damaged, resulting in a more
diffused damage pattern. However, some oblique cracks localize
and penetrate into the dam body over approximately 40% of the
section depth.
Summary and Conclusions
Concrete dams located in northern regions are subjected to a
structural degradation of stiffness and strength. Finite-element pro-
cedures were presented in this paper to study the thermomechanical
behaviors of concrete dams to assess their structural integrity. The
main conclusions of this study can be summarized as follows.
1. Numerical analyses made for a notched beam to determine the
force-displacement response give good results (ratio of 1.17)
compared to laboratory tests. The use of temperature-
dependent material properties results in variations in the
computed peak load, depending on the temperature applied
to the beam. The use of a sustained modulus of elasticity also
produces some changes in the thermomechanical response.
2. Variations in the mechanical properties of concrete with tem-
perature for a 2D gravity dam model do not produce a signif-
icant difference (5% increase) in computed stresses compared
to the case in which the mechanical properties are held con-
stant. However, for thermally induced displacements, there is a
20% reduction (from 6.5 to 5.2 mm) when the mechanical
properties do not vary with temperature. It is therefore conser-
vative to consider the variation in mechanical properties of
concrete with temperature (in particular, the increase in tensile
strength). However, from a practical standpoint, the difference
is not very significant.
3. Reservoir water penetration along a leaking or seeping lift
joint of a gravity dam changes the local principal stress envel-
ope within the joint area. When water seeps along the
downstream face, the computed stress at the downstream face
is potentially reduced in the absence of ice formation.
However, seeping water near the downstream face is likely
to freeze in the winter, thus disturbing the stress field and
promoting concrete disintegration.
4. The use of ANSYS’s fixed smeared crack concrete element
constitutive model (SOLID65) gives good results for the
nonlinear thermomechanical analysis of the Daniel Johnson
Dam. The structure’s high level of statistical indeterminacy,
which allows for stress redistribution upon cracking, can
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explain this behavior. In general, a consideration of the actual
reinforcing steel does not yield major differences, although
crack patterns are more diffuse. The computed cracks are con-
sistent with the observed cracks. The thermal displacements
and stresses obtained (1) from analysis 2) with a globally iso-
tropic variable elastic modulus; (2) from the nonlinear smeared
crack analysis 3); and (3) from analysis 4) with steel reinfor-
cement were quite similar. This leads to the ability to define
isotropic or anisotropic downstream arch concrete properties
to develop an equivalent linear concrete continuum that could
be efficiently used in more comprehensive analyses and
further studies involving the discrete representation of plun-
ging cracks and several loading scenarios, including flood
and earthquake loadings.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided
by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada (NSERC), the Québec Funds for research on nature and
technology (FQRNT), and Hydro-Québec, and the collaboration
of Hydro-Québec engineers who provided field data and the multi-
ple arch dam FE model used in this study.
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