RESEARCH ON THE PRINCIPLES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY, CELLS

OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND HUMAN ANATOMY

Physiological psychology is a subdivision of behavioral neuroscience (biological

psychology) that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through
direct manipulation of the brains of nonhuman animal subjects in controlled experiments.
This field of psychology takes an empirical and practical approach when studying the
brain and human behavior. Most scientists in this field believe that the mind is a
phenomenon that stems from the nervous system. By studying and gaining knowledge
about the mechanisms of the nervous system, physiological psychologists can uncover
many truths about human behavior. Unlike other subdivisions within biological
psychology, the main focus of psychological research is the development of theories that
describe brain-behavior relationships.
Physiological psychology studies many topics relating to the body's response to a
behavior or activity in an organism. It concerns the brain cells, structures, components,
and chemical interactions that are involved in order to produce actions. Psychologists in
this field usually focus their attention to topics such as sleep, emotion, ingestion, senses,
reproductive behavior, learning/memory, communication, psychopharmacology, and
neurological disorders. The basis for these studies all surround themselves around the
notion of how the nervous system intertwines with other systems in the body to create a
specific behavior.
The nervous system can be described as a control system that interconnects the other
body systems. It consists of the brain, spinal cord, and other nerve tissues throughout the
body. The system's primary function is to react to internal and external stimuli in the
human body. It uses electrical and chemical signals to send out responses to different
parts of the body, and it is made up of the nerve cells also called neurons. Through the
system, messages are transmitted to body tissues such as a muscle. There are two major
subdivisions in the nervous system known as the central and peripheral nervous system.
The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the
control center of the body and contains millions of neural connections. This organ is
responsible for sending and receiving messages from the body and its environment. Each
part of the brain is specialized for different aspects of the human being. For example, the
temporal lobe has a major role in vision and audition, whereas the frontal lobe is
significant for motor function and problem solving. The spinal cord is attached to the brain
and serves as the main connector of nerves and the brain.
The nerve tissue that lies outside of the central nervous system is collectively known as
the peripheral nervous system. This system can be further divided into the autonomic and
somatic nervous system. The autonomic system can be referred to as the involuntary
component that regulates bodily organs and mechanisms, such as digestion and
respiration. The somatic system is responsible for relaying messages back and forth from
the brain to various parts of the body, whether it is taking in sensory stimuli and sending
it to the brain or sending messages from the brain in order for muscles to contract and
relax.
EMOTION
Emotion constitutes a major influence for determining human behaviors. It is thought that
emotions are predictable and are rooted in different areas in our brains, depending on
what emotion it evokes. An emotional response can be divided into three major categories
including behavioral, autonomic, and hormonal.
The behavioral component is explained by the muscular movements that accompany the
emotion. For example, if a person is experiencing fear, a possible behavioral mechanism
would be to run away from the fear factor.
The autonomic aspect of an emotion provides the ability to react to the emotion. This
would be the fight-or-flight response that the body automatically receives from the brain
signals.
Lastly, hormones released facilitate the autonomic response. For example, the autonomic
response, which has sent out the fight-or-flight response, would be aided by the release
of such chemicals like epinephrine and norepinephrine, both secreted by the adrenal
gland, in order to further increase blood flow to aid in muscular rejuvenation of oxygen
and nutrients
Emotion activates several areas of the brain inside the limbic system and varies per
emotion
 Fear: the amygdala is the main component for acquisition, storage, & expression
of fear
 Lesions on the central amygdaloid can lead to disruptions in the behavioral and
autonomic emotional responses of fear.
 Anger/aggression: the hypothalamus and amygdala work together to send
inhibitory/excitatory impulses to the periaqueductal gray which then carries out
usually defensive behaviors
 Happiness: the ventral tegmental area works closely with the prefrontal cortex to
produce emotions of happiness as they lie upon the same dopamine pathways
 Several hormones are secreted in response to emotions and vary from general
emotional tuning to specific hormones released from certain emotions alone:
Emotions are seen as a positive feedback cycle in the brain. Oxytocin acts to over-
sensitize the limbic system to emotional responses leading to even larger emotional
responses. Under the response to emotions, even more oxytocin is secreted therefore
increasing the response further. In addition to the general effects oxytocin has on the
limbic system, it provides a more specific purpose as well in the body. It acts as an anxiety
suppressant mainly found in stressful and social situations. It provides a calming effect to
the body during these high stress situations. Oxytocin is also seen as a strong hormone
in maternal attachment and aggression found in new mothers. This hormone also plays
a slight part in the female desire to pair and mate.
Another hormone found in the direct response from emotion is adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) secreted in response to fearful stimuli. ACTH is secreted by the
posterior pituitary in response to fear and plays a role in the facilitation or inhibition of
behaviors and actions to follow. In most cases, a high ACTH secretion will lead to the
inhibition of actions that would produce the same fearful response that just occurred.
Happiness is primarily controlled by the levels of dopamine and serotonin in the body.
Both are monoamine neurotransmitters that act on different sites in the body. Serotonin
acts on receptors in the gastrointestinal tract while dopamine acts on receptors in the
brain, while both performing similar functions. Dopamine is known to be the primary
hormone acting on the brain's reward system, while this has recently begun to be a point
of debate in the research community. Serotonin has less known on how it carries out its
function in reducing depression, but only that it works. Specific-serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRI) are the type of drug given to patients suffering from depression in which
the serotonin is left in the synapse to continue to be absorbed in the body.
SLEEP
Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in
order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a
reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human
sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps
less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even
smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has
been shown to have a correlation with higher mortality. There are no benefits to
oversleeping and it can result in sleep inertia, which is the feeling of drowsiness for a
period of time after waking. There are two phases of sleep: rapid eye movement (REM)
and Non-REM sleep (NREM).
REM sleep is the less restful stage in which you dream and experience muscle
movements or twitches. Also during this stage in sleep, a person's heart rate and
breathing are typically irregular. Non-REM sleep, also sometimes referred to as slow-
wave sleep, is associated with deep sleep. The body's blood pressure, heart rate, and
breathing are generally significantly decreased compared to an alert state. Dreaming can
occur in this state; however a person is not able to remember them due to how deep in
sleep they are and the inability for consolidation to occur in memory. REM cycles typically
occur in 90 minute intervals and increase in length as the amount of sleep in one session
progresses. In a typical night's rest, a person will have about four to six cycles of REM
and Non-REM sleep.
Sleep is important for the body in order to restore itself from the depletion of energy during
wakefulness and allows for recovery since cell division occurs the fastest during the Non-
REM cycle. Sleep is also important for maintaining the functioning of the immune system,
as well as helping with the consolidation of information previously learned and
experienced into the memory. If sleep deprived, recall of information is typically
decreased. Dreams that occur during sleep have been shown to increase mental
creativity and problem solving skills.
As the period of time since the last Non-REM cycle has occurred increases, the body's
drive towards sleep also increases. Physical and environmental factors can have a great
influence over the body's drive towards sleep. Mental stimulation, pain and discomfort,
higher/lower than normal environmental temperatures, exercise, light exposure, noise,
hunger, and overeating all result in an increase in wakefulness. On the contrary, sexual
activity and some foods such as carbohydrates and dairy products promote sleep
 CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Psychologists striving to understand the human mind may study the nervous system.
Learning how the cells and organs (like the brain) function, help us understand the
biological basis behind human psychology. The nervous system is composed of two basic
cell types: glial cells (also known as glia) and neurons. Glial cells, which outnumber
neurons ten to one, are traditionally thought to play a supportive role to neurons, both
physically and metabolically. Glial cells provide scaffolding on which the nervous system
is built, help neurons line up closely with each other to allow neuronal communication,
provide insulation to neurons, transport nutrients and waste products, and mediate
immune responses. Neurons, on the other hand, serve as interconnected information
processors that are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system. This section briefly
describes the structure and function of neurons.

Neuron Structure

Neurons are the central building blocks of the nervous system, 100 billion strong at birth.
Like all cells, neurons consist of several different parts, each serving a specialized
function. A neuron’s outer surface is made up of a semipermeable membrane. This
membrane allows smaller molecules and molecules without an electrical charge to pass
through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules.

This illustration shows a prototypical neuron, which is being myelinated.

The nucleus of the neuron is located in the soma, or cell body. The soma has branching
extensions known as dendrites. The neuron is a small information processor, and
dendrites serve as input sites where signals are received from other neurons. These
signals are transmitted electrically across the soma and down a major extension from the
soma known as the axon, which ends at multiple terminal buttons. The terminal buttons
contain synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of the
nervous system.

Axons range in length from a fraction of an inch to several feet. In some axons, glial cells
form a fatty substance known as the myelin sheath, which coats the axon and acts as an
insulator, increasing the speed at which the signal travels. The myelin sheath is crucial
for the normal operation of the neurons within the nervous system: the loss of the
insulation it provides can be detrimental to normal function. To understand how this
works, let’s consider an example. Multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune disorder,
involves a large-scale loss of the myelin sheath on axons throughout the nervous system.
The resulting interference in the electrical signal prevents the quick transmittal of
information by neurons and can lead to a number of symptoms, such as dizziness, fatigue,
loss of motor control, and sexual dysfunction. While some treatments may help to modify
the course of the disease and manage certain symptoms, there is currently no known
cure for multiple sclerosis.

In healthy individuals, the neuronal signal moves rapidly down the axon to the terminal
buttons, where synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
The synapse is a very small space between two neurons and is an important site where
communication between neurons occurs. Once neurotransmitters are released into the
synapse, they travel across the small space and bind with corresponding receptors on
the dendrite of an adjacent neuron. Receptors, proteins on the cell surface where
neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape, with different shapes “matching” different
neurotransmitters.

How does a neurotransmitter “know” which receptor to bind to? The neurotransmitter and
the receptor have what is referred to as a lock-and-key relationship—specific
neurotransmitters fit specific receptors similar to how a key fits a lock. The
neurotransmitter binds to any receptor that it fits.
(a) The synapse is the space between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite
of another neuron. (b) In this pseudo-colored image from a scanning electron microscope,
a terminal button (green) has been opened to reveal the synaptic vesicles (orange and
blue) inside. Each vesicle contains about 10,000 neurotransmitter molecules. (credit b:
modification of work by Tina Carvalho, NIH-NIGMS; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Neuronal Communication

Now that we have learned about the basic structures of the neuron and the role that these
structures play in neuronal communication, let’s take a closer look at the signal itself—
how it moves through the neuron and then jumps to the next neuron, where the process
is repeated.

We begin at the neuronal membrane. The neuron exists in a fluid environment—it is

surrounded by extracellular fluid and contains intracellular fluid (i.e., cytoplasm). The
neuronal membrane keeps these two fluids separate—a critical role because the
electrical signal that passes through the neuron depends on the intra- and extracellular
fluids being electrically different. This difference in charge across the membrane, called
the membrane potential, provides energy for the signal.

The electrical charge of the fluids is caused by charged molecules (ions) dissolved in the
fluid. The semipermeable nature of the neuronal membrane somewhat restricts the
movement of these charged molecules, and, as a result, some of the charged particles
tend to become more concentrated either inside or outside the cell.

Between signals, the neuron membrane’s potential is held in a state of readiness, called
the resting potential. Like a rubber band stretched out and waiting to spring into action,
ions line up on either side of the cell membrane, ready to rush across the membrane
when the neuron goes active and the membrane opens its gates (i.e., a sodium-
potassium pump that allows movement of ions across the membrane). Ions in high-
concentration areas are ready to move to low-concentration areas, and positive ions are
ready to move to areas with a negative charge.

In the resting state, sodium (Na+) is at higher concentrations outside the cell, so it will
tend to move into the cell. Potassium (K+), on the other hand, is more concentrated inside
the cell, and will tend to move out of the cell. In addition, the inside of the cell is slightly
negatively charged compared to the outside. This provides an additional force on sodium,
causing it to move into the cell.
At resting potential, Na+ (blue pentagons) is more highly concentrated outside the cell in
the extracellular fluid (shown in blue), whereas K+ (purple squares) is more highly
concentrated near the membrane in the cytoplasm or intracellular fluid. Other molecules,
such as chloride ions (yellow circles) and negatively charged proteins (brown squares),
help contribute to a positive net charge in the extracellular fluid and a negative net charge
in the intracellular fluid.

From this resting potential state, the neuron receives a signal and its state changes
abruptly. When a neuron receives signals at the dendrites—due to neurotransmitters from
an adjacent neuron binding to its receptors—small pores, or gates, open on the neuronal
membrane, allowing Na+ ions, propelled by both charge and concentration differences, to
move into the cell. With this influx of positive ions, the internal charge of the cell becomes
more positive. If that charge reaches a certain level, called the threshold of excitation, the
neuron becomes active and the action potential begins.

Many additional pores open, causing a massive influx of Na + ions and a huge positive
spike in the membrane potential, the peak action potential. At the peak of the spike, the
sodium gates close and the potassium gates open. As positively charged potassium ions
leave, the cell quickly begins repolarization. At first, it hyperpolarizes, becoming slightly
more negative than the resting potential, and then it levels off, returning to the resting
potential.
During the action potential, the electrical charge across the membrane changes
dramatically.

This positive spike constitutes the action potential: the electrical signal that typically
moves from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals. The electrical signal
moves down the axon like a wave; at each point, some of the sodium ions that enter the
cell diffuse to the next section of the axon, raising the charge past the threshold of
excitation and triggering a new influx of sodium ions. The action potential moves all the
way down the axon to the terminal buttons.

The action potential is an all-or-none phenomenon. In simple terms, this means that an
incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the
threshold of excitation. There is no in-between, and there is no turning off an action
potential once it starts. Think of it like sending an email or a text message. You can think
about sending it all you want, but the message is not sent until you hit the send button.
Furthermore, once you send the message, there is no stopping it.

Because it is all or none, the action potential is recreated, or propagated, at its full strength
at every point along the axon. Much like the lit fuse of a firecracker, it does not fade away
as it travels down the axon. It is this all-or-none property that explains the fact that your
brain perceives an injury to a distant body part like your toe as equally painful as one to
your nose.

As noted earlier, when the action potential arrives at the terminal button, the synaptic
vesicles release their neurotransmitters into the synapse. The neurotransmitters travel
across the synapse and bind to receptors on the dendrites of the adjacent neuron, and
the process repeats itself in the new neuron (assuming the signal is sufficiently strong to
trigger an action potential). Once the signal is delivered, excess neurotransmitters in the
synapse drift away, are broken down into inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed in a
process known as reuptake. Reuptake involves the neurotransmitter being pumped back
into the neuron that released it, in order to clear the synapse ([link]). Clearing the synapse
serves both to provide a clear “on” and “off” state between signals and to regulate the
production of neurotransmitter (full synaptic vesicles provide signals that no additional
neurotransmitters need to be produced).

Reuptake involves moving a neurotransmitter from the synapse back into the axon
terminal from which it was released.

Neuronal communication is often referred to as an electrochemical event. The movement

of the action potential down the length of the axon is an electrical event, and movement
of the neurotransmitter across the synaptic space represents the chemical portion of the
process.

Neurotransmitters and Drugs

There are several different types of neurotransmitters released by different neurons, and
we can speak in broad terms about the kinds of functions associated with different
neurotransmitters. Much of what psychologists know about the functions of
neurotransmitters comes from research on the effects of drugs in psychological disorders.
Psychologists who take a biological perspective and focus on the physiological causes of
behavior assert that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are
associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems. In this perspective,
psychotropic medications can help improve the symptoms associated with these
disorders. Psychotropic medications are drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by
restoring neurotransmitter balance.

Neurotransmitter Involved in Potential Effect on Behavior

Muscle action, Increased arousal, enhanced

Acetylcholine
memory cognition

Decreased anxiety, decreased

Beta-endorphin Pain, pleasure
tension

Increased pleasure, suppressed

Dopamine Mood, sleep, learning
appetite

Gamma-aminobutyric Decreased anxiety, decreased

Brain function, sleep
acid (GABA) tension

Increased learning, enhanced

Glutamate Memory, learning
memory

Heart, intestines, Increased arousal, suppressed

Norepinephrine
alertness appetite

Modulated mood, suppressed

Serotonin Mood, sleep
appetite

Major Neurotransmitters and How They Affect Behavior

Psychoactive drugs can act as agonists or antagonists for a given neurotransmitter

system. Agonists are chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site and,
thus, strengthen its effects. An antagonist, on the other hand, blocks or impedes the
normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor. Agonist and antagonist drugs are
prescribed to correct the specific neurotransmitter imbalances underlying a person’s
condition. For example, Parkinson’s disease, a progressive nervous system disorder, is
associated with low levels of dopamine. Therefore dopamine agonists, which mimic the
effects of dopamine by binding to dopamine receptors, are one treatment strategy.

Certain symptoms of schizophrenia are associated with overactive dopamine

neurotransmission. The antipsychotics used to treat these symptoms are antagonists for
dopamine—they block dopamine’s effects by binding its receptors without activating
them. Thus, they prevent dopamine released by one neuron from signaling information to
adjacent neurons.
In contrast to agonists and antagonists, which both operate by binding to receptor sites,
reuptake inhibitors prevent unused neurotransmitters from being transported back to the
neuron. This leaves more neurotransmitters in the synapse for a longer time, increasing
its effects. Depression, which has been consistently linked with reduced serotonin levels,
is commonly treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). By preventing
reuptake, SSRIs strengthen the effect of serotonin, giving it more time to interact with
serotonin receptors on dendrites. Common SSRIs on the market today include Prozac,
Paxil, and Zoloft. The drug LSD is structurally very similar to serotonin, and it affects the
same neurons and receptors as serotonin. Psychotropic drugs are not instant solutions
for people suffering from psychological disorders. Often, an individual must take a drug
for several weeks before seeing improvement, and many psychoactive drugs have
significant negative side effects. Furthermore, individuals vary dramatically in how they
respond to the drugs. To improve chances for success, it is not uncommon for people
receiving pharmacotherapy to undergo psychological and/or behavioral therapies as well.
Some research suggests that combining drug therapy with other forms of therapy tends
to be more effective than any one treatment alone (for one such example, see March et
al., 2007).

Summary

Glia and neurons are the two cell types that make up the nervous system. While glia
generally play supporting roles, the communication between neurons is fundamental to
all of the functions associated with the nervous system. Neuronal communication is made
possible by the neuron’s specialized structures. The soma contains the cell nucleus, and
the dendrites extend from the soma in tree-like branches. The axon is another major
extension of the cell body; axons are often covered by a myelin sheath, which increases
the speed of transmission of neural impulses. At the end of the axon are terminal buttons
that contain synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.

Neuronal communication is an electrochemical event. The dendrites contain receptors for

neurotransmitters released by nearby neurons. If the signals received from other neurons
are sufficiently strong, an action potential will travel down the length of the axon to the
terminal buttons, resulting in the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse. Action
potentials operate on the all-or-none principle and involve the movement of Na + and
K+ across the neuronal membrane.

Different neurotransmitters are associated with different functions. Often, psychological

disorders involve imbalances in a given neurotransmitter system. Therefore, psychotropic
drugs are prescribed in an attempt to bring the neurotransmitters back into balance. Drugs
can act either as agonists or as antagonists for a given neurotransmitter system.
 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY

Elements of the human body by mass. Trace elements are less than 1% combined (and
each less than 0.1%).

The human body is composed of elements including hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium
and phosphorus. These elements reside in trillions of cells and non-cellular components
of the body.

The adult male body is about 60% water for a total water content of some 42 litres. This
is made up of about 19 litres of extracellular fluid including about 3.2 litres of blood plasma
and about 8.4 litres of interstitial fluid, and about 23 litres of fluid inside cells. The content,
acidity and composition of the water inside and outside cells is carefully maintained. The
main electrolytes in body water outside cells are sodium and chloride, whereas within
cells it is potassium and other phosphates.

Cells

The body contains trillions of cells, the fundamental unit of life. At maturity, there are
roughly 30–37 trillion cells in the body, an estimate arrived at by totaling the cell numbers
of all the organs of the body and cell types. The body is also host to about the same
number of non-human cells as well as multicellular organisms which reside in the
gastrointestinal tract and on the skin. Not all parts of the body are made from cells. Cells
sit in an extracellular matrix that consists of proteins such as collagen, surrounded by
extracellular fluids. Of the 70 kg weight of an average human body, nearly 25 kg is non-
human cells or non-cellular material such as bone and connective tissue.

Cells in the body function because of DNA. DNA sits within the nucleus of a cell. Here,
parts of DNA are copied and sent to the body of the cell via RNA. The RNA is then used
to create proteins which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Proteins
dictate cell function and gene expression, a cell is able to self-regulate by the amount of
proteins produced. However, not all cells have DNA – some cells such as mature red
blood cells lose their nucleus as they mature.

Tissues

The body consists of many different types of tissue, defined as cells that act with a
specialised function.[10] The study of tissues is called histology and often occurs with a
microscope. The body consists of four main types of tissues – lining cells (epithelia),
connective tissue, nervous tissue and muscle tissue.

Cells that lie on surfaces exposed to the outside world or gastrointestinal tract (epithelia)
or internal cavities (endothelium) come in numerous shapes and forms – from single
layers of flat cells, to cells with small beating hair-like cilia in the lungs, to column-like cells
that line the stomach. Endothelial cells are cells that line internal cavities including blood
vessels and glands. Lining cells regulate what can and can't pass through them, protect
internal structures, and function as sensory surfaces.

Organs

Organs, structured collections of cells with a specific function, sit within the body.
Examples include the heart, lungs and liver. Many organs reside within cavities within the
body. These cavities include the abdomen (which contains the stomach, for example) and
pleura, which contains the lungs.

Systems

Circulatory system

The circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins and
capillaries). The heart propels the circulation of the blood, which serves as a
"transportation system" to transfer oxygen, fuel, nutrients, waste products, immune cells
and signalling molecules (i.e. hormones) from one part of the body to another. Paths of
blood circulation within the human body can be divided into two circuits: the pulmonary
circuit, which pumps blood to the lungs to receive oxygen and leave carbon dioxide, and
the systemic circuit, which carries blood from the heart off to the rest of the body. The
blood consists of fluid that carries cells in the circulation, including some that move from
tissue to blood vessels and back, as well as the spleen and bone marrow.

Digestive system

The digestive system consists of the mouth including the tongue and teeth, esophagus,
stomach, (gastrointestinal tract, small and large intestines, and rectum), as well as the
liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands. It converts food into small, nutritional,
non-toxic molecules for distribution and absorption into the body. These molecules take
the form of proteins (which are broken down into amino acids), fats, vitamins and minerals
(the last of which are mainly ionic rather than molecular). After being swallowed, food
moves through the gastrointestinal tract by means of peristalsis: the systematic expansion
and contraction of muscles to push food from one area to the next.

Digestion begins in the mouth, which chews food into smaller pieces for easier digestion.
Then it is swallowed, and moves through the esophagus to the stomach. In the stomach,
food is mixed with gastric acids to allow the extraction of nutrients. What is left is called
chyme; this then moves into the small intestine, which absorbs the nutrients and water
from the chyme. What remains passes on to the large intestine, where it is dried to form
feces; these are then stored in the rectum until they are expelled through the anus.
Endocrine system

The endocrine system consists of the principal endocrine glands: the pituitary, thyroid,
adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads, but nearly all organs and tissues produce
specific endocrine hormones as well. The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one
body system to another regarding an enormous array of conditions, and resulting in
variety of changes of function.

Immune system

The immune system consists of the white blood cells, the thymus, lymph nodes and lymph
channels, which are also part of the lymphatic system. The immune system provides a
mechanism for the body to distinguish its own cells and tissues from outside cells and
substances and to neutralize or destroy the latter by using specialized proteins such as
antibodies, cytokines, and toll-like receptors, among many others.

Integumentary system

The integumentary system consists of the covering of the body (the skin), including hair
and nails as well as other functionally important structures such as the sweat glands and
sebaceous glands. The skin provides containment, structure, and protection for other
organs, and serves as a major sensory interface with the outside world.

Lymphatic system

The lymphatic system extracts, transports and metabolizes lymph, the fluid found in
between cells. The lymphatic system is similar to the circulatory system in terms of both
its structure and its most basic function, to carry a body fluid.

Musculoskeletal system

The musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton (which includes bones,
ligaments, tendons, and cartilage) and attached muscles. It gives the body basic structure
and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the
body contain bone marrow, the site of production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major
storage sites for calcium and phosphate. This system can be split up into the muscular
system and the skeletal system.

Nervous system

The nervous system consists of the body's neurons, which together form the nerves and
ganglia which in turn form the brain and related structures. The brain is the organ of
thought, emotion, memory, and sensory processing; it serves many aspects of
communication and controls various systems and functions. The special senses consist
of vision, hearing, taste, and smell. The eyes, ears, tongue, and nose gather information
about the body's environment.

From a structural perspective, the nervous system is typically subdivided into two
component parts: the central nervous system (CNS), composed of the brain and the
spinal cord; and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), composed of the nerves and
ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is mostly responsible for organizing
motion, processing sensory information, thought, memory, cognition and other such
functions. It remains a matter of some debate whether the CNS directly gives rise to
consciousness. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is mostly responsible for gathering
information with sensory neurons and directing body movements with motor neurons.

From a functional perspective, the nervous system is again typically divided into two
component parts: the somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system
(ANS). The SNS is involved in voluntary functions like speaking and sensory processes.
The ANS is involved in involuntary processes, such as digestion and regulating blood
pressure.

The nervous system is subject to many different diseases. In epilepsy, abnormal electrical
activity in the brain can cause seizures. In multiple sclerosis, the immune system attacks
the nerve linings, damaging the nerves' ability to transmit signals. Amyotrophic Lateral
Sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a motor neuron disease which
gradually reduces movement in patients. There are also many other diseases of the
nervous system.

Reproductive system

The reproductive system consists of the gonads and the internal and external sex organs.
The reproductive system produces gametes in each sex, a mechanism for their
combination, and in the female a nurturing environment for the first 9 months of
development of the infant.
Respiratory system

The respiratory system consists of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. It brings
oxygen from the air and excretes carbon dioxide and water back into the air. First, air is
pulled through the trachea into the lungs by the diaphragm pushing down, which creates
a vacuum. Air is briefly stored inside small sacs known as alveoli (sing.: alveolus) before
being expelled from the lungs when the diaphragm contracts again. Each alveolus]] is
surrounded by capillaries carrying deoxygenated blood, which absorbs oxygen out of the
air and into the bloodstream.

For the respiratory system to function properly, there need to be as few impediments as
possible to the movement of air within the lungs. Inflammation of the lungs and excess
mucus are common sources of breathing difficulties. In asthma, the respiratory system is
persistently inflamed, causing wheezing and/or shortness of breath. Pneumonia occurs
through infection of the alveoli, and may be caused by tuberculosis. Emphysema,
commonly a result of smoking, is caused by damage to connections between the alveoli.

Urinary system

The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes toxic
materials from the blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and
excess ions and water out of the body.

Anatomy

Human anatomy is the study of the shape and form of the human body. The human body
has four limbs (two arms and two legs), a head and a neck which connect to the torso.
The body's shape is determined by a strong skeleton made of bone and cartilage,
surrounded by fat, muscle, connective tissue, organs, and other structures. The spine at
the back of the skeleton contains the flexible vertebral column which surrounds the spinal
cord, which is a collection of nerve fibres connecting the brain to the rest of the body.
Nerves connect the spinal cord and brain to the rest of the body. All major bones, muscles,
and nerves in the body are named, with the exception of anatomical variations such as
sesamoid bones and accessory muscles.

Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body, which moves because of the beating of
the heart. Venules and veins collect blood low in oxygen from tissues throughout the
body. These collect in progressively larger veins until they reach the body's two largest
veins, the superior and inferior vena cava, which drain blood into the right side of the
heart. From here, the blood is pumped into the lungs where it receives oxygen and drains
back into the left side of the heart. From here, it is pumped into the body's largest artery,
the aorta, and then progressively smaller arteries and arterioles until it reaches tissue.
Here blood passes from small arteries into capillaries, then small veins and the process
begins again. Blood carries oxygen, waste products, and hormones from one place in the
body to another. Blood is filtered at the kidneys and liver.

The body consists of a number of body cavities, separated areas which house different
organ systems. The brain and central nervous system reside in an area protected from
the rest of the body by the blood brain barrier. The lungs sit in the pleural cavity. The
intestines, liver, and spleen sit in the abdominal cavity

Height, weight, shape and other body proportions vary individually and with age and sex.
Body shape is influenced by the distribution of muscle and fat tissue.

Physiology

Human physiology is the study of how the human body functions. This includes the
mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health,
from organs to the cells of which they are composed. The human body consists of many
interacting systems of organs. These interact to maintain homeostasis, keeping the body
in a stable state with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the blood.

Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body.
Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system
and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. The nervous
system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via nerve
impulses and neurotransmitters. At the same time, the endocrine system releases
hormones, such as to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Together, these systems
regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy
supply, temperature, and acid balance (pH).

Development

Development of the human body is the process of growth to maturity. The process begins
with fertilisation, where an egg released from the ovary of a female is penetrated by
sperm. The egg then lodges in the uterus, where an embryo and later fetus develop until
birth. Growth and development occur after birth, and include both physical and
psychological development, influenced by genetic, hormonal, environmental and other
factors. Development and growth continue throughout life, through childhood,
adolescence, and through adulthood to senility, and are referred to as the process of
ageing.
Society and culture

Professional study

Health professionals learn about the human body from illustrations, models, and
demonstrations. Medical and dental students in addition gain practical experience, for
example by dissection of cadavers. Human anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are
basic medical sciences, generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical
school.

History of anatomy

Two facing pages of text with woodcuts of naked male and female figures, in the Epitome
by Andreas Vesalius, 1543

In Ancient Greece, the Hippocratic Corpus described the anatomy of the skeleton and
muscles. The 2nd century physician Galen of Pergamum compiled classical knowledge
of anatomy into a text that was used throughout the Middle Ages. In the Renaissance,
Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) pioneered the modern study of human anatomy by
dissection, writing the influential book De humani corporis fabrica. Anatomy advanced
further with the invention of the microscope and the study of the cellular structure of
tissues and organs. Modern anatomy uses techniques such as magnetic resonance
imaging, computed tomography, fluoroscopy and ultrasound imaging to study the body in
unprecedented detail.

History of physiology

The study of human physiology began with Hippocrates in Ancient Greece, around 420
BC, and with Aristotle (384–322 BC) who applied critical thinking and emphasis on the
relationship between structure and function. Galen (c. 126–199) was the first to use
experiments to probe the body's functions. The term physiology was introduced by the
French physician Jean Fernel (1497–1558). In the 17th century, William Harvey (1578–
1657) described the circulatory system, pioneering the combination of close observation
with careful experiment.[53] In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to
accumulate at a rapid rate with the cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann in 1838, that organisms are made up of cells. Claude Bernard (1813–1878)
created the concept of the milieu interieur (internal environment), which Walter Cannon
(1871–1945) later said was regulated to a steady state in homeostasis. In the 20th
century, the physiologists Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew extended their
studies to comparative physiology and ecophysiology. Most recently, evolutionary
physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.