BUILDING TECHNOLOGY I

1. CEMENTING MATERIALS

1.1 LIME

1.2 GYPSUM

1.3 CEMENT

1.1 LIME- One of the oldest manufactured building materials used as a mortar and plaster by all the
early civilizations

• Egyptians used lime plaster before 2600 B.C.

• Greeks used it extensively for mortars and plasters

• Romans developed a mixture of lime putty and volcanic ash for the first real cement.

QUICKLIME- The carbonates decompose into carbon dioxide, which is expelled, and calcium oxide (CaO).

SLAKING/ HYDRATION- Before quicklime can be used, it must first be mixed with water in the
process.

SLAKED LIME/ HYDRATED LIME- The lime has now become calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2).

HYDRATED LIME- mixed with water to make lime putty, is used as an ingredient of hard-finish coat for
two-and three-coat Portland cement plasters

HYDRAULIC LIME- A type of lime which will set under water is, used only where slow underwater setting
is required.

1.02 GYPSUM- like lime, was used as a plaster by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.

“PLASTER” from the Greek word for both the raw material and calcined product.

*In architectural terminology the words “Plaster” and “gypsum” are often used interchangeably

Gypsum rock is ground fine and heated (calcined) to between 325 F. to 340 F. when it loses about
three-fourths of its combined water.

*The remaining product is Plaster of Paris if pure gypsum is used, or hard wall plaster if 39.5 %
impurities are present or added to retard the set and improve the setting qualities. Hard wall plaster is
harder than lime plaster, sets more quickly and thoroughly.

*Gypsum plaster is rendered more plastic by the addition of hydrated lime.

*Fiber or hair is also sometimes added for greater cohesiveness. The fiber may be hemp, sisal or jute;
the hair is generally cleaned goat or cattle hair.
1.03 CEMENT- First developed by the Romans by mixing slaked lime with POZZOLANA (volcanic ash)
which hardened under water

ASPDIN (1824)- an English bricklayer and mason, invented and patented Portland cement.

PORTLAND CEMENT- is the principal type of cement in use.

-Is obtained by finely pulverizing clinker produced by calcining a proportioned mixture of

argillaceous (silica, alumina) and calcareous (lime) materials with iron oxide and small
amounts of other ingredients.

Types of Portland cement:

• SLOW-setting cement

• QUICK-setting high early strength cement

• SULFATE-resisting cement for applications where alkaline water and soils occur

• WHITE CEMENT (or stainless cement which is free of iron impurities).

2. STORAGE OF CEMENT- Cement should be protected at the building site from injury through contact
with dampness. They should be stored in shed with a wood floor raised about 300mm (12”) from the
ground.

Piles should be limited to twelve sacks in height.

WAREHOUSE SET- when the cement is stored in high piles for long periods, there is a tendency for the
lower layers to harden caused by the pressure above.

3. CONCRETE

3.01 Definition 3.02 Qualities of Good Concrete

3.03 Materials of Concrete 3.04 Slump Test

3.05 Proportioning 3.06 Mixing

3.07 Transporting and Placing 3.08 Shrinkage

3.09 Curing 3.10 Admixtures

3.11 Forms
3.01 DEFINITION

CONCRETE- a proportioned mixture of cement, aggregate and water.

• a plastic mass which can be cast, molded or formed into predetermined size or shape

• SETTING- the hardening of concrete.

• MORTAR, STUCCO/ CEMENT PLASTER- when mixed with water and a fine aggregate of less than
6mm (¼“).
• CONCRETE- produces when mixed with water, fine aggregate and a large aggregate of more
than 6mm (¼”).
• REINFORCED CONCRETE- when strengthened by embedded steel.
• PLAIN/ MASS CONCRETE- when without reinforcement.

3.02 QUALITIES OF GOOD CONCRETE

Concrete should be:

• Strong

• Durable

• of uniform quality

• thoroughly sound.

These are obtained through:

• careful selection of materials

• correct proportioning

• thorough mixing

• careful transporting and placing

• proper curing or protection of the concrete after it is placed

3.03 MATERIALS OF CONCRETE

A. CEMENT- in reinforced-concrete construction should be high-grade Type 1 Portland cement type C-

150 conforming to the “Standard Specifications and Test for Portland Cement” of the American Society
for Testing Materials (ASTM).

The kind of tests usually made are

• soundness, or constancy of volume

 • time of setting

• fineness

• tensile strength

*Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately 1 cu. ft. and weighs 94 lbs.

B. AGGREGATES- inert mineral fillers used with cement and water in making concrete, should be
particles that are durable strong, clean, hard and uncoated, and which are free from injurious amount of
dusts, lumps, soft and flaky particles, shale, alkali, organic matter loam or other deleterious substances.

• FINE AGGREGATES- (aggregates smaller than 6mm (¼”) in size) consist of sand, stone
screenings or other inert materials of similar characteristics.

*Specs: 80 to 95% shall pass a No. 4 wire cloth sieve and not more than 30% nor less than 10%
shall pass a No. 50 sieve.

• COARSE AGGREGATE- (aggregate larger than ¼” in size) consists of crushed stones, gravel or
other inert materials of similar characteristics.

• SPECIAL AGGREGATES- such as cinders, blast furnace slag, expanded shale or clay, perlite,
vermiculite, and sawdust, may produce:

- lightweight, nailable concrete

- thermal insulating concrete.

C. WATER- should be free from oil, acid, alkali, vegetable matter, or other deleterious substances.
Should be reasonably clear and clean.

WATER-CEMENT RATIO- is the amount of water used per bag of cement.

*This usually varies from 5 to 7 gallons, with 6.5 gallons as average for ordinary job conditions. The less
water used in mixing, the better the quality of concrete.

WATER – CEMENT RATIO

Assumed 28-day Compressive Maximum water-cement ratio Pounds of water per

strength (lbs. per sq. inch) 100 lbs. of cement
U.S. gallons of water per sack Cement of 94 lbs.

2,000 7.00 62.0

2,500 6.50 57.5
3,000 5.75 51.0
3,750 5.00 44.5
 3.04 SLUMP TEST- used for measuring the consistency of a concrete mix.

CONSISTENCY- may be defined as the “state of fluidity of the mix”, and it includes the entire range of
fluidity from the wettest to the driest possible mixtures.

*The apparatus consist of metal cone, the bottom opening being 200mm (8”) in diameter, the top
opening being 100mm (4”), and the height exactly 300mm (12”).

CONSISTENCY (SLUMP)

Maximum Minimum

Reinforced foundation walls and footings 125mm (5”) 50mm (2”)

Plain footings, caissons, and substructure 100mm (4”) 25mm (1”)

walls

Slabs, beams, thin reinforced walls & 150mm (6”) 75mm (3”)
building columns

Pavements and floor laid on ground 75mm (3”) 25mm (1”)

Heavy mass construction 75mm (3”) 25mm (1”)

 3.05 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE- The strength of a workable concrete mix depends upon the
water-cement ratio. The economy of the mix depends upon the proper proportioning of the fine and
coarse aggregates.

There are several methods of proportioning concrete:

a. Proportioning by arbitrary proportions

b. Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test

c. Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness modulus

a. Proportioning by arbitrary proportions

*Proportioning concrete by the arbitrary selection of the proportions is the oldest, the most commonly
used, the most convenient and the least scientific method.

CONCRETE PROPORTIONS

Class “AA” 1 : 1.5 : 3 For concrete under water, retaining walls

Class “A” 1: 2 :4 For suspended slabs, beams, columns, arches, stairs, walls of 100mm (4”)
thickness

Class “B” 1 : 2.5 : 5 For walls thicker than 100mm (4”), footings, steps, reinforced concrete slabs on
fill.

Class “C” 1: 3 :6 For concrete plant boxes, and any non-critical concrete structures.

Class “D” 1 : 3.5 : 7 For mass concrete works.

Class A : 1 part cement is to 2 parts sand is to 4 parts gravel

b. Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test

c. Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness modulus- This method is the same as the second
except that the proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate are determined by the fineness modulus
method.
3.05 MIXING OF CONCRETE- Reinforced-concrete work should be mixed by machine. Machine-mixed
concrete is usually of more uniform quality than that mixed by hand and is generally less expensive
when in large volume.
a. MACHINE MIXING- In machine-mixing, the mixing of each batch should continue not less than
one minute after all the materials are in the mixer and whenever practicable, the length of the
mixing time should be increased to 1.5 or 2 minutes.

2 GENERAL CLASSES OF CONCRETE MIERS

BATCH MIXERS- into which sufficient materials are placed at one time to
make a convenient size batch of concrete, the whole amount being
discharged in one mass after it is mixed.
CONTINUOUS MIXERS- into which the materials are fed constantly and from
which the concrete is discharged in a steady stream.

CLASSIFICATION OF MIXERS

- drum mixers- are the most common type.

- trough mixers

- gravity mixers, and

- pneumatic mixers.

b. HAND MIXING- hand-mixing must be done on a water-tight platform.

*Regaging or retempering of concrete that has been allowed to stand more than ½ hour is not to be
permitted

3.07 TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE- Fresh concrete should be transported from the
mixer as rapidly as practicable by methods that will permit the placing of the concrete in the forms
before initial set occurs and without loss or separation of materials.

*The time of transportation should not exceed 30 minutes.

3.08 SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE & TEMPERATURE CHANGES- Shrinkage of concrete due to hardening
and contraction from temperature changes, causes cracks the size of which depends on the extent of
the mass. They cannot be counteracted successfully but they can be minimized by placing reinforcement
so that large cracks can be broken up to some extent to smaller ones.

3.09 CURING OF CONCRETE- Concrete must be allowed to “cure” or harden after it is placed.
 • HARDENING- is a rather slow process in which the cement and water unite to form compounds
that give strength and durability to the concrete. It continues as long as the temperatures are
favorable and moisture is present.

Three main factors that affect hardening

age or time
temperature
moisture

Curing consists primarily in keeping the concrete from drying out too rapidly. This may be done by:

a. Covering the concrete. Floors shall be covered with paper sacking wetted down at the edges or
with burlap, sand or earth that is kept moist, after the concrete is hard enough to walk on.

b. Removal of forms at prescribed time. Forms shall not be removed until after the time specified.

c. Sprinkling with water. Beams, columns and walls are sprinkled or sprayed with water as soon as
the forms are removed.

d. Using curing compounds (see ADMIXTURES).

PARTS AND STRUCTURES

FOOTINGS

A. MASSIVE FOOTINGS- 1 day (24 hrs)

B. CANTILEVER FOOTINGS- 5 days (120 hrs)
C. SLAB FOOTINGS- 5 days (120 hrs)

WALLS AND PLASTERS

a. Massive walls, 30 cms. thick or more- Up to 2 M. high: 1 day (24 hours). Add 1 day (24 hours) for
every additional meter or fraction thereof.

b. Thin walls less than 30 cms. Thick- Up to 2 M. high: 2 days (48 hours. Add 1-1/2 days (36 hours)
for every additional meter or fraction thereof

c. Cantilever walls, buttresses, counter forts, diaphragms.- Without loads, same as (b).

COLUMNS

a. least diameter up to 4- 2 days (48 hours)

b. Ratio of height to least diameter from 4 to 15- Add to the above number 1 day (24 hours) for
every additional meter or height or fraction there of but not more than 28 days (672 hours).
SLABS

a. 3 to 7 ft. spans- 3 ft. span, 5 days (120 hours). Add ½ day (12 hours) for every additional 1 ft.
span or fraction thereof.

b. Over 7 ft. span- 7 ft. span, 7 days (168 hours). Add 1 day (24 hours) for every additional 1 ft.
span or fraction thereof but not more than 28 days (672 hours).

BEAMS AND GIRDERS

a. Sides - 3 days

b. Bottoms- Up to 14 ft., 14 days (336 hours). Add 1 day for every 1 ft. additional span or fraction
thereof but not more than 28 days (672 hours).

ARCHES

a. Spandrel walls- 7 days (168 hours).

b. Spandrel arches- 14 days (336 hours)

c. Main arches- 21 days (504 hours)

3.10 ADMIXTURES- Admixtures come in powder, paste, and liquid form, and are usually patented
and sold under trademark names.

Substances added to cements, mortars, and concrete for the purpose of improving or imparting
particular properties, such as:

• To improve workability of concrete, e.g. hydrated lime

• To improve durability by entrainment of air

• To accelerate setting or hardening (accelerators) e.g. calcium chloride

• To retard setting (retarders).

• To improve wear resistance

• To impart water-repellant or water-proofing qualities e.g. hydrated lime, KAOLINE, CELITE

• To impart water-repellant or waterproofing qualities, e.g., hydrated lime, waterproofing

compounds, KAOLINE, CELITE.

• To impart color, MINERAL OXIDES, COLORCON, METALICHROME.

3 CATEGORIES OF ADMIXERS
 Mixing into concrete

Mixing into mortar

Surface application or finish

Concrete admixtures include

a. ACCELERATORS - to speed up setting time, to develop earlier strength, and to reduce length of
time for protection. Principal ingredients are calcium chloride. Maximum amount added is 2 lbs.
per bag of cement.

Disadvantages: they increase the expansion and contraction of concrete, reduce resistance to sulfate
attack, and increases efflorescence and corrosion of high tension steels.

b. RETARDERS - to slow down the hydration of the cement during very hot weather. Principal
ingredients include zinc oxide, calcium lignosulfonate, derivatives of adipic acid.

Disadvantages: may cause some loss of early strength and will therefore require careful control and
more frequent slump tests, also reduces the expansion and contraction of concrete.

c. AIR-ENTRAINING AGENTS - introduce minute air bubbles to greatly increase the resistance of
concrete to freezing and thawing, increase plasticity and reduce bleeding.

Disadvantages: These require careful control and more frequent slump tests. They may also cause some
loss of strength.

d. INERT, FINELY DIVIDED POWDERS SUCH AS POWDERED GLASS, SILICA SAND, STONE DUST, and
HYDRATED LIME - are added to improve workability, used as per manufacturer’s directions.
Hydrated lime is usually in the proportion of 10 to 15% of the cement by volume.
e. WATERPROOFING (permeability-reducing) COMPOUNDS - reduce the capillary attraction of the
voids in the concrete or mortar, but while it may decrease water absorption of the concrete or
mortar, it does not render concrete waterproof.

f. COLORED PIGMENTS- are mainly to use to give color to concrete floors. There are two types:

Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for surface coloring. They are dusted on, usually in two coats,
after all surface water has disappeared. The surface is then finished with a steel trowel .
Integral colors, for body coloring. Integral color pigments are incorporated in the mortar
topping. They are mixed dry with the cement and aggregate before water is added.

Admixtures for mixing into mortar include:

• Accelerators

• plasticizing agents (correctly called water-reducing agents) to lower water cement ratio and
make the mix more workable
 • waterproofing agents

• color pigments

Surface application finishes for concrete consist of:

• hardeners

• color pigments

• special aggregates

• sealers

• abrasive materials

• waterproofing agents, and

• fillers and patchers

3.11 FORMS
a. LUMBER FORMS- Lumber used in form construction should only be partially seasoned.
Kiln-dried lumber- has a tendency to swell when soaked by the concrete, and this swelling
causes bulging and distortion of the forms.
Green lumber- dries out and shrinks if allowed to stand too long before the concrete is placed.

o Sheathing lumber dressed at least one side and both edges even are used where the removal
and cleaning of the forms are necessary for re-use .

-dressed on all four sides shall be used in face work, where smooth and true surface is
important.

o Tongue-and-groove lumber will achieve tight joints between boards in floor and wall panel
construction.

Sizes of lumber frequently used :

• 2-inch thick for columns, beams and girder bottoms

• 1-inch thick for floor panels and beam and girder sides

• 2x4s for struts, posts, shores, and uprights

• 1 or 2-inch thick for cleats

NAILS- Used in the construction of forms because unnecessary nailing not only adds to the labor of
wrecking but also renders the lumber unfit for continued use.

*Crude oil and petroline preserve the forms against damage by alternate wetting and drying.

b. PLYWOOD FORMS- Works best where a smooth surface is required. The plywood should be
waterproof, Grade “A” and at least 12mm (½”) thick.

c. STEEL FORMS- Steel forms may be in the form of pans for concrete joist construction or steel decking
or corrugated steel for concrete slabs and slab-and-joist construction

d. PLASTIC FORMS- Polystyrene forms are now available for concrete work.

4. PROCESSED CONCRETE

4.01 Types of Processed Concrete

4.02 Aggregates for Light-weight Conc.

4.01 Types of Processed Concrete

a. “AEROCRETE”- This is a light–weight, expanded structural concrete produced by adding a small

amount of metallic aluminum powder to the mixture of Portland cement and sand of cinders. It is used
for structural floor and roof slabs, partition blocks for sound proofing, wall insulation, in rooms of
refrigerator plants, lightweight fill on top of structural floor and roof slabs.

b. “GUNITE”- is the mixture of sand and cement deposited under high pneumatic pressure with a
machine manufactured under the trade name CEMENT GUN, to which the required supply of water is
added just before the dry constituents emerge from nozzle.

*GUNITE is used for encasing structural steel, when reinforced, for floor and roof slabs and curtain walls.
Ideal for swimming pool construction.

c. “PORETE”- A Portland cement concrete to which a chemical foam is added to generate gases in the
process of deposition, resulting in light weight precast or shop-made unit in both hollow and solid forms.

d. “HAYDITE”- This is processed concrete added with lightweight aggregate

4.02 Aggregates for Light-weight Conc.

Lightweight aggregates have the following advantages:

 • Reduction of dead loads saves structural steel, reduces bearing on foundation and cuts cost of
concrete forms

• High insulating value is provided by numerous dead air spaces .

• Rough texture of surfaces have good acoustical properties .

• Lightweight allows easier handling of precast slabs and blocks

• Lightweight plaster has less tendency to crack and its heat resistance makes it a good material
for fireproofing structural steel

GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES

a. Aggregates of volcanic origin

PUMICE- weighing from 25 to 60 lbs.per cu. ft. is well qualified as a lightweight aggregate when dry and
well graded. It is hard to be handled and mixed without excessive breakdown.

PERLITE- is composed of stable silicates, and is inert and thus durable for use as a lightweight aggregate
or for insulation. Its disadvantages are its friability, small particle size, and extreme lightness. Is useful
where maximum strength is not required, as in precast slabs and blocks and in floor fill, fireproofing and
plaster.

b. Micaceous minerals

VERMICULITE- is a micaceous mineral which expands on application of heat to as much as 30 times its
original volume. It is used as an aggregate in concrete fireproofing steel, for floor and roof fill, and for
acoustic and fireproof plaster.

Dried ground ore is subjected to about 1,800 degrees heat for 4 to 8 seconds, after which it
weighs only 6 to 12 lbs. per cubic ft.

c. Expanded shales and clays- Lightweight aggregates from shales and clays require heating the
material in a kiln to a temperature near its fusion point.

* Examples of clay, shale aggregates

AIROX
ROCKLITE
DIATOMITE
HAYDITE

d. By-product Aggregates
 o Expanded Slag or “foamed” slags are made by treating molten blast furnace slag with controlled
quantities of water or steam.
o Foamed slag has been used for precast blocks, cast-in-place walls of houses and for panel filling
of steel-framed buildings
o Cinders are composed of the ash components of the coal along with the various quantities of
unburned or partially burned combustible matter. Lightweight cinders often have unsound
physical and chemical properties.

WEIGHT OF AGGREGATE AND CONCRETE BY TYPE OF AGGREGATE

TYPE OF AGGREGATE Aggregate Weight per Cubic Foot (Lbs.) Weight per Cubic Foot of Concrete
Using Aggregate (Lbs.)

Gravel 120 150

Sand 90-100 150

Crushed Stone 100 145

Crushed Bank Slag 80 110-130

Haydite (Expanded Clay, shale) 40-60 100-120

Foamed Slag 40-60 90-100

Cinders 40-50 110-115

Pumice 30-60 60-90

Diatomite 28-40 55-70

Perlite 6-16 40-65

Vermiculite 6-10 25-50

Div 04 (MASONRY)

1. MORTARS AND PLASTERS- a proportioned mixture of siliceous materials (sand, crushed

stone) and cement (lime, Portland) which, after being prepared in a plastic state with water,
hardens into a stonelike mass.

Mortar is cement mix used to glue masonry units to each other, or other surface finishing
materials like tiles, bricks, stones to a receiving structure like a wall or floor.

Plaster is mortar applied to wall surfaces as a preparation or a hard finish coat.

1.01 CEMENT MORTAR- is a proportioned mixture of cement, fine aggregate and water. Replacing
10 or 15 percent of the cement by volume with hydrated lime gives greater workability and
increases the strength of the mortar.
1.02 PLASTER- is a mortar of cementitious material ( lime, gypsum or cement), sand and water
which is applied in coats (layers) to masonry surfaces, lath or various types of plaster board to
give a hard finish surface to interior or exterior walls and ceilings.
 the word “plaster” refers to gypsum plaster and the words gypsum and plaster are often
used interchangeably.
 Fiber or hair is sometimes added to the mixture to give increased strength as when used for
the first coat.
 Plastering is done according to two basic methods:
two-coat- In the two-coat work, the scratch and brown coats are combined into one.
three-coat- consists of ;
 SCRATCH COAT- a first binding coat
 BROWN-COAT- a second straightening coat
 FINISH COAT- a final coat
1.03 TYPES OF PLASTER AND THEIR USES
a. Lime Plaster
Lime putty (hydrated lime and water), mixed on the job with sand and gypsum plaster,
used for two and three-coat finish surfaces for interior walls and ceilings.
b. Gypsum Plaster

 Gypsum plaster. Plaster of Paris mixed with clay, lime and other materials in combinations
covered by trademarks or patents. Mixed on the job with water, sand, lime putty, hair or fiber
for two or three-coat finish surfaces for interior walls and ceilings; or used dry as ingredient for
hard or sand float finish with lime plaster.

 High-strength gypsum plaster. Same as gypsum plaster but mixed to meet established
standards. Mixed on the job with water, sand, lime putty, hair or fiber for two and three-coat
finish surfaces for both exteriors and interiors.

 Fibered gypsum plaster. Gypsum plaster premixed with fibers. Mixed on the job with water and
sand for scratch coat for three-coat plastering job
 Prepared gypsum plaster. Gypsum plaster mixed with fine white sand. Used for two and three-
coat finish surfaces for interior walls and ceilings

 Bonding plaster. Gypsum plaster mixed with ingredients develop more adhesive strength in
combinations covered by trademarks or patents. Used for interior finish for smooth concrete
walls or ceilings. Mix and apply as per manufacturer’s directions

 Lightweight gypsum plaster, fire-resistant plaster. Gypsum plaster mixed on the job with water,
perlite, vermiculite or other suitable mineral aggregate. Lightweight gypsum plaster is used
when weight is important, and for fire-proofing other materials such as steel.

 Keene’s cement. Plaster of Paris mixed with alum or borax or other materials and burned
(calcined) at 932F. Mixed on the job with water, lime putty and fine white sand as hard finish
for two and three-coat gypsum plaster.

 Plaster of Paris. For ornamental plaster work and castings.

 Molding plaster. For ornamental plaster work and castings.

 Acoustics plaster. For acoustic treatment of interior walls and ceilings. Applied on gypsum
plaster base coats.

c. Portland Cement Plaster- Mixed with water, sand and lime putty. Used for two and three-coat
finish surfaces for exterior and interior walls and ceilings
d. “Sgraffito”- is highly decorative type of plaster work developed in Italy during the Renaissance.
This type of technique consists of applying two or three thin coats of plaster different colors and
then cutting away certain areas of one or two coats to produce a three-dimensional colored
design.

2. UNIT MASONRY
Masonry - is a built-up construction or combination of building materials as clay, concrete,
or stone set in mortar; or plain concrete.
MASONRY TERMS
a. Bed – The horizontal surfaces on which the stones or bricks of walls lie in the courses.
b. Course – A continuous layer of bricks, stones, or other masonry units
c. Wythe or Tier – Each continuous, vertical section of the wall, one masonry unit thick.

d. Bond – That connection between bricks, stones or other masonry units formed by lapping them
one upon another carrying up the work, so as to form an inseparable mass of building, by
preventing the vertical joints falling over each other (also called a breaking joint).

e. Stretcher – A brick or block masonry laid lengthwise of a wall

 f. Header – A brick or block masonry extending over the thickness of the wall

g. Heading course – A course in which the bricks or other masonry units are all headers.

h. Soldier – A unit laid on its end with its face perpendicular to the face of the wall.

i. Quoins – The corner stones at the angles of buildings, usually rusticated so as to project from
the normal surface of the wall.

j. Bond Stones – Stones running through the thickness of the wall at right angles to its face, in
order to bind it together.

k. Blocking or Blocking Course – A course of stones placed on top of cornice crowning the walls

2.02 STONE- Stone, together with wood and clay, are the basic building material of man. The history
of architecture until as late as 1900 was largely the history of stone in architecture. Stone was the
structural material, the exterior and interior finishing material, the flooring material and in many cases
the roofing material. It was also used for all types of sculpture, statuary, and decorative and ornamental
applications

Stone commonly used for architectural purposes include;

granite
marble
travertine
limestone
sandstone
slate.

CLASSIFICATION OF STONE

a. Rubble Stone. Stone delivered from the quarries rough and irregular shape.

b. Dimension Stone. Stone cut into specific size, squared to dimensions, and to a specific thickness

STONEWORK: The types of stonework are based on the shape and the surface treatment of finish of the
stone

a. Rubble work. Masonry of rough, undressed stones.

 SCRABBLED RUBBLE - When only the roughest irregularities are knocked off.
 RANGE RUBBLE- when the stones in each course are rudely dressed to a nearly uniform height.
b. Random work. Stones fitted together at random without any attempt to lay them in course.

a. b.
 c. Ashlar. Squared stones in regular courses, in contradistinction to rubble work.

 Ranged work or coursed ashlar – Uniform courses with stones uniform in size.

 Broken range ashlar – Course laid with the horizontal joints uninterrupted but the width of the
courses and the length of the stones are varied to produce a wall with a less regular pattern

 Random course- their rectangular shape and are laid on horizontal beds but no effort is made to
continue the horizontal beds through in an uninterrupted manner. Large stones combine with
small ones in a convenient and, if possible, an interesting manner.

 Rustic or Rock work - Courses of stone face which is jagged, so as to present a rough surface.

*RUSTICATION- occurs when heavier stones or areas of stone project from the normal face
of the surrounding wall or of the joint themselves.

2.03 BRICKS- are structural units of clay or shale formed while plastic and subsequently fired. After
moulding, the bricks are dried and then burned in kilns for many hours at high temperatures,
approximately 2000F.

 Standard size of brick is 3-3/4” x 2-1/4” x 8”.

COMMON BRICKS

 Common or building brick. Used for all purposes, including facing.

 Facing brick. Specially processed to give certain specific surface characteristics. Used for
exposed masonry surfaces.

 Glazed brick. These have a smooth outer surface with a dull satin or high gloss finish.
They are load bearing, fire resisting, and impervious. They are usually formed with
vertical hollow cores through the body with scoring on the back.

 Fire (refractory) brick. These are ordinarily made from a mixture of flint clay and plastic
clay, and are used for the lining of furnaces, fireplaces, and chimneys.

BRICK WORK. The usual methods of laying brick are as follows:

a. Common Bond. Consists of five stretcher courses and then a header course. It is generally begun
with a row of headers at the bottom course

b. English Bond. Consists of alternate courses of stretchers and headers .

c. Flemish Bond. Consists of alternate headers and stretchers in each course .

d. Herringbone. The bricks are laid diagonally to form a herring-bone pattern.

*Mortar joints between brick courses are usually from 4.5mm (3/16”) to 12mm (½”).
2.04 CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCK

Concrete Hollow Block (CHB) is a hollow masonry unit,

with two or three cells or cores, made of the following

ingredients: water, Portland cement, and various types

of aggregate such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone.

• From thicknesses of 100mm (4”), 150mm (6”) and 200mm (8”) x height of 200mm (8”) x length
of 400mm (16”)- Standard CHB sizes

• CHB of 100mm (4”) thickness- should be used only for interior partition walls where weather-
tightness is not required.

Dowel bars should be placed into the

piers, columns, slabs, leaving 20 bar

diameters exposed to splice with the

reinforcement of the hollow blocks.

2.05 “DURISOL” BLOCK

- “DURISOL” block- is lightweight block made from fiber and cement.

- “DURISOL” block units are two-core, 100mm (4”) or 150mm ( 6”) x 87mm (7-1/2”) x 600mm
(24”).

2.06 PLASTER BLOCK- also known as gypsum partition blocks, are usually made of gypsum, vegetable
fibers as binders, and reinforcement. Used for lightweight, fire-resistant interior partitions and for
furring and fireproofing columns.

2.07 STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE- are hollow masonry units, open at two ends with interior webs or
partitions 19mm (¾”) to 25mm (1”) dividing the block into longitudinal cells. It may have a smooth or
scored (grooved) surface.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE

a. Load-bearing wall tile- 300mm x 300mm x 300mm (12” x 12” x 12”)

b. Non-load bearing, fireproofing, partition, and furring tile- 100mm (4”) or 125mm (5”) x
200mm x 300mm