Prelim Page 1/1

CSAT General Studies Paper 1

(CSAT Paper I: 200 Marks; Duration: Two Hours; Number of Questions: 100)

(Current Affairs, History, Geography, Polity, Economy, Environment and Science)

Current Affairs
➢ Events of National and International Importance.

History
➢ History of India and Indian National Movement.

Geography
Indian and World Geography
➢ Physical Geography of India and the World,
➢ Social Geography of India and the World,
➢ Economic Geography of India and the World.

Polity
Indian Polity and Governance
➢ Constitution,
➢ Political System,
➢ Panchayati Raj,
➢ Public Policy,
➢ Rights Issues, etc.

Economy
Economic and Social Development
➢ Sustainable Development (सतत िवकास,),
➢ Poverty,
➢ Inclusion (समावेश),
➢ Demographics (ज म-मृ यु के आं कड़ों से संबंिधत),
➢ Social Sector Initiatives (सामािजक े की पहल), etc.

Environment
➢ General Issues on Environmental Ecology,
➢ General Issues on BioDiversity,
➢ General Issues on Climate Change.
(No Subject Specialization Required)
And General Science
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CSAT General Ability Test Paper 2 Syllabus

(CSAT Paper II: 200 Marks; Duration: Two Hours; Number of Questions: 80)

1. Comprehension.

2. Interpersonal Skills including Communication Skill.

3. Logical Reasoning and Analytical Ability.

4. Decision Making and Problem Solving.

5. General Mental Ability.

6. Basic Numeracy (Numbers and their Relations, Orders of Magnitude etc.)

(Class X level)

7. Data Interpretation (Charts, Graphs, Tables, Data Sufficiency etc).

(Class X level)

8. English Language Comprehension skills.

(Class X level).
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CSE Mains General Studies Paper - I

(Indian Heritage and Culture, Society and History and Geography of the World)

Indian Heritage and Culture

1. Indian Culture will cover the Salient Aspects of (from Ancient to Modern Times):
➢ Art Forms,
➢ Literature,
➢ Architecture.

Modern Indian History

2. Modern Indian History from about the Middle of the Eighteenth Century (1750 A.D.)
until the Present Significant Events, Personalities, Issues.

3. The Freedom Struggle:

➢ Various Stages of Freedom Struggle,
➢ Important Contributors,
➢ Contributions from Different Parts of the Country.

4. Post-Independence Consolidation (एक ीकरण) and Reorganization within the

Country.

History of the world

5. History of the World will include Events from 18th Century (1700 A.D.) such as:
➢ Industrial Revolution,
➢ World Wars,
➢ Redrawal of National Boundaries,
➢ Colonization,
➢ Decolonization.

6. Political Philosophies like:

➢ Communism,
➢ Capitalism,
➢ Socialism etc.
➔ and their Forms and Effect on the Society.
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Society (Sociology)
7. Salient Features of Indian Society,
➢ Diversity of India,
➢ Effects of Globalization on Indian Society.

Important Issue
Women Issues
➢ Role of Women,
➢ Role of Women’s Organization,

Population Issue
➢ Population and Associated Issues, (जनसं ा और संबंिधत मु े )

Development Issues
➢ Poverty and Developmental Issues,
➢ Urbanization, their Problems and their Remedies.

Social Issues
8. Social Empowerment, (सामािजक सश करण)
➢ Communalism (सां दाियकता), Regionalism ( े ीयवाद) & Secularism (धमिनरपे ता).

Geography
Physical Geography
9. Salient Features of World’s Physical Geography (Including India).

10. Important Geophysical Phenomena such as:

➢ Earthquakes,
➢ Tsunami,
➢ Volcanic Activity,
➢ Cyclone etc.

11. Geographical Features and their Location, Changes in Critical Geographical

Features (including Water Bodies and Ice-Caps) And its Effects on flora and fauna.

India and World Geography

12. Distribution of Key Natural Resources ( मुख ाकृितक संसाधन) across the World
Including South Asia and the Indian Subcontinent.

13. Factors Responsible for the Location of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sector
Industries in Various Parts of the world (Including India).

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CSE Mains General Studies Paper - II

(Constitution, Polity, Social Justice, Governance and International Relations)

Constitution
Indian Constitution
➢ Historical Underpinnings (ऐितहािसक आधारभूत),
➢ Evolution ( मागत उ ित),
➢ Features (िवशेषताएं ),
➢ Amendments,
➢ Significant Provisions (मह पूण ावधान),
➢ Basic structure.
➢ Comparison of the Indian constitutional scheme with that of other countries.

Polity
Union and States
➢ Functions of the Union and States,
➢ Responsibilities of the Union and States,
➢ Issues and Challenges pertaining (मु े और संबंिधत चुनौितयां ) to the Federal Structure,
➢ Devolution (ह ा रण) of Powers and Finances up to Local levels and challenges
therein.

Parliament and State Legislatures

➢ Structure,
➢ Functioning,
➢ Conduct of business,
➢ Powers & Privileges,
➢ And issues arising out of these (इनम से उ होने वाले मु े ).

Structure, Organization, Functions and Responsibilities of the:

➢ Executive,
➢ Judiciary,
➢ Ministries and Departments of the Government,
➢ Constitutional Bodies,
➢ Statutory Bodies,
➢ Regulatory Bodies,
➢ Quasi judicial Bodies.
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Misc
➢ Separation of powers between various organs dispute redressal mechanisms
(िविभ अंग िववाद िनवारण तं ) and institutions.
➢ Pressure Groups, Formal/Informal Associations and their role in Polity.
➢ Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act (1951) under Article 327.
➢ Appointment to various Constitutional posts, Powers, Functions.

Social Justice

Government Policies and Welfare Schemes

➢ Interventions for development (िवकास के िलए ह ेप) in various sectors,
➢ Issues arising out of Policy design and implementation,
➢ Welfare Schemes for Vulnerable sections (कमजोर वग ) of Population by Centre and
States,
➢ Performance of these Vulnerable sections Welfare Schemes,
➢ Mechanism (तं ), Laws, Institutions and Bodies for Protection and Betterment of
Vulnerable Sections (कमजोर वग का सुधार).

Development Related
➢ Development Processes and Development Industry,
➢ Role of NGO's,
➢ Role of SHG's,
➢ Role of various Donors,
➢ Role of various Charities,
➢ Role of various Associations,
➢ Role of various Institutions,
➢ Role of various Groups,
➢ Role of other stakeholders.

Issues Related
➢ Issues Relating Development and Management of Social Sector or Social Service,
➢ Issues Relating to Health,
➢ Issues Relating to Education,
➢ Issues Relating to Human Resources,
➢ Issues Related to Poverty and Hunger.
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Governance
➢ Important Aspects (मह पूण पहलू) of Governance,
➢ Transparency and Accountability of Governance,
➢ Citizens Charters (नाग रक अिधकार प ),
➢ Transparency & Accountability,
➢ And institutional and other measures (सं थागत और अ उपाय).
➢ Role of Civil Services in a Democracy.

E-Governance
➢ Applications,
➢ Models,
➢ Successes,
➢ Limitations,
➢ And Potential (संभावना).

International Relations
➢ India and its Neighborhood- Relations.

➢ Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and Global Agreements involving India
and/ or affecting India’s interests.

➢ Effect of Policies and Politics of Developed and Developing Countries on India’s

interests,

➢ Indian diaspora (भारतीय वासी).

➢ Important International institutions,

➢ Important International Agencies and Fora- their Structure, Mandate.
(मह पूण अंतरा ीय एजिसयां और मंच - उनकी संरचना, जनादे श)
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CSE Mains General Studies Paper - III

(Economic Development, Technology, Bio Diversity, Environment, Security and
Disaster Management)

Economic Development
Agriculture  
➢ Major Crops,
➢ Cropping Patterns in various Parts of the Country,
➢ Different types of Irrigation,
➢ Different types Irrigation Systems Storage.

➢ Transport and Marketing of Agricultural Produce,

➢ Issues and Related Constraints (संबंिधत बाधाएं ) in Transport and Marketing of
Agricultural Produce.

➢ E-technology in the Aid of Farmers (िकसानों की सहायता म ई- ौ ोिगकी).

➢ Technology Missions for Various Crops.

➢ Issues Related to Direct and Indirect Farm Subsidies,

( और अ कृिष से संबंिधत मु ों पर स डी)
➢ Minimum Support Prices (MSP),
➢ Issues Related to Minimum Support Prices (MSP).

➢ Economics of Animal Rearing (पशु पालन के अथशा ).

Food Processing
➢ Scope and Significance ( े और मह ) of Food Processing,
➢ Related Industries of Food Processing in India,
➢ Location of Related Industries,
➢ Upstream and Downstream Requirements,
➢ Supply Chain Management.

Public Distribution System (PDS)

➢ Objectives of PDS,
➢ Functioning of PDS,
➢ Limitations of PDS,
➢ Revamping of PDS;
➢ Issues of Buffer Stocks,
➢ Issues of Food Security.
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Growth 
➢ Indian Economy,
➢ Issues Relating to Planning,

➢ Mobilization of Resources,

➢ Growth of Indian Economy,

➢ Development and Employment,

➢ Inclusive growth,
➢ Issues arising from Inclusive growth.

Infrastructure
➢ Energy,
➢ Ports,
➢ Roads,
➢ Airports,
➢ Railways, etc.

Miss
➢ Liberalization and Effects of Liberalization on the Economy.

➢ Changes in Industrial Policy and their Effects on Industrial Growth,

➢ Investment models.

➢ Government Budgeting.

➢ Land reforms in India.

➢ Issues Relating to Intellectual Property Rights.

Science and Technology

Technology
➢ Developments,
➢ Applications,
➢ Effects in Everyday Life of Technology,
➢ Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology,
➢ Indigenization ( दे शीकरण) of Technology,
➢ Developing new Technology.
Paper- 3 Page 3/3

Awareness In the fields of

➢ Information Technology,
➢ Space,
➢ Computers,
➢ Robotics,
➢ Nano-technology,
➢ Bio-technology.

Environment and BioDiversity 

Disaster and Disaster Management.

Conservation (संर ण)
➢ Environmental Pollution and Degradation (पयावरण दू षण और िगरावट),
➢ Environmental Impact Assessment (पयावरण भाव आकलन).
➢ Renewable and Non Renewable Resources.

Security

Challenges to Internal Security

➢ Linkages between Development and Spread of Extremism.
➢ Role of External State and Non-State actors in Creating Challenges to Internal
Security.

➢ Challenges to internal Security through Communication Networks,

➢ Role of Media and Social Networking Sites in Internal Security Challenges,
➢ Basics of Cyber Security.

➢ Security Challenges and their Management in Border Areas,

➢ Linkages of Organized Crime with Terrorism.

Miss
➢ Money-laundering and its prevention,
➢ Various Security Forces and Agencies and their Mandate.
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Paper- 4 Page 1/3

CSE Mains General Studies Paper - IV

(Ethics, Integrity, and Aptitude)

➢ This Paper will Include Questions to Test the Candidates’ Attitude (मनोवृि ) and
Approach ( ि कोण) to Issues Relating to Integrity (अखंडता or ईमानदारी), Probity
(स िन ा or स ाई) in Public Life and his Problem Solving Approach to Various
Issues and Conflicts Faced by him in dealing with society.

➢ Questions may utilise the case study approach to determine these aspects.

The following broad areas will be covered.

Ethics (नीित शा )
Ethics and Human Interface
➢ Essence (सारां श),
➢ Determinants and Consequences of Ethics in Human Actions,
(मानव ि याओं म नैितकता के िनधारण और प रणाम)
➢ Dimensions of Ethics (नैितकता के आयाम),
➢ Ethics in Private and Public Relationships.

Human Values
➢ Lessons from the Lives and Teachings of Great Leaders,
(जीवन से सबक और महान नेताओं की िश ाऐं)
➢ Lessons from Reformers and Administrators,
➢ Role of Family,
➢ Role of Society,
➢ Role of Educational Institutions in Inculcating Values (मह को ान म रखते ए).

Attitude
➢ Content,
➢ Structure,
➢ Function,
➢ Its Influence and Relation with Thought and Behavior
(इसका भाव और िवचार और वहार के साथ संबंध),
➢ Moral and Political Attitudes (नैितक और राजनैितक ि कोण),
➢ Social Influence and Persuasion (सामािजक भाव और ो ाहन).
Paper- 4 Page 2/3

Public/Civil Service Values and Ethics in Public Administration

➢ Status and Problems ( थित और सम ाएं ),
➢ Ethical Concerns and Dilemmas (नैितक िचंता और दु िवधा) in Government and Private
Institutions,
➢ Laws,
➢ Rules,

➢ Regulations and Conscience (िविनयम और िववेक) as Sources of Ethical Guidance,

➢ Accountability and Ethical Governance (जवाबदे ही और नैितक शासन),

➢ Strengthening of Ethical and Moral Values in Governance,

( शासन म नैितक और नैितक मू ों को सु ढ़ बनाना)
➢ Ethical Issues in International Relations and Funding,
(अंतरा ीय संबंध और अनुदान म नैितक मु े )

➢ Corporate Governance.

Probity in Governance ( शासन म स िन ा)

➢ Concept of Public Service (लोक सेवा की अवधारणा),
➢ Philosophical Basis of Governance and Probity.

➢ Information Sharing and Transparency in Government,

➢ Right to Information.

➢ Codes of Ethics (नैितक आचार संिहता,),

➢ Codes of Conduct (आचरण के िनयम),
➢ Citizen’s Charters (नाग रक अिधकार-प ).

➢ Work Culture (काय सं ृ ित),

➢ Quality of Service Delivery.

➢ Utilization of Public Funds,

➢ Challenges of Corruption.
Paper- 4 Page 3/3

Aptitude (यो ता)

➢ Aptitude and foundational values for Civil Service,
(िसिवल सेवा के िलए यो ता और मूलभूत मू )
➢ Integrity (अखंडता),
➢ Impartiality and nonpartisanship (िन ता और गैर-प पाती),

➢ Objectivity (िवषय िन ा),

➢ Dedication to Public Service,

➢ Empathy (सहानुभूित),
➢ Tolerance and Compassion (सहनशीलता और दया) Towards the Weaker Sections.

➢ Emotional Intelligence Concepts (भावना क बु संक ना), and their Utilities and
Application (उपयोिगताएँ और अनु योग) in Administration and Governance.

➢ Contributions of Moral Thinkers and Philosophers from India and World.

Case Studies on All Above Issues.

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CSE Political Science & International Relations Syllabus

Paper - I
Political Theory and Indian Politics

Political Theory
➢ Meaning and Approaches.

Theories of the State

➢ Liberal (उदारवाद),
➢ Neoliberal (नव उदारवाद),

➢ Marxist,
➢ Pluralist (ब लवादी),

➢ Post-Colonial,
➢ And Feminist.

Justice
➢ Conceptions of Justice with Special Reference to Rawl’s Theory of Justice and its
Communitarian Critiques (सा वादी आलोचक).

Equality
➢ Social Equality,
➢ Political Equality,

➢ Economic Equality.
➢ Relationship between Equality and Freedom,

➢ Affirmative Action (सकारा क कारवाई).

Rights
➢ Meaning of Rights,
➢ Theories of Rights,

➢ Different kinds of Rights,

➢ Concept of Human Rights.
Paper 1 Political Science & International Relations Page 2/5

Democracy
➢ Classical and Contemporary Theories (शा ीय और समकालीन िस ां त).

Different Models of Democracy

➢ Representative( ितिनिध),
➢ Participatory (भागीदारी),
➢ And Deliberative (िवचारशील).

Political Ideologies
➢ Liberalism (उदारतावाद),
➢ Socialism (समाजवाद),

➢ Marxism (मा वाद),

➢ Fascism (फासीवाद),

➢ Gandhism (गां धीवाद),

➢ And Feminism (नारीवाद).

Indian Political Thought

➢ Dharmashastra,
➢ Arthashastra and Buddhist traditions,

➢ Sir Syed Ahmed Khan,

➢ Sri Aurobindo,

➢ M.K. Gandhi,
➢ B.R. Ambedkar,

➢ M.N. Roy.

Western Political Thought

➢ Plato,
➢ Aristotle,

➢ Machiavelli,
➢ Hobbes,

➢ Locke,
➢ John S. Mill,

➢ Marx,
➢ Gramsci,
➢ Hannah Arendt.
Paper 1 Political Science & International Relations Page 3/5

Miss
➢ Concept of Power,
➢ Concept of Hegemony (नेतृ ),

➢ Concept of Ideology (िवचारधारा),

➢ Concept of Legitimacy (वैधता).

Indian Government and Politics

Indian Nationalism

Political Strategies of India’s Freedom Struggle

➢ Constitutionalism to Mass Satyagraha,
➢ Non-Cooperation,

➢ Civil Disobedience,
➢ Militant and Revolutionary Movements,

➢ Peasant and Workers’ Movements.

Perspectives (प र े ) on Indian National Movement

➢ Liberal,
➢ Socialist and Marxist,

➢ Radical Humanist (क रपंथी मानवतावादी),

➢ And Dalit.

Making of the Indian Constitution

➢ Legacies of the British Rule (ि िटश शासन की िवरासत),
➢ Different Social and Political Perspectives.

Salient Features of the Indian Constitution

➢ The Preamble,
➢ Fundamental Rights,

➢ Fundamental Duties,
➢ Directive Principles,

➢ Parliamentary System,
➢ Amendment Procedures,

➢ Judicial Review,
➢ And Basic Structure Doctrine.
Paper 1 Political Science & International Relations Page 4/5

Principal Organs of the Union Government

(क सरकार के मुख अंग)
➢ Envisaged Role (प रक त भूिमका) and Actual Working of the Executive,

➢ Envisaged Role (प रक त भूिमका) and Actual Working of the Legislature,

➢ Envisaged Role (प रक त भूिमका) and Actual Working of the Supreme Court.

Principal Organs of the State Government

(रा सरकार के मुख अंग)
➢ Envisaged Role (प रक त भूिमका) and Actual Working of the Executive,

➢ Envisaged Role (प रक त भूिमका) and Actual Working of the Legislature,

➢ Envisaged Role (प रक त भूिमका) and Actual Working of the High Court.

Grassroots Democracy
➢ Panchayati Raj,
➢ Municipal Government;

➢ Significance of 73rd and 74th Amendments,

➢ Grassroot Movements.

Statutory Institutions/Commissions
➢ Election Commission,
➢ Comptroller and Auditor General,

➢ Finance Commission,
➢ Union Public Service Commission,

➢ National Commission for Scheduled Castes,

➢ National Commission for Scheduled Tribes,

➢ National Commission for Women,

➢ National Human Rights Commission,

➢ National Commission for Minorities,

➢ National Backward Classes Commission.
Paper 1 Political Science & International Relations Page 5/5

Federalism
➢ Constitutional Provisions,
➢ Changing Nature of Centre-State Relations,

➢ Integrationist Tendencies and Regional Aspirations,

(एकीकृततावादी वृि और े ीय आकां ाएं )
➢ Inter-State Disputes.

Planning and Economic Development

➢ Nehruvian and Gandhian Perspectives ( ि कोण),
➢ Role of Planning,

➢ Public Sector,
➢ Green Revolution,

➢ Land Reforms and Agrarian Relations (कृिष संबंध),

➢ Liberalization (उदारीकरण) and Economic Reforms.

Party System
➢ National Political Parties,
➢ Regional Political Parties,

➢ Ideological Bases of Parties,

➢ Social Bases of Parties,

➢ Patterns of Coalition Politics,

➢ Pressure Groups,

➢ Trends in Electoral Behaviour,

➢ Changing Socio- Economic Profile of Legislators.

Social Movements
➢ Civil Liberties Movements,
➢ Human Rights Movements,
➢ Women’s Movements,
➢ Environmentalist Movements.

Miss
➢ Caste in Indian Politics,
➢ Religion in Indian Politics,
➢ Ethnicity (जातीयता) in Indian Politics.
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CSE Political Science & International Relations Syllabus 

Paper - II 
Comparative Politics and International Relations 
 

Comparative Political Analysis and International Politics 

 

Comparative Politics (तुलना क राजनीित) 

➢ Nature and Major Approaches, 
➢ Political Economy Perspectives (राजनीितक अथ व था प र े ), 
 
➢ Political Sociology Perspectives (राजनीितक समाज प र े ),  
➢ Limitations of the Comparative Method (तुलना क िविध की सीमाएं ). 
 

State in Comparative Perspective (तुलना कपर े म रा ) 

➢ Characteristics and Changing Nature of the State in Capitalist  
➢ Characteristics and Changing Nature of the State in Socialist Economies,  
 
➢ Advanced Industrial and Developing Societies. 
 

Politics of Representation and Participation 

➢ Political Parties,  
➢ Pressure Groups,  
 
➢ And Social Movements in Advanced Industrial and Developing Societies. 
 

Globalisation 
➢ Responses from Developed Societies, 
➢ Responses from Developing Societies. 
 

Approaches to the Study of International Relations 

➢ Idealist (आदशवादी),  
➢ Realist (यथाथवादी),  
 
➢ Marxist,  
➢ Functionalist (कायानु प),  
 
➢ Systems Theory. 
 
 
Paper 2 Political Science & International Relations Page 2/4

Key concepts ( मुख अवधारणाएं ) in International Relations 

➢ National Interest,  
➢ Security and Power,  
 
➢ Balance of Power and Deterrence (श और ितर ा संतुलन),  
➢ Transnational Actors, 
 
➢ Collective Security (सामूिहक सुर ा) 
➢ World Capitalist Economy and Globalisation. 
 

Changing International Political Order 

➢ Rise of SuperPowers,  
➢ Strategic and Ideological Bipolarity (आदशवादी ि ुवीय),  
 
➢ Arms Race and Cold War,  
➢ Nuclear Threat, 
 
➢ Aims and Achievements of Non-Aligned Movement,  
➢ Collapse of the Soviet Union,  
 
➢ Unipolarity and American hegemony (एक ुवीयता और अमे रकी वच ) 
➢ Relevance (संब ता) of Non-Alignment in the Contemporary World. 
 

Evolution of the International Economic System 

➢ From Bretton Woods to World Trade Organization (WTO),  
➢ Socialist Economies and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), 
 
➢ Third World Demand for New International Economic Order,  
➢ Globalisation of the World Economy. 
 

United Nations 
➢ Envisaged Role (प रक त भूिमका) and Actual Record,  
➢ Specialized UN Agencies-Aims and Functioning,  
 
➢ Need for UN Reforms. 
 

Regionalisation of World Politics (EU, ASEAN, APEC, SAARC, NAFTA)  

➢ European Union (EU),  
➢ Association of SouthEast Asian Nations (ASEAN),  
 
➢ Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC),  
➢ South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC),  
 

➢ North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). 

Paper 2 Political Science & International Relations Page 3/4

Contemporary Global Concerns (समकालीन वैि क िचंताएं ) 

➢ Democracy,  
➢ Human Rights,  
 
➢ Environment,  
➢ Gender Justice,  
 
➢ Terrorism,   
➢ Nuclear Proliferation (परमाणु सार). 
 

India and the World

Indian Foreign Policy 
➢ Determinants of Foreign Policy (िवदे श नीित के िनधारक,),  
➢ Institutions of Policy-Making,  
 
➢ Continuity and Change (िनरं तरता और प रवतन). 
 

India’s Contribution to the Non-Alignment Movement 

➢ Different Phases,
➢ Current Role. 
 

India and South Asia 

➢ Regional Cooperation: SAARC – Past Performance and Future Prospects (संभावना).
➢ South Asia as a Free Trade Area.

➢ India’s “Look East” Policy (Now Act East Policy).

★ Impediments to Regional Cooperation ( े ीय सहयोग के ित बाधा):

 
➢ River Water Disputes,
➢ Illegal Cross-Border Migration,

➢ Ethnic Conflicts and Insurgencies,

➢ Border Disputes. 
 

India and the Global South 

➢ Relations with Africa and Latin America,
➢ Leadership Role in the Demand for New International Economic Order (NIEO) and
World Trade Organization (WTO) Negotiations (वाता).
 
 
 
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India and the Global Centres of Power  

➢ USA,
➢ European Union (EU),
➢ Japan,
➢ China,
➢ And Russia. 
 

India and the UN System 

➢ Role in UN PeaceKeeping,
➢ Demand for Permanent Seat in the Security Council. 
 

India and the Nuclear Question  

➢ Changing Perceptions (धारणा) and Policy. 
 

Recent developments in Indian Foreign Policy 

➢ India’s Position on the Recent Crisis in Afghanistan, Iraq and West Asia,
➢ India’s Position on Growing Relations with US and Israel,
 
➢ Vision of a New World Order (नई िव व था).
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