The Song of Roland (French: La Chanson de Roland) is an heroic poem based on the Battle of

Roncesvalles in 778, during the reign of Charlemagne. It is the oldest surviving major work of French
literature. It exists in various manuscript versions which testify to its enormous and enduring popularity
in the 12th to 14th centuries. The oldest of these is the Oxford manuscript which contains a text of some
4,004 lines (the number varies slightly in different modern editions) and is usually dated to the middle of
the twelfth century (between 1140 and 1170). The epic poem is the first and most outstanding example
of the chanson de geste, a literary form that flourished between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries
and celebrated the legendary deeds of a hero.

Manuscripts
There are nine extant manuscripts of the Song of Roland in Old French. The oldest of these
manuscripts is held at the Bodleian Library at Oxford. This copy dates between 1140 and 1170
and was written in Anglo-Norman.[1]

Scholars estimate that the poem was written, possibly by a poet named Turold, between
approximately 1040 and 1115, and most of the alterations were performed by about 1098. Some
favor an earlier dating, because it allows one to say that the poem was inspired by the Castilian
campaigns of the 1030s, and that the poem went on to be a major influence in the First Crusade.
Those who prefer a later dating do so on grounds of the brief references made in the poem to
events of the First Crusade. In one section, Palestine is named Outremer, its Crusader name – but
is presented as a Muslim land where there are no Christians.

Critical opinions
Oral performance of the Song compared to manuscript versions

Scholarly consensus has long accepted that the Song of Roland differed in its presentation
depending on oral or textual transmission; namely, although a number of different versions of the
song containing varying material and episodes would have been performed orally, the
transmission to manuscript resulted in greater cohesiveness across versions.

Early editors of the Song of Roland, informed in part by patriotic desires to produce a distinctly
French epic, could thus overstate the textual cohesiveness of the Roland tradition. This point is
clearly expressed by Andrew Taylor, who notes.[2] "[T]he Roland song was, if not invented, at
the very least constructed. By supplying it with an appropriate epic title, isolating it from its
original codicological context, and providing a general history of minstrel performance in which
its pure origin could be located, the early editors presented a 4,002 line poem as sung French
epic".

Plot
The death of Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux, from an illuminated manuscript c.1455–1460.
Charlemagne's army is fighting the Muslims in Spain. The last city standing is Saragossa, held
by the Muslim king Marsilla. Terrified of the might of Charlemagne's army of Franks, Marsilla
sends out messengers to Charlemagne, promising treasure and Marsilla's conversion to
Christianity if the Franks will go back to France. Charlemagne and his men are tired of fighting
and decide to accept this peace offer. They need now to select a messenger to go back to
Marsilla's court.

The bold warrior Roland nominates his stepfather Ganelon. Ganelon is enraged; he fears that
he'll die in the hands of the bloodthirsty pagans and suspects that this is just Roland's intent. He
has long hated and envied his stepson, and, riding back to Saragossa with the Saracen
messengers, he finds an opportunity for revenge. He tells the Saracens how they could ambush
the rear guard of Charlemagne's army, which will surely be led by Roland as the Franks pick
their way back to Spain through the mountain passes, and helps the Saracens plan their attack.

Just as the traitor Ganelon predicted, Roland gallantly volunteers to lead the rear guard. The wise
and moderate Oliver and the fierce Archbishop Turpin are among the men Roland picks to join
him. Pagans ambush them at Roncesvalles, according to plan; the Christians are overwhelmed by
their sheer numbers. Seeing how badly outnumbered they are, Olivier asks Roland to blow on his
olifant, his horn made out of an elephant tusk, to call for help from the main body of the Frankish
army. Roland proudly refuses to do so, claiming that they need no help, that the rear guard can
easily take on the pagan hordes.

While the Franks fight magnificently, there's no way they can continue to hold off against the
Saracens, and the battle begins to turn clearly against them. Almost all his men are dead and
Roland knows that it's now too late for Charlemagne and his troops to save them, but he blows
his oliphant anyway, so that the emperor can see what happened to his men and avenge them.
Roland blows so hard that his temples burst. He dies a glorious martyr's death, and saints take his
soul straight to Paradise.

When Charlemagne and his men reach the battlefield, they find only dead bodies. The pagans
have fled, but the Franks pursue them, chasing them into the river Ebro, where they all drown.

Meanwhile, the powerful emir of Babylon, Baligant, has arrived in Spain to help his vassal
Marsilla fend off the Frankish threat. Baligant and his enormous Muslim army ride after
Charlemagne and his Christian army, meeting them on the battlefield at Roncesvalles, where the
Christians are burying and mourning their dead. Both sides fight valiantly. But when
Charlemagne kills Baligant, all the pagan army scatter and flee.

Now Saragossa has no defenders left; the Franks take the city. With Marsilla's wife
Bramimonde, Charlemagne and his men ride back to Aix, their capital in France.

The Franks discovered Ganelon's betrayal some time ago and keep him in chains until it is time
for his trial. Ganelon argues that his action was legitimate revenge, openly proclaimed, not
treason. While the council of barons which Charlemagne has assembled to decide the traitor's
fate is initially swayed by this claim, one man, Thierry, argues that, because Roland was serving
Charlemagne when Ganelon delivered his revenge on him, Ganelon's action constitutes a
betrayal of the emperor.

Ganelon's friend Pinabel challenges Thierry to trial by combat; the two will fight a duel to see
who's right. By divine intervention, Thierry, the weaker man, wins, killing Pinabel. The Franks
are convinced by this of Ganelon's villainy and sentence him to a most painful death. The traitor
is torn limb from limb by galloping horses and thirty of his relatives are hanged for good
measure.

Form
Karlomagno finds Roland dead (XIV. mendeko miniatura)

The poem is written in stanzas of irregular length known as laisses. The lines are decasyllabic
(containing ten syllables), and each is divided by a strong caesura which generally falls after the
fourth syllable. The last stressed syllable of each line in a laisse has the same vowel sound as
every other end-syllable in that laisse. The laisse is therefore an assonal, not a rhyming stanza.

On a narrative level, the Song of Roland features extensive use of repetition, parallelism, and
thesis-antithesis pairs. Unlike later Renaissance and Romantic literature, the poem focuses on
action rather than introspection.

The author gives few explanations for characters' behavior. The warriors are stereotypes defined
by a few salient traits; for example, Roland is loyal and trusting while Ganelon, though brave, is
traitorous and vindictive.

The story moves at a fast pace, occasionally slowing down and recounting the same scene up to
three times but focusing on different details or taking a different perspective each time. The
effect is similar to a film sequence shot at different angles so that new and more important details
come to light with each shot.

Characters
Principal characters

 Baligant, emir of Babylon; Marsile enlists his help against Charlemagne.

 Blancandrin, wise pagan; suggests bribing Charlemagne out of Spain with hostages and gifts, and
then suggests dishonouring a promise to allow Marsile's baptism
 Bramimonde, Queen of Saragossa; captured and converted by Charlemagne after the city falls
 Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor; his forces fight the Saracens in Spain.
 Ganelon, treacherous lord and Roland's stepfather who encourages Marsile to attack the French
 King Marsile, Saracen king of Spain; Roland wounds him and he dies of his wound later.
 Naimon, Charlemagne's trusted adviser.
 Olivier, Roland's friend; mortally wounded by Margarice. He represents wisdom.
  Roland, the hero of the Song; nephew of Charlemagne; leads the rear guard of the French
forces; bursts his temples by blowing his oliphant-horn, wounds from which he eventually dies
facing the enemy's land.
 Turpin, Archbishop of Rheims, represents the force of the Church.

Secondary characters

 Aude, the fiancée of Roland and Olivier's sister

 Basan, French baron, murdered while serving as Ambassador of Marsile.
 Bérengier, one of the twelve paladins killed by Marsile’s troops; kills Estramarin; killed by
Grandoyne.
 Besgun, chief cook of Charlemagne's army; guards Ganelon after Ganelon's treachery is
discovered.
 Geboin, guards the French dead; becomes leader of Charlemagne's 2nd column.
 Godefroy, standard bearer of Charlemagne; brother of Thierry, Charlemagne’s defender against
Pinabel.
 Grandoyne, fighter on Marsile’s side; son of the Cappadocian King Capuel; kills Gerin, Gerier,
Berenger, Guy St. Antoine, and Duke Astorge; killed by Roland.
 Hamon, joint Commander of Charlemagne's Eighth Division.
 Lorant, French commander of one of the of first divisions against Baligant; killed by Baligant.
 Milon, guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.
 Ogier, a Dane who leads the third column in Charlemagne's army against Baligant's forces.
 Othon, guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.
 Pinabel, fights for Ganelon in the judicial combat.
 Thierry, fights for Charlemagne in the judicial combat.