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    PROPHESY DELIVERANCE! An Afro-American Revolutionary Christianity Anniversary Bdition with a New Prefice by the Author CORNEL WEST Westminster John Knox Press LOUISVILLE * LONDON To the memory of my beloved grandiather, Rey, CLIFTON L. WEST, SR, (1903-1979) Pastor, Metropolitan Baptist Church, Tulsa, Oklahoma (1937-197), who through it all kept the faith 6 1982, 2002 Comal Wee Ais rove No partook my be repel tenant fo by an mea eons esa ‘scdngplorcopyng recoding hy acylation tore ce “ui ten how! permis etna se pulse Por afrmann,adors Wes Jo Kos Pet 100 Wakes Sees oui, Remy 0202-1356 ‘Book design by Share Adan Ces desgn By Mk Abrams Probie by Westinaer John Knox Tress Tosi, Ketocy “This took spied oa fe pape sat ees the Amin Nesnal Sania lniate 23948 sandard. & 3 GL 05 00 07 8G) 10 111098765432 itary of Congress Cataloging in Paton Dat Me Geo chcmcn Ao-Ansson tony Cis /y Coe ements mo pcb Corel Wes Inclas billograpbic ferences an inde, patie tec Religion. 2, RacinUoie Sites 3, Commie an cota Umeda Tite sens was 202 fosisavrsaal a CONTENTS Prajace Ackoutedgments “Introduction: The Sources and Tasks ‘of Afro-American Critical Thought 1. American Alieans in Conic ‘Akenation in an Insecure Culture 2.A Genealogy of Modern Racism 3: The Four Tradtions of Response 4, Prophetic Afro-American Christian Thowa and Progressive Maxis. 5. Afro-American Revolutionary Christianity | Notes Index 6 D a BL 9 9 2 ‘A GENEALOGY OF MODERN RACISM “The notion tha black people are human beings isa relatively new iscovery inthe modern West. The idea of back equality in beauty, ultare, and intellectual capacity remains problematic and contro- ‘ersal within prestigious hals of learning and sophisticated inte Tectual circles. The Afro-American encounter wih the modern ‘world has been shaped fret and foremost by the doctrine of white {upremacy, which is embodied in institutional practices and enacted inveveryday folkways under varying circumstances and evolving conditions ‘My aim in eis chaprer is co give a bref account of the way in wich the idea of shite supremacy was consticuted as an object of tnodern discourse in the West, without simply appealing to the ob- jective demands ofthe prevailing mode of production, the political Interests ofthe saveholding class, oF the psychological needs of the dominant white racial group. Despite the indispensable role these factors would play in. fullblown explanatory model to account for the emergence and sdstenance of modern racism in che West I try to bold these factors constant and focus solely on a neglected vari ablein past explanatory models—aamely, the way in which the very Structure of modetn dicourse ait ueplion produced forms of ra tionality, scienificity, and objectivity a5 well as aesthetic and cul tural ideals which require the constitution of che idea of white su remacy. ‘This requirement follows from a logic endemic tothe very struc- ture of modern discourse, This logic is manifest in the way in which the contoling metaphors, notions, and categories of modern dis- ‘ourve produce and prohibit, develop and delimit, specific concep- tions of truth and knowledge, beauty and character, so that certain leas are rendered incomprehensible and unintelligible. I suggest 48 ‘PROPHESY DELIVERANCE! that one such idea tha cannot be broughe within she epstemologi ‘al field ofthe inival modern discourse is that of black equality in beauty, culture and intellectual capaciy. This ac of discursive ex Clsion, of relegating this idea to silence, does not simply corre Spond co (or is not only reflective of che felative powerlessness of black people atthe time, I also reveals the evolving internal dy namicy of the structure of modern discourse in the late seventeenth fand eighteenth centuries ia western Europe—or during the En- Tightenmene, The concrete effects ofthis exclusion and the intellec tual taces ofthis silence contiaue to haunt the modern West: on the nondiscursive level, in ghetto stcets, and on the discursive level in methodological assimprions inthe disciplines of the hu- T shall argue thatthe initial structure of moder discourse in the West "secretes" the idea of white supremacy. I cll this “secre. tlon’'—the underside of modem discourse—a particular logical onsequeace of the quest for tuth and knowledge inthe mover ‘West To put it crudely, may argument is thatthe authority of si cence, undergirded by a modem philosophical discourse guided by ‘Greek ocular metaphors and Cartesian notions, promotes and en- Courages the activities of observing, comparing, measuring, and of ‘ering the physical characteristics of human bodies. Given the re- ‘newed appreciation and appropriation of classical antiquity, these feuvties are regulated by clasical aesthetic and cultural norms ‘The creative fusion of scientific investigation, Cartesian epistemolo- zy and classical kleals produced forms of rasonality, scienticiy, fn objectivity which, though efficacious in he quest for ruth and Knowleige, prohibited the intelligibility and legitimacy of the idea Of black equality in beauty, cultuee, and intellectual capacity. La act, {to "think such an idea was to be deemed ierational, barbaric, oF mad, “TrtwoRETICAL ConsiDERATIONS: “THE GENEALOGICAL APPROACH Teall this inquiry @ “genealogy” because, following the works of Friedrich Nietache and Michel Foucault, Tam interested in the emergence (Entleang) the "moment of arising” of the idea of tehite supremacy within the modern discourse in the West? This [zenealogy tes t0 address the following questions: What are the iscursive conditions forthe possibility of the itlligibilty and le Bitimacy ofthe idea of white supremacy in modern discourse? How [A GENTALOGY OF MODERN RACISM ” ig this idea constiuted within the epistemological field of modern iscourse? What isthe complex configuration of metaphors, 20: tions, categories, and norme which produces and promotes such an lbject of modern discourse? ‘My genealogical approach subscribes to a conception of power thae i nether simply based on individual subjects—eg, heroes or prea personages avi traditional hstorography—nor on collective Subjecte—e., aroups, clits, or classes sin sevisionist and vulgar Marxist historiography. Thevefore Ido not believe thatthe emer- igence ofthe idea of white spromacy inthe modeen West can be fly accounted for in terms of the psychological needs of white i tividuals and groups oF the political and economic interests of @ fuling clas. I will try to show thatthe idea of white supremacy temetges pardy because ofthe powers within the structure of mod: rn discourse--powers to produce and prohibit, develop and de. limit forms of aionality,siendfeiy, and objectivity which et pe imeters and draw boundaries for the intelligibility, availabilty, and legitimacy of cern ideas "These powers are subjectless—chat is, they ae the indirect prod. ‘ets ofthe praxis of human subject. They have a life and logic of theirown, tot ina teanshstorical realm but within history alongside yet noe reducible to demands of an economic system, interests of class, or needs ofa group. What I am suggesting is nota history ‘without a subject propagated by the sructralist Marxist Louis Al thusser, but rather a history made by the praxis of human subjecs ‘which often results in complex structures of discourses which have ‘eative autonomy from (or is aot fully accountable in terms of) the Jncenions, sims, needs, interes, and objectives of human sub- ‘am further suggesting that there is n0 direct correspondence beeween nondiscursive structures, such asa system of production (orn Marxist terms, an economic base), and discursive stuctares, such as theoretical formations (or, ia Marxist terms, an ideological superstructure). Rather, there ae powers immanent in nondiscur- sve structures and discursive structures Traditional, revisionist, ‘Marxist types of historiography focus primarily 0a pow. nondiscursive structures—e.g., powers of kings, presi ‘dent, elites, or classes and reduce the powers within discursive “uctutes to mere means for achieving the intentions aims, needs, inerens and objeives of Sbjecs in sondcurive ec is reduetioniem isnot wrong its simply inadequate. [e rightly acknowledges notewonhy concrete effects generated by the rela 30 ‘PROPIIESY DELIVERANCH! tionship beeween powers in discursive structures and those in noa- discursive structures, but it wrongly denies the relative autonomy ‘ofthe powers in discursive structures and hence reduces the com: plexity of cultural phenomena ‘The primary motivation behind such reductionism (such as per- sonalistic analyses of race prejudice or orthodox Marxist accounts ‘of racism) isto ensure an easy resolution of a hihly complex prob- Tem, without calling into question cerain fundamental assumptions that inform such resolutions. These fundamental assumptions, sich ‘asthe subject based conception of power, and easy resolutions, such {the elimination of race prejudice by knowledge or the abolition ‘of racism under socialism, preclude theoretical alternatives and sre- tegic options In this way, these furdamental assumptions and hypo- therical resolutions illustrate the effects ofthe powers immanent ia in liberal and Marxist discourses, ‘Tue SraucTURE OF MODERN DiscouRse Tundentand ihe acre fara dine” be hen teling neapbor, oto ateporie, and norms that shape predominant conctpuons of suk and knowledge inthe modern fee Thee metaphor, noo ctegricy, and no are cum Mee un deterned by tone major stra process: the ck ‘aufe rvoluton, the Caren arsoemation of philosophy, and the claealrevval> “Th scenic evolution i uly aocated with the plonecing treo of Copernicus and Keplrinaronomy, Galo and evan it pyc, and Descartes and Lebte in aera ‘hore bcakhoups were pre-Enlightenment most them occur fing during the seventeen conuy, the svalled Age of Genus {The scintic revolution is otewortby (sy the lees) prima Because sgn fed the sthonyof science. This auton jstiied tow moses of knowlege and new conception of ruth and reali {Tatue atthe endo thc em of pagan Chany and set the rae neki theca me ena “The orgiry gues ofthe sete revolution wet beyon tie Renance problemaeof nding a compromise formula hich cnc Chis and scale tng a IRpcycenopped short of dreving thoroughly secular contsions {Phe hetero ato aang ela! warn a rl rcligion and dogmatic thology Galileo's Platonism and New ton Soins lusate dh pecular protomoden word view — | GENEALOGY OF MODERN RACISM. si of making peace between sience and religion For our purposes, the scientific revolution is significant because ic highlights two fundamental ideas oberation and eden. These two ideas have played, in an isolated manner, a role in previous paradigms of knowledge in the West (since the times of Aristotle na Aristarchus), Bue the scientific revolution brought these ideas together in such a way that they have become the two foci around twhich much of modern discourse evolves. The modern concepts Of hypothesis fact, inference, validation, confirmation, and verifies tion cluster around the ideas of observation and evidence “The major proponents ofthe scientific revolution, oF, moce spe cifclly, ofthe authority of science, were two philosophers, Francis Bacon and René Descartes. Bacon is noteworthy primarily because ‘of his mecaphilosophical honesty. For him, che aim of philosophy tras to give humankind mastery over nature by means of scientific Jiscoveries and inventions. He then promoted the philosophical importance ofthe inductive method asa means of ativing at gee eral las t facilitate chis human mastery. Despite Bacon accep- tance of orthodox religion, his rejection of Copernican theory, and his lack of acquaintance with some of the major scientific discover iesofhisime—e.g, the work of Andreas Vesalus on modern anat ‘omy, William Gilbert on magnetism, o William Harvey (Bacon's ‘own medical atendant) on the circulation of blood—Bacon’s wri ings, especially The Advancement of Learaing, did much to promote the authority of science.” Descarcs is highly significant because his thoughe provided the controlling notions of modern discourse: Jb primacy of he Jubjt land the preeminence of pretation. Descartes is widely regarded 4 the founder of modern philosophy not simply because his Philosophical outlook was profoundly affected by the scientific evolution bat, more important, because he associated the scien- tc aim of predicting and explaining the world with the philo ‘sophical air of picturing and representing the world. In this view, the fruit of sient research do not merely provide more useful ‘ways for human beings to cope with reality, uch sesearch also Yields a true copy of realy. Descartes's conception of philosophy 45 tortuous move from the subject 10 objects, from the vel of ideas to the external world, from immediate awareness (0 ex: tended substances, fom self-consciousness to things in space, and ‘ultimately from doube to certainty was motivated primarily by an {vtemnpe to provide a theoretical bass For the legitimacy of mod: fem science. Martin Heidegger made this crucial connection be- 32 PROPHESY DELIVERANCE! tween Cartesian philosophy and modern science in his famous cesay, "The Age of the World View": We are reflecting on the nature of modern science in ores to find itsmetphysieal bas. What conception of the existent and what con ‘cept oftuth cause science to become reste? ‘Understanding at research hols the existent to account on the question of how and how far tcan be puta the disposal Of salable represenaton." Research has the existent at depos ica either calculate i advance, nie future courte, or calcul afer twas as past. Nature and history become the objet of expository ‘epresenton "This objecifcstion ofthe existent takes place ina representation which sms at presenting whatever exis to ell such a ay that the ealeulting perso cane secure, hat i, certain ofthe exten. ‘Science as fesearh is produced when aad only when rath hs been transformed imo such certainty of representation. Inthe metas ‘of Descartes the extent was define forth isi ie a obecity of representation, ad truth as cersny of represenatoa.® Bacon and Descartes had basic differences: Bacon inductive or: entation and Descartes the deductive viewpoint; Bacon the emy «ist outlook and Descartes the rationalise (mathematical) perspec. tive, Despite these differences, both of these propagandiss of ‘modern science agreed that scientific method provides a new pars digm of knowledge and tha observation and evidence iat the cen- ter of scientific method. In The New Organon, Bacon likened his ‘ideal natural philosopher co the bee, which collect "its material from the flowers of the garden and ofthe field” and digests it" by 4 power ofits own.” In his Diveur on Methad, Descartes set forth asa rule that “observations” become "the more necessary the fur ther we advance in knowledge.” And, a8 D’Alembert acknow edged in Thr Encyclopedia, both Bacon and Descartes “introduced the spitt of experimental science." ‘The last major historical process that circumscribed and deter- mined the metaphors, notions, categories, and norms of modern discourse was the classical revival, This clasical revival—in re sponse to medieval mediocrity and religious dogmatism=—was nit ated in the Barly Renaissance (1300-1500), principally with hu ‘manist studies in Roman art and Latin lnerature, such as Gioto in painting, Pcrarch in eters, and Dufay in music. ‘Ths revival nten- sified during the High Renaissance (1500-1530), with Da Vinci, Raphael, Bramante, and the early Michelangelo ia the arts; Ariosto, Rabelais, and Erasmus in litearure; and Josquin and Lassus in peeeace A GENEALOGY OF MODERN RACISM. ” music. The revival mellowed in the Manaerist ea (1530-1600), Silloarated by El Greco Tnvoreto, andthe later Michclangelo In the ar; Montaigne Cervanes, and Shakespeare in lteatre, snd Marensio, Gael, and frescbald in mute The revival was Streagthened inthe Baroque period (1600-1750), a5 seen in the sors of Velasques and Rembrandt in che ars Racine, Milton, and Vondel in lieraare; and Back and Flandl io muse The dase real cine nthe ncaa mover te milo {hecigheenth century, with the palcings of David and Ingres, he Iyrics of Holden, he tages of Alfie the vere and prose of Lindos, andthe musi of Haydn and Mozare The Enlightenment revolt agus the authority ofthe church andthe search for model St uncstaned esti ld to highly charge eecovery of das G_laniquy, and expecially to a new appreciation and appropea: Sogo thes and cola erage of ncn Gree Tor our purposes, the cls revival important because tin {ses Greek ocular metspors and casa ideal of bea, propor ‘onan moron ioe Banning of moder doe ‘Greek ocular metaphors Eye ofthe Mind, Mind a Mirror of Na- tures Midas Inet Aten wih loner Oserver—onate mos fxn dacouge inthe West! Coupled withthe Cartesian notion of nowledge as iner representation, modern philosophic inguiry is saddled withthe epistemological mode! of inlet (former PlaoandAruove's Not no Does one Ee) ispeing ents modeled on retinal images wi the Eye of the Mind view ing repceseniaions inorder to a some carnctrisc that would testy vo thee Biel. “Tu eet fusion of sec ineinion, Cartesian pbileply Graken mtpbors, and aca act and cataral el cmt ete ext ements of oder dicount Wel. T hor od tn discourse ress upon a conception of truth and kawledge go ered by an ideal valuetce. subject engaged in observing, Comparing, ordering, tnd measuring inorder tative at evidence fufcen co make valid inferences, confirm speculative hypothess, tleduce ercor pro! conclusions, ad ven fee representations of realy. ‘THE EMercEnce oP MopsRN Racisi ‘THE Finst STAGE “The recovery ofclasical antiquity in dhe modern West produced ‘what I shall ell @““noemative gaze,” namely, an ideal from which o Ropitesy DELIVERANCE! toonler and compare observations. This ideal was drawn primarily from classical aesthtie values of beauty, proportion, and human form and classical cultural standards of moderation, self-control, and harmony." The role of classical aesthecic and cultural noes inthe emergence of the idea of white supremacy as an object of ‘modern discourse cannot be underestimated ‘These norms were consciously projected and promoted by many influential Enlightenment writers, artists, and scholars, of whom the ‘most famous was J.J. Winckelmana. In his widely read book, Mis tory of Ancient Art, "Winckelmann portrayed ancient Greece a6 a ‘world of heauiful bodies, He laid dowa fules—in art and aesthet fes—that should govern the size of eyes and eyebrows, of collar bones, hands, fect, and especially noses. He defined beauty as noble simplicry and quice grandeur. Ina celebrated passage he wrote: [As the depth of the ocean always remains calm however much the frface may be agisted 0 does the expression ia de gues ofthe (Groeis reveal a great and composed Sou inthe mids of passions. Altiough Winckelmann was murdered in mile lie, neve set footin Greece, and sw ants no orginal Greck art (ony one ex- bldon of Gresarin Manic he wed Greek ety a i ture ase al or sandardagaiot which wo measive other peoples tid cular oe "Winthop Jordan and Thomas Goset have shown that there are noteworthy premodern racist vewpoins aimed drcty and ind feoly at conve, expecially blak, peope.® For example, in 1520 Paracelsus hel that Black an primitive peoples had a sepa fare origin from European, In 1591, Giordano Bruno made a ilar clam, but bad in mind principally Jews and Ethiopians ‘And Loco Vanni posted tat ioplans had apes for ancexors aad had once walked on all fous Sioce theories of the sparse onigin of races were in disagreement with the Roman Catolie Ghure, Bruno and Vanini underwent similar punishment: both teere burned a the stake. OF course, biblically based accounts of Tada inferiority Aourished, bt the authority ofthe church pro- Fibited the proliferation of nonreligious, tat, preomnoder, sc am of acl later. Wht dine abt tb rele cal etc nd cular norms 4 tbe advent of mary stat te prod an acpabe eto ‘rth ten of we sapronay an apie auton tha at cy Tied wth te major eubory on iat and edge in be moders tor namely, ie tation of wen, Tn onde to e6 ow ti ink | GENEALOGY OF MODERN RACISM. 3s age took place, let us examine the categories and aims of the major ditcpline that promoted this authority, thats, hose oF rate ‘ral history “The principal sim of natural history isco observe, compare, mea- sure, and order animals and human bodies (or clases of animals nd human bodies) based on bible especialy Plyal, cbarartertc, ‘These characteristics permit one to discer identity and diference, ‘equality and inequality, beauty and ugliness among animals and hhuman bodies “The governing categories of natural history are preeminent lasfctorycategories—that is, they consist of various taxonomies inthe form of tables, catalogs indexes, and inventories which ime pote some degree of order or representational schema on a broad Feld of visible characteristics. Obersation and diferensnss are the ‘esental guiding notions in natural history. Foucaule wove: [Natural history hata. condison of ix posi the common ai {iy of things and language mith representation; butt exist as a ask fon insofar as shings and language happen tobe separ. It mst therefore reduce this dance Between them 0 ato bring language ts clog a pombe 1 dhe obuerving gaze, and the things observed 1 close a posible ro words. Natural history i ahiag moe than the nomination of the wale ‘Nasal hisory covers series of complex operttons hat into duce he posubily ofa constant order int 2 wut of representa ‘ion. Ieconsteues whale domain of empirciy asa he same time ‘lescrbable and orderale “The intial basis for the idea of white supremacy is to be found in the clasfcatory categories and che descriptive, eepresentationel, ‘onder imposing aims of natural history. The captivity of natal hi tory to what | have called the “normative gaze” signifies the fst stage ofthe emergence ofthe idea of white supremacy as an object ‘of modetn discourse. More specifically (and as Ashley Montagu has tirclesly argued), the genealogy of racism inthe modera West is inseparable from the appearance of the classifeatory category of race in natural history. “The category of ce—denoting primarily skin color—was fist ‘employed as a means of classifying human bodies by Francois Ber hier, a French physician, in 1684. He divided humankind ino bas tally four racer: Europeans, Africans, Orientals, and Lapps.”° The firs authoritative racial division of humankind is found inthe int ential Natural Sytem (1733) of the most preeminent naruralist of 36 PROPHESY DELIVERANCE! the eighteemh century, Carolus Linnaeus. For Linnaeus, species tere fixed in number aad kind; they were immutable prototypes. Varieties, however, were members of species that might change “appearance. The members of aspecies produced fertile offspring; incerfectlty was the test for the division of species, There were variations of kind within a species; the races were a prime example. Forlinnacus, there were four races: Homo Europaeus, Homo As insicus, Homo Afer, and Homo Amerianus, "Winthrop Jordan has argued that Linnaeus did not subscribe to ‘hierarchical ranking of races but rather © "one chain of univers being.” Jordan states: Tevasone thing to clas all ving creation and altogether another tortange itn single great hierarchy; and when Linnaeus wader took the fis: of thee take he was sot hereby force to atempe the lees the many edition ofthe Sema Nararae be duly clogued the various Kinds of men, yet never ina bierarchie manner. Yer it is quite apparent that Linnaeus implicitly evaluated the ob- servable characteristics of the racial classes of people, especially those pertaining to character and disposition. For example, com- pare Linnaeus’ description of the Buropean with the African Buropean. White, Sanguine, Brawoy. Hai abundantly fing Eyes ble, Gene, sat, iventve. Covered with close vstmens, ‘Governed by castors ‘Airan, Back, Phlegmasic, Relaxed, Hair blac, frzzled. Skin Sky: Noe fat. Lip sum Women's bosom a mater of modest. Breasts give mikabundanty. Caf, indolent Negligent. Anoin ‘mee with pease. Governed by caprice.” Linnaeus’ use of evaluative terms revealed, atthe lest, an implicit bierarchy by means of personal preference. I also is important. rote that he included some remarks about the African woman, but that he suid nothing eboue the European woman nor the American land Asie woman). Ie alto is significant that in the 1750s when he frst acknowledged that hybridization of species occur, he chose black people and apes as the probable candidates, while restricting sch unions to black womes and male apes, ‘Georges Louis Lelere de Buffon accepted hybridization without ‘question in his famous Natural History of Man (1778), Although Buffon, like Linnaeus, viewed races as mere chance variations, he hell that white was "the real nd ratueal color of man.” Black peo: ple and other races were variations ofthis natural color, yet some: A GENEALOGY OF MODERN RACSNE 7 how not members of a diferent species. He remained uncertain bout the objective realty of species. Buffon believed that back {Skin as caused by hot climate and would change if the climate be ame colder. Alshough he was 2 fervent antslavery advocate, he aimed that black people had "litle genius” and then added, "The Unfortunate negroes are endowed with excellent hearts, and pos sess the seeds of every human vitwe,"?* ‘Tue EMERGENCE OF MoDERN Racist ‘THE SECOND STAGE In the works of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, one of the found- cecsof modern anthropology, the aesthetic criteria and cultural ide tls of Greece began #0 come to the forefront. Like Linnaeus and Buffon, Blumenbach held tha ll human beings belonged 10 the same species and dha races were merely varieties. Yet contrary to the claims by Winthrop Jordan, Ashley Montagu, and Thomas Gos- sett concerning Blumenbach’s opposition to hierarchic racial rank= Ing or irritation at thore who use aesthetic standards for such rank ‘ng, Bhimenbach praised the syeumenical face as the most beautiful fof human faces precisely because i approximated the “divine ‘works of Greek art, and specially the proper anatomical propor Tioas found in Greek sculpture.” Applying the clasial ideal of Inoderttion, he claimed that the more moderate the climate, the sore beautiful the face. The net result was that since black people ‘were farthest from the Greek ideal and located in extremely hot Climates, they were, by implication, inferior in beauty to Europe "The second sage of the emergence of the idea of white suprem- acy as an object of mdern discourse primarily occurred in the rise ‘of phrenology (the reading of skulls) and physiognomy (the read ing of faces). These new disciplines-closely connected with an- thropology-—served as an open platlozm forthe propagation of the idea of white supremacy aot prinipally because they were pseudo- Sciences, but, more important, because these disciplines acknow- the European valueladen character of thete observations iis European valueladen character was based on classical as. thetic and culacal ideals. ‘Peter Camper, the Dutch anatomist, made aesthetic erteria the pillar of his chief discovery: the famous "facial angle.” Camper Claiaied cha the “facial angle”"—a measure of prognathist— 58 PROPHESY DELIVERANCE! permitted a comparison of heads of human bodies by way of cranial {nd facial measurements. For Camper, the ideal “facial angle” was £2 100edegree angle which was achieved only by the ancient Greeks. He openly admied that this ideal conformed to Winckelmann’s

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