Chapter 2

SCIENCE AS A WAY OF KNOWING: CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT THE

ENVIRONMENT

2.1 ​UNDERSTANDING WHAT SCIENCE IS—AND WHAT IT ISN’T  

The process of obtaining scientific knowledge is different from acquiring what might be called “everyday”
knowledge (see Table 2.1 for a compare/contrast between science and everyday knowledge). This process has
developed over several hundred years.
The scientific method is not the only method of looking at the world and drawing conclusions, but it provides a
powerful tool in acquiring knowledge and understanding of the natural world.
● Science as a Way of Knowing 
Science is a process of discovery. ​Science starts with observations about the natural world followed by
questions that boil down to what, how, and why.​ Modern science does not deal with things that cannot be tested
by observation, such as the​ ultimate purpose of life or the existence of a supernatural being.​ Science also does
not deal with questions that involve values, such as standards of beauty or issues of good and evil.
● Disprovability  
Science deals with ideas that, at least in principle, can be disproved using a combination of logical analysis and
tests. ​If tests cannot be devised, then the explanation cannot be treated as science.
Science, due to the constant influx of new information and new ways of looking at old information, ​cannot
provide definitive answers to all issues​; science is a work in progress based on certain assumptions about the
natural world:
1. The natural world can be understood by observation and analysis.
2. The rules that explain the observations are universal.
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3. Generalizations are valid if they can be subjected to tests that can disprove them.
4. Science can never provide absolute proof positive. 

2.2 OBSERVATIONS, FACTS, INFERENCES AND HYPOTHESES 

When ​observations​ lead to a generality, the generality is known as an ​inference​. When repeated observations
support the generality, the inference becomes a​ ​hypothesis​.​ Eventually, after much testing, if​ the hypothesis
cannot be disproved then the hypothesis becomes an accepted fac​t, or, if formally stated as such, a ​law​. This
process is summarized in Table 2.2.
A typical hypothesis is a statement of how a ​dependent variable​ responds to one or more ​independent 
variables​. ​Experiments​ are done by manipulating the independent variable and comparing the response of the
dependent variable against a ​control​. ​The data resulting from the experiment may be quantitative or qualitative,
depending on the nature of the variable​.

● Controlling Variables 
It is ​desirable in an experiment to control all variables except the one being manipulated or studied​, and to
specifically define all variables. Observations are compiled and extended to generalizations, a process called
inductive reasoning​. Induction begins with specific observations about the natural world that lead to logical
generalizations or explanations, then uses these to induce general conclusions, such as postulating hypotheses
from existing theories.
● The Nature of Scientific Proof 
If a conclusion follows logically from reason or from a ​premise ​(e.g. a straight line is the shortest distance
between two points), the ​conclusion is said to be proven and the process is ​deductive reasoning​. A deductive
proof results from a conclusion that follows directly from the stated premises, and relies on the logical process.
Generally deduction is employed when one is utilizing theory (general) to deduce specific events or principles.
Inductive proofs must be logical​, just a deductive proofs do, but the ​premises must also be true​.
● Theory in Science and Language 
Scientific theories are substantiated, widely accepted explanations of the natural world, thus the definition is
quite different from the “everyday” use of the word. Lay people use the word theory where scientists would use
the term inference or hypothesis. In common usage, ​the word theory conjures up an image of speculation.​ In
fact, in scientific usage the term is the ​highest form of proof that is supported by an overwhelming body of
evidence.​ Theories are the result of research, but theories also lead to more points of research. Many students
believe that a law is a more highly proven theory; it is useful to discuss that ​laws are simple statements about
regularities of nature while theories are ​explanations.​
 
● Models and Theory 
Models differ from theories, although they may be heavily based on them, in that they are attempts to construct
a working mechanism, either physical or virtual, which mimic a construct of nature, usually (and often by
necessity) in a simplified form. ​Models can be used to manipulate variables in experimental frameworks.
● Some Alternatives to Direct Experimentation 
Direct experimentation can be impossible in certain instances. ​Studies of historical data​, while not directly
experimental in that we cannot manipulate or control variables, ​give valuable information about the natural
world and its changes over time. ​Ecologists often make use of historical data to extend their range of
observations, such as the CO​2​ concentration in air bubbles trapped in ice cores, or the pollen concentrations
contained in the sediment of a lake. Natural disturbances or accidents also are utilized when the disturbance
results in what is in effect a natural experiment that could not or would not ever be purposely duplicated. The

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disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear reactor is an example of a tragic disaster that has provided a rich test bed for
ecological research.

● Uncertainty in Science 
It can be difficult to explain to a non-scientist that there is always some degree of uncertainty in measurements
and conclusions.
● Leaps of Imagination and Other Nontraditional Aspects of the Scientific Method 
Science is an intensely creative process. Scientists must have the creativity and inquisitiveness often associated
with children. Scientists may pose questions that seem silly or irrelevant to the layperson. Also, ​sometimes
people notice things they did not set out to find​, such as Fleming’s discovery of penicillin.  

2.3 MEASUREMENTS AND UNCERTAINTY 

● ​A Word about Numbers in Science
All measurements have error​; only the degree of error differs.​ Measurements are meaningless unless
accompanied by an estimate of uncertainty.​ People in general often fail to understand that a measurement
implies a range of uncertainty, which should be reported. (It may be helpful to discuss a scatter gram with
students that shows a best fitting line through a set of data points, each point with its relative error indicated.)
 
● Dealing with Uncertainties 
Experimental errors​ result from somewhat random fluctuations in measurement. ​Systematic errors​ result in
readings that are consistently inaccurate in the same manner​, such as those resulting from incorrectly calibrated
instruments.
● Accuracy and Precision 
Accuracy ​refers to what we know;​ precision ​to how well we measure. 
There are two types of error: ​errors of precision​ (the instrument is only capable of measuring to a certain
precision) and ​errors of accuracy​ (when the instrument or observer are not accurate). A measurement may be
very precise, but inaccurate. Conversely, a measurement may be accurate, but imprecise. ​ Scientists estimate
the accuracy of a measurement by calculating the differences between repeated measurements.

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2.4 ​MISUNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT SCIENCE AND SOCIETY 

● Science and Decision Making 
Even with carefully observed methodologies of practice and decision-making, ​scientific answers are often
uncertain​, and sometimes decisions must be made based on probabilities and uncertain estimates of costs and
benefits. Global warming provides a good example. Many scientists (e.g. W. Broecker) are convinced that it
will be a disaster if the CO​2​ concentrations in the atmosphere rise to 700 ppm, yet there are scientists (e.g. S.
Idso) who raise the possibility that negative feedbacks from increased cloud cover and albedo will hold the
temperature down. ​Environmental decisions are rarely easy, and the solution to one problem often creates a
new problem​ (e.g. water treatment creates a solid waste disposal problem).
● Science and Technology 
Science is often confused with technology. ​ Science is a search for understanding of the natural world​, whereas
technology is the application of scientific knowledge in an attempt to benefit people.​ Technology enables
science, and science leads to technology. But, ​technology is not science​. (An excellent discussion could result
from discussing the science behind mobile device technology, and how mobile devices could be used in
science.)
 
● Science and Objectivity 
Scientists aspire to be objective, but scientists are still human and subject to the same bias as all people. There
are methods to remove any observer bias, such as the double blind study.
 
● Science, Pseudoscience, and Frontier Science 
Generalizations or hypotheses that have been disproved or that cannot be tested are termed ​pseudoscience​.
Frontier science​ is science on the cutting edge that has not been thoroughly tested​. Most media coverage
involves new discoveries and pseudoscience. ​The media are often quick to sensationalize a ‘new discovery’
before it has had time to mature. 

2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL QUESTIONS AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD  

● Environmental science deals with complex systems that present challenges to the traditional scientific
method. ​Empirical scientific tests involving large complex systems are often not possible, and so alternative
methods using microcosms and/or mathematical models are used. ​ We often can test the premises, but not
necessarily the final inference. Global warming due to rising CO​2​ is a good example. We have tested the
premise that CO​2​ absorbs infrared radiation, and we have observed that the CO​2​ concentration in the atmosphere
is rising, but we will not know of the fact of global warming until the predictions either are or are not confirmed
by long-term observation. 
 
 
 
 
 
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Critical Thinking Questions 

1. What is the major claim made in the article Clue Found in Deformed Frog Mystery by Michael Conlon?
Humans are causing frog deformities in North America by introducing a chemical into the environment.

2. What evidence does the author present to support the claim?

Looking at the article titled, ​Malformed Frogs In Minnesota: An Update​, the author gives pictures of different
frog deformities, also graphs are shown. It also shows where the references where they show where they got the
information.

3. Is the evidence based on observations, and is the source of the evidence reputable and unbiased?
The evidence, graphs and photos, are based on observations. The sources is unbiased because it's giving out the
facts, the causes of human and other activity which affects the deformity on frogs.

4. Is the argument for the claim, whether or not based on evidence, logical?
The claim “Humans are causing frog deformities in North America by introducing a chemical into the
environment,” is logical. Looking at the claim alone without any evidence, I can see how it can be true.

5. Would you accept or reject the claim?

I would accept the claim because humans are causing harm to the environment other than frogs.

6. Even if the claim were well supported by evidence based on good authority, why would your acceptance be
only tentative?
Because there could be other reasons to why there are deformities in frogs, other than the chemicals introduced
by humans.

7. Your Environmental Science professor has asked you to write a term paper about deformities in Midwestern
U.S. frogs and you find the 1996 newspaper article (you can find it) on methoprene and frog deformities. You
decide to do an Internet search (try EPA methoprene exposure to frogs or methoprene and deformities in frogs)
to update what the article states. Do this search and report your results. Does this support the contention that
newspaper articles can be misleading, or not in this case? Would you agree that newspaper articles are not
acceptable references for term papers, as they may not correctly report scientific information, particularly if the
source (a refereed paper or reliable government report) is not cited?
It can be misleding but looking at it carefully can help you determine whether or not it's reliable and supports
your claim.

8. Suppose your search found the 2003 Scientific American paper discussed above (Blaustein, A.R. and
Johnson , P. J. 2003. Explaining frog deformities. Scientific American. February.) that comes to a different
point of view than the newspaper article of 1996. Would your position on methoprene change after reading the
2003 paper?
My opinion wouldn't change because although there are other reasons to the different deformities of frogs, I
believe the main concern is human activity, like introducing chemicals towards the environment which cause
harm to not anily the environment but also the animals.

Study Questions 

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1. Which of the following are scientific statements and which are not? What is the basis for your decision in
each case?
a. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing.
This is a true scientific statement because there are many things that we do that cause Carbon Dioxide to
increase in the atmosphere. Like using cars, breathing, burning forets down, etc.

b. Condors are ugly.

This is an opinion because while people believe that condors are ugly, others might say that they are beautiful.
Saying that anything is ugly or beautiful is an opinion.

c. Condors are endangered.

Condors being endangered is a scientifically proven fact because when we search up condors being endangered,
the first thing you read is that they are near extinction. There is also only about 20 to 23 California Condors in
California.

d. Today there are 280 condors.

There is not 280 condors, this is not a factual scientific statement. After searching up how many condors there
are, we see that the number of condors is almost doubled at 463.

e. Crop circles are a sign from Earth to us that we should act better.
No because people believed that crop circles were signs of aliens. It wasn't scientifically proven but people still
believed that aliens did make the crop circles. The pranksters that created the crop circles did give us a different
lesson which is that people are so quick to believe something, without checking whether it is reliable or not. It
was an example of how easily people can be deceived.

f. Crop circles can be made by people.

Yes although I don't really believe that its actually a scientifically proven statement, but the first crop circle was
created by pranksters.

g. The fate of Mono Lake is the same as the fate of the Aral Sea.
The fate of Mono Lake is similar to the fate of the Aral Sea. After looking at the different scientific information,
we see that in Lake Mono the water is being used up by the city of Los Angeles. Similarly, the water in the Aral
Sea was being taken out for irrigation.

2. What is the logical conclusion of each of the following syllogisms? Which conclusions correspond to
observed reality?
a. All men are mortal. Socrates is a man.
Therefore ​all men are equal because we are all human. We can all achieve the success of a genius greek
philosopher like Socrates.

b. All sheep are black. Mary’s lamb is white.

Therefore, ​although we are all human, we are all individuals and have different abilities and difficulties.

c. All elephants are animals. All animals are living beings.

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Therefore ​no animal should be left endangered. We must not favor a puppy over an insect. Everyone loves a
puppy but even though an insect can be scary looking, both a puppy and insects have a role to play in their
environment or ecosystem.

3. Which of the following statements are supported by deductive reasoning and which by inductive reasoning?
a. The sun will rise tomorrow.
Inductive reasoning

b. The square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Deductive reasoning

c. Only male deer have antlers.

Inductive reasoning because females also grow antlers.

d. If A = B and B = C, then A = C.
Deductive reasoning because this example is similar to “All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore,
Socrates is mortal.”

e. The net force acting on a body equals its mass times its acceleration.
Deductive reasoning

4. The accepted value for the number of inches in a centimeter is 0.3937. Two students mark off a centimeter on
a piece of paper and then measure the distance using a ruler
(in inches). Student A finds the distance equal to 0.3827 in., and student B finds it equal to 0.39 in. Which
measurement is more accurate? Which is more precise? If student B measured the distance as 0.3900 in., what
would be your answer?
Student B is the closest answer because when rounding the accepted value of 0.3937 to the nearest hundredth
place, then the answer will be 0.39 in, which is the same as Student B.

5. a. A teacher gives five students each a metal bar and asks them to measure the length. The measurements
obtained are 5.03, 4.99, 5.02, 4.96, and 5.00 cm. How can you explain the variability in the measurements? Are
these systematic or random errors?
The measurements of the students are all pretty close to each other, so its systematic.
b. The next day, the teacher gives the students the same bars but tells them that the bars have contracted because
they have been in the refrigerator. In fact, the temperature difference would be too small to have any measurable
effect on the length of the bars. The students’ measurements, in the same order as in part (a), are 5.01, 4.95,
5.00, 4.90, and 4.95 cm. Why are the students’ measurements different from those of the day before? What does
this illustrate about science?
Although the bars were the same length as before, the students are told that the bars were slightly shorter
because they were put in the fridge by the teacher. Because they believed that the bars would be shorter, the
students made sure that their measurements were only a little shorter than the measurements they had before.

6. Identify the independent and dependent variables in each of the following:

a. Change in the rate of breathing in response to exercise.
The rate of breathing is dependant whereas the exercise is independent.

b. The effect of study time on grades.

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Grades will be the dependent variable then the study time will be independent.

c. The likelihood that people exposed to smoke from other people’s cigarettes will contract lung cancer.
The likelihood of getting lung cancer is dependent whereas being exposed to smoke from other people's
cigarettes is the independent variable.

7. a. Identify a technological advance that resulted from a scientific discovery.

Einstein discovered that lightning was electrical so the discovery of electricity was made.

b. Identify a scientific discovery that resulted from a technological advance.

Different medicines and mass production of medicines were made possible by technological advance. The
discovery of other solar systems, stars, galaxies were made because of technological advances of telescopes.

c. Identify a technological device you used today. What scientific discoveries were necessary before the device
could be developed?
The technological device I used today was a computer. Using a computer is possible today because of the
discovery of electricity, technology, robotic components functioning together, and computer designing and
engineering.

8. What is fallacious about each of the following conclusions?

a. A fortune cookie contains the statement “A happy event will occur in your life.” Four months later, you find a
$100 bill. You conclude that the prediction was correct.
A piece of paper coming from a fortune cookie cannot predict the future. It was a coincidence that you found a
$100 bill after receiving a fortune stating “A happy event will occur in your life.”

b. A person claims that aliens visited Earth in prehistoric times and influenced the cultural development of
humans. As evidence, the person points to ideas among many groups of people about beings that came from the
sky and performed amazing feats.
This person has a poor conclusion because in his evidence he “points to ideas among many groups of people
about beings that came from the sky and performed amazing feats.” He uses “ideas” which are just ideas, they
aren't pieces of evidence which support the existence of aliens. Ideas can be opinion based which are usually not
scientifically proven.

c. A person observes that light-colored animals almost always live on light-colored surfaces, whereas dark
forms of the same species live on dark surfaces. The person concludes that the light surface causes the light
color of the animals.
This person doesn't even portray examples of light colored or dark colored animals that are color-influenced by
dark or light colored surfaces.

d. A person knows three people who have had fewer colds since they began taking vitamin C on a regular basis.
The person concludes that vitamin C prevents colds.
This is a poor conclusion because it doesn't give solid evidence that Vitamin C prevents colds. The only reason
the conclusion gives is that 3 people have fewer colds after taking Vitamin C. It doesn’t show us proof that
Vitamin C is guaranteed to give you fewer colds.
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9. Find a newspaper article on a controversial topic. Identify some loaded words in the article—that is, words
that convey an emotional reaction or a value judgment.
Abortion Pills Should Be Everywhere​: “which is far more ​culturally​ and politically palatable in the
United”States.”

10. Identify some social, economic, aesthetic, and ethical issues involved in a current environmental
controversy.
Intensive farming ​is a current environmental controversy. There are many issues like Agricultural subsidy, 
Environmental effects of meat production, Intensive animal farming, Intensive crop farming, Irrigation , 
Monoculture, Nutrient pollution, Overgrazing, Pesticide drift, Plasticulture, and Slash and burn. 
 
Web Resources 
http://www.npr.org/display_pages/features/feature_1893089.html​ Three views on global warming by scientists.

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