NET Lect1

Networks & Protocols
Networks and Protocols – EFREI 2018/2019, lecture 1
DSRG
Agenda 1/2
• Introduction (basic terms)
• Reference models (ISO/OSI and TCP/IP)
• OSI/ISO Physical layer
• OSI/ISO Data link layer
– Ethernet
– virtual networks
– redunduncy (spanning tree)
• IP protocol
– addressing,
– address resolution,
– control messaging
© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 3 version 1.06
DSRG
Agenda 2/2
• IPv4 routing
– static
– dynamic
• Transport layer protocols
• Architecture of a modern computer network
• Virtual private networks
• Dynamic network configuration (BOOTP, DHCP, DNS)
• Application layer protocols
– HTTP,
– FTP, TFTP, SNMP, SMTP
– telnet, SSH
DSRG
Quiz
• OSI model
• TCP
• ICMP
• Routing
• OSPF
• MAC
• Switch

Part I
Introduction
Reference models
Basic terms
DSRG
Need for the standardization

• TODAY: huge need for global communication, stand-alone
computers are scarse
• PREVIOUSLY: closed systems – lack of interoperability
• A solution: to design and respect some rules for communication
• The end of 70’s: ISO Reference Model for Open Systems

Interconnections – a framework for establishment of new standards
• Open systems: make it possible to inter-communicate of hardware
and software of various vendors

DSRG
More important organizations

• ISO – International Standards Organization
• IEEE – Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers
• IETF – Internet Engineering Task Force
• ITU-T – International Telecommunication Union -
Telecommunications Sector
• TIA/EIA – Telecommunications Industry Associations/
Electronics Industry Association

DSRG
RFC documents
(Request for Comments)
• Official documents describing network-related standards
– Publication process supervised by IETF
– Crucial documents of networking professionals
– Numbered, e.g. RFC 3550
• RFC 1 (7 April 1969) – Host Software
– Sometimes older documents are becoming obsolete
– www.rfc-editor.org or rfc-ref.org
Exercise: Read a few RFC documents

DSRG
Layers of OSI/ISO model

APPLICATION
PRESENTATION
Provides communication in
a single network (single
SESSION May be responsible for
technology).
Responsible
Responsible
Responsible for
Responsible
forfor
provisioning
providing
routing.for
a
reliable
Provides
Responsible
delivery
protocols
for(e.g.
session
forTCP).
user
ofproviding
communication
Provides
commonmedia
a logical
dataaccess
medium
TRANSPORT creation
Provides applications.
and
addressing
andprotocol
coding
management.
representation.
addressing.
of
and stream
inside
host of
HTTP,
theImplemented
host
FTP,(port
telnet,numbers).
bySMTP,…
OS.
Implemented
addressing.
IP,data
IPX,…by OS.
NETWORK TCP, UDP, SCTP, DCCP,…
Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI,
PPP, FR…
DATA LINK
PHYSICAL

DSRG
TCP/IP vs. OSI/ISO model
APPLICATION
APPLICATION PRESENTATION
SESSION
TRANSPORT TRANSPORT
INTERNET NETWORK
DATA LINK
ACCESS
PHYSICAL

DSRG
Communication protocol
Set of rules regarding exchange of information:
a) user data, b) control data
with the corresponding layer in another system
Protocol = {message syntax, exchange rules}

DSRG
Communication in the layered
system
• Between two communicating systems:
– Each implementation of OSI/ISO model layer in one system
communicates logically with implementation of the same
layer in the other system (peer-to-peer)
– Implementation of the other system may be different
providing that the same interface is used
• Within a single system:
– Implementation of each layer is independent of the other
ones
– Between neighboring layers a well-defined interface exists

DSRG
Communication in the layered system
peer-to-peer
APPLICATION APPLICATION
PRESENTATION PRESENTATION
SESSION SESSION
TRANSPORT TRANSPORT
NETWORK NETWORK
DATA LINK DATA LINK
PHYSICAL PHYSICAL
e.g.. PC/Windows XP e.g.. iPhone/iOS

DSRG
Communication in the layered system

• PDU = Protocol Data Unit (
– Header
– Payload
– Trailer
• Encapsulation
Definition - What does Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
mean?
A protocol data unit (PDU) is an open-system interconnection (OSI) term used in telecommunications
that refers to a group of information added or removed by a layer of the OSI model. Each layer in the
model uses the PDU to communicate and exchange information, which can only be read by the peer
layer on the receiving device and is then handed over to next upper layer after stripping.

DSRG
Communication in the layered
system
APPLICATION APPLICATION
PRESENTATION PRESENTATION
encapsulation
SESSION SESSION
TRANSPORT decapsulation TRANSPORT
NETWORK NETWORK
medium
DATA LINK DATA LINK
PHYSICAL PHYSICAL
TCP
DATA IP
Ethernet

DSRG
Types of computer networks

• WAN (Wide Area Network)
– Connect local networks
• LAN (Local Area Network)
– Universities, factories, companies,…
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• PAN (Personal Area Network),
• BAN (Body Area Network)
• SAN
• STAN
DSRG
Symbols frequently used

layer
router 3
switch
2
bridge
hub
1
repeater

DSRG
Symbols frequently used
Any network

Part II
Physical layer
Problems in data transmission
Communication media
Data coding
Physical layer devices
DSRG
Tasks
• Providing communication medium
• Electrical, mechanical, optical etc. aspects of
communication
• Coding of byte stream received from upper layers

Issues related to
transmission of signals
DSRG
Attenuation
• Amplitude of the signal decreases
• Limits the maximum distance which can be
traversed
• Depends on many factors
– Type of media
– Frequency
– Temperature

DSRG
Attenuation
• Expressed in dB/km
– 10log(P1/P2) [dB]; P1,P2 [W]
– 20log(V1/V2) [dB]; V1,V2 [V]
• For example:
– 3 dB – power decreases 2 times

DSRG
Distortion
• Caused by external factors
– EMI, RFI
• Caused by internal factors, e.g. other cables in the
patchcord
– NEXT: Near End Crosstalk
– FEXT: Far End Crosstalk
• Reduced by
– Shielding the medium (cost increases!)
– Twisting the pair
– More than one pair in a cable: twisting them at different rates
• Appropriate cabling is crucial
Grafika: www.cisco.com

DSRG
Summary
• These factors must be taken into account while
designing the network!
– Appropriate medium type
– Appropriate medium length
– Appropriate cabling quality and placement
• BER, bit error rate
– In the wired networks - even only 10-10
– In the wireless networks – even up to 10-4

Communication media
DSRG
Categories
• Wired
– Copper cables
– Fiber cables
• Wireless
– Radio frequency(e.g. 802.11, Bluetooth)
– Infrared frequency (e.g. IrDA)

DSRG
Cables
cable
copper fiber
twisted pair coaxial single mode multimode
shielded unshielded thin thick

DSRG
Twisted pair
• Transmission performed in pairs, not single cables
• Cancellation effect
• Categories
– 5, 5e – 100 MHz, 125 MHz
– 6, 6a – 250 MHz, 500 MHz 8.1, 8.2 – 2000 MHz
– 7, 7a – 600 MHz, 1000 MHz (2017)
• Attenuation
– 10 MHz, cat. 3 – 9,8 dB/100 m
– 10 MHz, cat. 5 – 6,6 dB/100 m
– 100 MHz, cat. 5 – 22 dB/100 m Grafika: www.cisco.com

DSRG
Twisted pair cables
• STP - Shielded Twisted Pair
• FTP - Foiled Twisted Pair
• UTP - Unshielded Twisted Pair

DSRG
„Thin” coaxial cable
Terminator

DSRG
Twinax
• twinaxial cable
(twin coaxial)
• popular since 2013
• very-short-range high-
speed differential signaling,
e.g.100GbE (7m)
© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG version 1.06

DSRG
Fiber
– Glass conductor (core)
– Cladding
– Total internal reflection
www.cisco.com,
www.fiber-optics.info/fiber-history.htm

DSRG
Fiber
• Transmitter: LED or laser diode
• Receiver: fotodiode złącze SC
• Resistant to electromagnetic interferences
• (D)WDM ((Dense) Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
• Very low attenuation (ca. 0,5-1,5 dB/km)
• More expensive than copper media
• Difficult to install
www.cisco.com

DSRG
Fiber - windows
• 850 nm
• 1310 nm
• 1550 nm
www.fiber-optics.info/fiber-history.htm

DSRG
Fiber cables
• Single mode (SMF)
– 9/125 µm
– Laser diode
– Range: up to 70-100 km
– Mainly WAN networks
• Multimode (MMF)
– 62,5/125 µm
– LED
– range: up to 2 km
– Mainly LAN networks
ww.fiber-optics.info

DSRG
Coding
• Transforming data into the form appropriate to
send in particular medium
– Depends on the type of the medium
– Self-synchronization feature
– Not necessarily two-level coding

DSRG
NRZ and Manchester coding

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
NRZ
Non Return To
Zero (Inverted)
NRZI
Manchester
Differential
Manchester

DSRG
4B/5B codes
value code value code
0 (0000) 11110 8 (1000) 10010
1 (0001) 01001 9 (1001) 10011
2 (0010) 10100 A (1010) 10110
3 (0011) 10101 B (1011) 10111
4 (0100) 01010 C (1100) 11010
5 (0101) 01011 D (1101) 11011
6 (0110) 01110 E (1110) 11100
7 (0111) 01111 F (1111) 11101

DSRG
MLT-3 coding
• Logical level: 4B/5B
• Physical level: MLT-3
• Used in FastEthernet

Part III
Data Link layer
Standards used in LAN
DSRG
Tasks
• Providing a medium-access protocol
• Transmission and reception of frames
• Addressing
• Detection and (optionally) correction of physical
layer errors

DSRG
Local Area Networks

• Relatively small distances
• High bandwidth required (up to 1 Gb/s and more)
• Topologies:
– bus
– star, extended star
– ring
• Communication media
– Copper cables
– Multimode fibers
– Wireless communication

DSRG
LAN standards
• 802.3 Ethernet
• 802.4 Token Bus
• 802.5 Token Ring
• 802.11 wireless LAN (WLAN)
• 802.15 PAN (Bluetooth)

DSRG
LAN topologies
• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• Extender star
• Logical vs. physical topology

DSRG
Frame
• A piece of data composed of fields
• Typical data layer fields
– Start of frame delimiter
– End of frame delimiter or length
– Source and destination addresses
– Type of data
– Data - payload
– Checksum
• MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit)

DSRG
Network Interface Card (NIC)

• L2 (and usually also L1) device
– [provides access to the medium]
– Forms frames
– Implements particular medium-access protocol
– has an (unique) address
• Connected to the device via its bus

DSRG
Addressing in LAN networks

• Each NIC possesses its unique and constant
address
• Addressing is flat (with no hierarchy): routing is
impossible
• 48 bits, usually such a notation is used:
12:34:34:56:AA:DC
• Three types of addresses:
– unicast: address of a single host
– multicast: address of a group of hosts
– broadcast: address of all hosts
DSRG
Addressing in LAN networks

• unicast addresses are composed of two parts:
– 24 bits allocated by IEEE, point a vendor, (e.g.
00:00:0C means ‘Cisco’); OUI (Organizationally
Unique Identifier)
– The remaining 24 bits at the disposal of the
vendor
• Such an approach guarantees their
uniqueness
• Sufficient number of addresses
DSRG

DSRG
Medium access protocols

Non-deterministic Deterministic
• Host transmits when the • Host transmits when it is
medium is free its order
• Simultaneous access • Priorities can be
problem implemented
• All hosts have equal • e.g. token-based
priorities • e.g. Token Bus, FDDI
• e.g.. Ethernet

Part IV
Ethernet
DSRG
Ethernet – a short history

• Xerox laboratories - 1973
– Robert Metcalfe
– U.S. Patent #4063220
• Based on Aloha network concept

• Published by IEEE in 1980 as 802.3
• Ethernet II specification developed later (1982) by
DEC-Intel-Xerox (DIX)
• Intensively modernized: Fast Ethernet, Gigabit
Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet
DSRG
Ethernet frame
FRAME CHECK
DESTINATION
DELIMITER
SEQUENCE
PREAMBLE
ADDRESS
ADDRESS
START OF
SOURCE
LENGTH
TYPE or
FRAME
DATA
7B 1B 6B 6B 2B 46 - 1500 B 4B

DSRG
Ethernet frame
FRAME CHECK
DESTINATION
DELIMITER
SEQUENCE
PREAMBLE
ADDRESS
ADDRESS
START OF
SOURCE
LENGTH
TYPE or
FRAME
DATA
7B 1B 6B 6B 2B 46 - 1500 B 4B
• Bit synchronization
• Allows a receiver’s interface to prepare to receive
data
• Consecutive 1 and 0

DSRG
Ethernet frame
FRAME CHECK
DESTINATION
DELIMITER
SEQUENCE
PREAMBLE
START OF
ADDRESS
ADDRESS
SOURCE
LENGTH
TYPE or
FRAME
DATA
7B 1B 6B 6B 2B 46 - 1500 B 4B
• Byte synchronization
• 10101011

DSRG
Ethernet frame
FRAME CHECK
DESTINATION
DELIMITER
SEQUENCE
PREAMBLE
ADDRESS
ADDRESS
START OF
SOURCE
LENGTH
TYPE or
FRAME
DATA
7B 1B 6B 6B 2B 46 - 1500 B 4B
• A single host’s address (unicast)

• All hosts’ address (broadcast) FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF
• A group of hosts’ address (multicast): the first byte is odd

DSRG
Ethernet frame
FRAME CHECK
DESTINATION
DELIMITER
SEQUENCE
PREAMBLE
ADDRESS
ADDRESS
START OF
SOURCE
LENGTH
TYPE or
FRAME
DATA
7B 1B 6B 6B 2B 46 - 1500 B 4B
• Solely unicast address

DSRG
Ethernet frame
FRAME CHECK
DESTINATION
DELIMITER
SEQUENCE
PREAMBLE
ADDRESS
ADDRESS
START OF
SOURCE
LENGTH
TYPE or
FRAME
DATA
7B 1B 6B 6B 2B 46 - 1500 B 4B
• DIX standard – type of frame (e.g. 0x0800 means

IP)
• IEEE standard
– Length of the payload (when < 1518)
– Type (when > 1536 - 0x0600)

DSRG
Ethernet frame
FRAME CHECK
DESTINATION
DELIMITER
SEQUENCE
PREAMBLE
ADDRESS
ADDRESS
START OF
SOURCE
LENGTH
TYPE or
FRAME
DATA
7B 1B 6B 6B 2B 46 - 1500 B 4B
• At least 46 bytes
• If there is less data, pad is used
• In IEEE 802.2 standard a few starting bytes denote type of
data in the payload

DSRG
Ethernet frame
FRAME CHECK
DESTINATION
DELIMITER
SEQUENCE
PREAMBLE
ADDRESS
ADDRESS
START OF
SOURCE
LENGTH
TYPE or
FRAME
DATA
7B 1B 6B 6B 2B 46 - 1500 B 4B
• FCS - frame check sequence, CRC method is used

• Calculated by the sender and by the receiver(s)
• Addresses, type/length, payload,
• Corrupted frame is skipped

DSRG
CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense
Multiple Access
with
Collision Detection

DSRG
Carrier Sense
• A host continuously monitors the medium
– When it is busy, cannot transmit
– When it is free, waits IFG period and starts
transmission
• Al least IFG (Interframe Gap) must exist between
consecutive frames (9,6 μs in 10 Mbps Ethernet)

DSRG
Multiple Access
• Each host stating that the medium is free can start
transmission
• Is it possible (and acceptable) that more than one host will
transmit concurrently
•  collision occurs

DSRG
Collision Detection
• After noticing the collision
– If the preamble transmission is in progress it is
continued
– jam sequence is transmitted (32 bits) to allow the
remaining hosts to notice the collision
– Transmission is stopped
– The host waits a random period of time (exponential
backoff algorithm)
– The host tries to transmit the same frame again
• All hosts participating in the collision do the same
• In the correctly constructed network collision cannot
occur after transmission of more than 64 bytes
DSRG
Which frames are received
(and processed)?
• NIC decides about it on the basis of the frame destination
address:
– Is destination address equal to my address?
– Is destination address the broadcast address?
– Is destination address one of multicast addresses I am
interested in?
• Decision is taken:
– After checking the FCS (the most frequently)
– Bridges and switches - also: immediately after reading
the destination address or the first 64 B of the frame
• Some network devices work in the promiscuous mode –
they receive and process all frames
DSRG
„Faster” Ethernet versions

• Fast Ethernet (1995)
– 100 Mbps
• Gigabit Ethernet (1995)
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet
• Incompatible coding methods
• Autonegotiation

Part V
Full duplex mode
Auto negotiation
DSRG
Full duplex mode

• More bandwidth
(even 200 Mbps in a 100 Mbps link)
• Hubs cannot be used
• Coaxial cables cannot be used
• CSMA/CD is switched off!
• No range limits introduced by the protocol (but
physical layer limits still exist…)
• Switching: administratively or via auto
negotiation

DSRG
Auto negotiation
• Automatic configuration of Ethernet network link
• 1995 r.
• Mainly twisted pair
• Basic tasks:
– Setting interface speed (e.g. 10-100-1000 Mbps)
– Enabling/disabling the full duplex mode
• One step procedure – during link up
• HCD (highest common denominator) is selected
by the peers

DSRG
HCD priority table

priority technology
a 1000Base-T, FD
b 1000Base-T, HD
c 100Base-T2, FD
d 100Base-TX, FD
e 100Base-T2, HD
f 100Base-T4
g 100Base-TX, HD
h 10Base-T, FD
i 10Base-T, HD

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Networks & Protocols

Networks and Protocols – EFREI 2018/2019, lecture 1

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 5 version 1.06

Need for the standardization

• The end of 70’s: ISO Reference Model for Open Systems

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 7 version 1.06

More important organizations

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 8 version 1.06

Exercise: Read a few RFC documents

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 9 version 1.06

Layers of OSI/ISO model

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 10 version 1.06

TCP/IP vs. OSI/ISO model

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 11 version 1.06

Protocol = {message syntax, exchange rules}

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 12 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 13 version 1.06

Communication in the layered system

DATA LINK DATA LINK

e.g.. PC/Windows XP e.g.. iPhone/iOS

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 14 version 1.06

Communication in the layered system

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 15 version 1.06

TRANSPORT decapsulation TRANSPORT

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 16 version 1.06

Types of computer networks

Symbols frequently used

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 21 version 1.06

Symbols frequently used

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 22 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 26 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 29 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 30 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 31 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 32 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 34 version 1.06

twisted pair coaxial single mode multimode

shielded unshielded thin thick

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 36 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 37 version 1.06

Twisted pair cables

• STP - Shielded Twisted Pair

• FTP - Foiled Twisted Pair

• UTP - Unshielded Twisted Pair

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 38 version 1.06

„Thin” coaxial cable

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 39 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG version 1.06

– Total internal reflection

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 41 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 42 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 43 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 44 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 45 version 1.06

NRZ and Manchester coding

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 46 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 47 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 48 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 55 version 1.06

Local Area Networks

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 56 version 1.06

© 2000-2018 Łukasz Czekierda, Bartosz Kwolek, DSRG 57 version 1.06

• Logical vs. physical topology