Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2 PDF
2 PDF
2 PDF
http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015003898049
Volume II (Part 1 )
(preliminary edition)
Prepared under the supervision of the Panel on 7th and 8th Grades of the
28
Financial support for the School Mathematics Study Group has been provided by the
Lithoprinted in U.S.A.
EDWARDS BROTHERS, INC.
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Transfer
to UGL
-JUN 2 0 1977
The preliminary edition of this volume was prepared at a writing session held
at the University of Michigan during the summer of 1959, based, in part, on ma
terial prepared at the first SMSG writing session, held at Yale University in the
summer of 1958. This revision was prepared at Stanford University in the summer
of 1960, taking into account the classroom experience with the preliminary edition
during the academic year 1959-60.
The following is a list of all those who have participated in the preparation of
this volume.
FOREWORD v
PREFACE lx
Chapter
2. EQUATIONS 59
2-1. Finding the Unknown 59
2-2. Number Phrases 65
2-3. Number Sentences 69
2-4. Finding Solution Sets 84
2-5. Number Sentences with Two Unknowns 94
......................
4-7. Solids 169
vii
PREFACE
ix
Chapter 1
1 3 5 7 9
4 4 4 7 7
o 3
1 1
2
1
3
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
4 2
•
0
1000
Losses
•
2000 in
Dollars
•
3000
A > 4000
-
5000
What other examples of the use of number line can you think of?
Exercises 1-1
1. For each of the following numbers draw a number line. Use one
inch as the unit of length. Locate a point of origin on the
line, and then locate the point corresponding to the number.
Just above the number line, draw the corresponding arrow.
1
(a) (b)
(a)
1-1 6
(c) + (f) 4 +
8
(b) 3^ 0.875
(c) ^, 3,
I .
(2 + 3) + 1 = 2 + (3 + 1).
tion. To suggest how to label these points (and why we want to!),
let us look at the familiar example of temperature.
A number line representing temperature, such as we find on a
thermometer, often looks like this.
~50 "40 ~30 -20 -10 0 +10 +20 +30 +40 +50 +60 +70
zero (to the right of zero). Actually, above zero and below zero
seem more natural terms to use when the scale is vertical.
This idea of distance (or of points) along a line on opposite
sides of fixed point occurs frequently in our ordinary tasks.
a
Think how often we speak of distances to the left or to the right,
locations north or south of a given point, altitudes above or
below sea level, longitudes east or west, or the time before or
after a certain event. In each of these situations, there is a
suggestion of points located on opposite sides of a given point
(or number), or distances measured in opposite directions from a
given point (or number) . All of them suggest the need for a num
ber line which uses points to the left of the origin as well as
points to the right of the origin.
The natural way to describe such a number line is easy to see,
We start with the number line for positive rationals which we have
already used. Using the same unit lengths, we measure off dis
tances to the left of zero as shown below:
We locate ~1 as opposite to
in the sense 1 that it is 1 unit to
the left of zero. Similarly ~2 is opposite to +2, "(i) is
located opposite to , "(•) is opposite to , etc. These
"opposite" numbers, corresponding to points to the left of zero,
we call negative numbers . Each negative number lies to the left
of zero and corresponds to the opposite positive number. This
direction "to the left" is called the negative direction.
"l,
•I O
We denote negative numbers as ~2, ~(-^), "(75), ~(g)
Q
etc.,
by use of the raised hyphen. We read (~2) as "negative two."
tells
~
This negative symbol " "
us that the number is less than
zero (lies to the left of zero) . We sometimes emphasize that a
number is positive (greater than zero) by writing the symbol
" "! "
ber.
The new numbers we have introduced by this process are the
negative rational numbers. The set consisting of positive
rational numbers, negative rational numbers, and zero, we call the
rational numbers .
The special set of rational numbers which consists of the
positive integers, the negative integers and zero is called the
set of integers. We frequently denote this set as:
0 +6
-
use a vertical +200
2000
line also.
1000 +100
0 Altitude 0 Distance
in feet in
"1000 "100
with miles
"2000 reference "200 from
to Kansas
"3000 , , 300
sea level City
"4000 - "400
-"5000 -
"500
11 1-2
Exercises 1-2
(a) -8 (d)
(c) if (f)
Are there any pairs of 'bpposites" on this list?
(a) 6 (d)
'* (e)
4 + 2
4 p
01234567
t i t 1 ii i
89 10
13 1-3
1 1
I I I
D 1 2 3 4 5
1-3
01234
>
1 1 i i
1
i
1 T '"
i i
1
—I
~4 "3 ~2 5 6
In the same way, find the sums: ("3) + ("2); (~l) + (~6);
("6)
One property of special interest is illustrated by the sum
C2)
15 1-3
need only keep in mind the location of the numbers on the number
line to carry out the operation. We see that:
For example:
In ("4) + 2 = "2,
In 4 + ("2) = 2,
Exercises 1-3
1. Find the following sums and sketch, using arrows on the number
line.
(a) 9 + ("5) (d) 5 + ("10)
(a) 3 + ("3) - -
(e) -(|) + ( ) 0
(d) (-75) + 74 =
(h) ("0.45) + 0.45 =
will be correct.
(a) How could you use positive and negative numbers in repre
senting these speeds?
(b) What would represent his actual speed upstream?
On the number line we see that any number and its additive
inverse will be represented by arrows of the same length and
opposite direction, as indicated by the sketch of 2 and "2.
5 + ("2) = 3 + 2 + ("2)
Note that the other arrow of the two into which 5 is separated
represents the sura. 3.
-3 "2
r
~ — f
.5 ,
^
"4
In each case, the additive inverses add up to zero, and the remain
ing number is the sum.
1-4 Coordinates
Coordinates on a Line
B
-H 1 1 1 >—
0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
Exercises l-4a
(a) F and R?
(b) D and E?
+4 +5 +6
JL
o.
c, '
1
L
1-
12345IT'
1
1
t
°
1 .
"5 "4 "3 "2 "1
"2-
"3-
The horizontal number line is called the X-axis and the vertical
number line is called the Y-axis. When we refer to both number
lines we call them the axes.
1-4 24
+3 « ,A(4,3)
1
i
80,2), -£ 2 |
+1 1
T1i i rli Y1 i1
15 "4 "3 "2 ° ~*
jB +l +^ +3 +4 +5 +
6
i
I 1
,3
CCS'I) 1
i
+
-2
"3
"4-
from the points to the axes. Each ordered pair of rational numbers
is assigned to a point in the coordinate plane. Locating and mark
ing the point with respect to the X-axis and the Y-axis is called
plotting the point.
The idea coordinate system is not new to you. When you
of a
locate a point on the earth's surface, you do so by Identifying the
longitude and latitude of the point. Note that the order in which
you write these numbers is important. For example, suppose you
looked up the longitude and latitude of your home town and acciden
tally switched the numbers around. It is possible that your des
cription places the location of your home town in the middle of the
ocean.
directions to help a friend locate a
Suppose you were giving
certain place in a city laid out in rectangular blocks (streets at
right angles to each other) . You tell him to start at the center
of the city, go 3 blocks east and blocks north (see diagram
two
(E2.N3)
(E3, N2)
W
1-4 26
Exercises l-4b
2. On squared paper draw a pair of axes and label them. Plot the
points in the following sets. Label each point with its coordi
nates. Use a different pair of axes for each set.
Did you notice that the half planes above and below the X-axis
intersect the half planes to the right and to the left of the
27 1-4
(a) (3, 5)
(b) (!,"*)
(c) C4,4)
(e) (8, 6)
U) (7, 'I)
(g) C3,'5)
Exercises l-4c
(a) Plot the points of set L = U(+2, +l), B(+2, +3)).
(b) Use a straight edge to Join A to B. Extend line segment
AB.
(c) Line AB seems to be parallel to which axis?
and D to A.
(c) Is the figure a square?
(d) Draw the diagonals of the figure.
and to A.
D
1-5 Graphs
\ F
/'
7
P
(2 ,4l O
(o,
4) 4)
41
,4) ,4) ,4)
(2
(J
(1
-»
o
c_
«j
y
-. '~f ?~' \~t ~* •
i •
<
>
'
)
/i
i
1
;
)
|
!
-o
~^
O
"Vl
-e
O
"t
O
(b) y = 6 (e)
1
(c) X = x = "3
•2
Exercises 1-3&
1. Sketch the graph of the set of points selected by each condi
tion below. Use different coordinate axes for each graph.
(a) y = +2 (g) x = -3
Does it seem to be true for every point on the sketch that the
1-5 34
Y =
•7
i ;: 5 '>
V i
Exercise l-5b
Use a different set of coordinate axes for each graph.
S = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8,.-.}.
Similarly, any number (except the first) in the set of multi
ples of 7, when they are ordered, may be obtained by adding 7 to
the number which precedes it.
T = (0, 7, 14, 21, 28,...}.
For the set T we see that we can also say that each number may be
obtained from the one which follows it by subtracting 7. For
example, 28 follows 21, and 21 = 28 - 7.
Some of you may have made multiplication tables like the
following:
1-6 36
12 16 20
15 20 25
18 24 30
21 28 35
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3
2 0 2 4 6
3 0 3 6 9
37 1-6
Some of the cells in the above table have been filled from
our knowledge of arithmetic. Also we have used the property that
the product of a negative number and 0 is 0. Now to complete
the table, let us observe, for example, as we go up in the right-
hand column that each number is 3 less than the number below it.
We shall refer to this column as the "3 column." Thus, the "3
column" would become -6
"3
0
'6-30369
9
Similarly the "3 row" would
.d become
bee ome
4 2 0 "2 -4 "6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
"2 "1 0 1 2 3
"4 "2 0 2 4 6
"6 "3 0 3 6 9
1-6 38
4 2 0 2 ~4 -6
("2) •
("2) = 4 and ("2) •
3 = "6.
You should notice similar results in other parts of the table. For
each column and each row, the difference between two consecutive
numbers is a fixed amount. this table is concerned, the
As far as
product of two negative numbers is a positive number, and the pro
duct of a negative and a positive number (in either order) is a
negative number. These conclusions are actually correct for all
positive and negative rational numbers. It should be clear, how
ever, that we have not proved this result, nor have we given it as
part of a definition. We have only shown one reason why the con
Exercises 1-6
-3
"2
"1
(a) "2 and 1 (b) "3 and 0 (c) "4 and 5 (d) 15 and "6.
(a) "4 •
0 (f) 49 . "5 (k) 4 •
3 •
"5
(b) "4 •
2 (g) "6- "9 (1) "6 - 8 •
"12
(c) "* •
5 (h) "10 • "60 (m) "3 . -2 . "11
- — /2
(d) 8 "3 (D "21 • "43 (n) "10 •
"8 •
— / 3
(e) 17 •
"2 (d) ("0.6) •
Cl.4) (o) -d) •
"(16) •
12. Show the use of the number line in finding the products:
13. State in your own words how one could use the number line to
find the product "4 •
3.
14. A football team has the ball on its own 45-yard line and then
loses two yards on each of the next three successive plays.
(a) 47+4("5).
(b) 15 - 2("3).
(a) ( )
. 6 = -12 (D 1 •
( ) = -1
(g) CD •
( ) = 1 (o) ( "6) •
( ) = "60
"
w
(|)
("7) •( ) = o (P)
* = "1
(
)
(c) -
(i) ("10) •
4
6
1
"<TT>
(e) "(^)
-
-* M ("15) •
("4)
(f) ("75)
-
C4) (D "20 •
~(ii)
1-6
(m) (16)
•
(-12) (t) C3)
-
(n) ( -16) (-12) (u) (-5) 6 •
(-2)
(o) ( -*5) -
C3) (v) 0) -5) - 3
(P) 25
-
(-3) (w) (-2) -1) •
C3)
(r) ( -16) -
(1) (y) ("3) "3) -
C3)
-
(B) (20) (-10) •
("5) (*) (-2) (2) •
C2)
3 • n = 39.
^- 39 -f 3 - i3.
Let us apply the methods we have used in division of rational
numbers in the seventh grade as we think of division of rational
numbers involving positive and negative numbers.
Find n if 2n = ~l8.
~8 4- "2 = n or ~2 •
n = "8
n = 4, since "2 •
4 = "8
"8 4- "2 = 4.
16 "4 = "4.
-J-
Which of the following are true statements?
3
7
(b) 45 T "5 =
(e) "24-3- "(f)
9
You should be able to show that all of these are true state
ments except (b) and (e).
Before starting to do the exercises, study the following and
be sure that you know why they are true statements.
"7
"7
. "5 = 35 35 "7 = "5 35 -r "5 =
-J-
=
"35 "7 = "35 -r = "7
-f
5
5
5
- 54-7=| 5* -
5
7
f
are reciprocals if
1-7 44
n 1
Since
*• 1
and 1,
we have n
therefore,
— 3
ls the reciprocal of
'
— 4
~(-zf)
Exercises 1-7
(a) -4 -
7 (d) -24 (g)
(c) (f) 21 35 (0
y
45 1-7
3
X 2 1
1 0
-£ ~(£) "(|)
y
b
6. Write the reciprocals of each number in P:
"i,
|),
(6, l- -(!))
|,
'(
=
P
|;,
"36 750
'-f
*
(o)
O -6
"441
(« (J) (P)
"39
"21 "3
"484
(e, M 72
-i|
(q)
-6
30 "169
(f) (1) (r) .2SL
"15
8. Find lf:
n
n
3
1-7 46
_ P
9. Write ~(TT) as a quotient in two ways.
10. Find n if
(a) 7 n = "6 (b) "7 n = 6
"—• 7
11. Write two sentences, using n, in which n =
(~) would make
6
the sentence a true statement.
-
12. Find n for each of these equations.
(a) ("25)n '92 (c) "4 n
= =
'(£)
(b) C92) + C25) = n (d) -() + (-4) = n
Ir
b
is the rational number x for which
b are .
is
If a + b = c, then c - a = b and c - b = a.
It may help you to understand this if you refer again to the number
line.
u
r
i i i i i
"6 ~! 5 ~4 ~3 "2 "1 5 1 2 5 4 5 6 7 (3 9
f ...
("15) - 8 = "23.
Suppose two boys had been playing a game and at 9:10 P.M. the
scores were:
Henry Jack
5 "2
"1 0
3 4
"4 "1
_2 22
5 "1
Exercises 1-8
1. Add the numbers in each set.
(c) "5, "2 (f) 21, "6, "7 (1) "23, "19, 14
-
2. Find the sum of ~(T) an^i () and write two equations
involving subtraction which can be obtained from this sum.
49 1-8
(a) 8 + 5 + ( ) = 8
(b) 6 + (-3) + ( ) = 6
(c) (-11) + 6 + ( ) - 11
(-4) - -
(J)
(b)
(
. (-13) - ("6)
^
(d) 8 - C2) =
(k) 2 - 9
(e) ("8) - 2 =
(1) 2 - (-9) =
X "1 0 i 2 3 4
X "2 "l 0 1 2 3 4
y
51 1-9
f
ii
1 i
2
2v. K
The 5 points marked on the graph (a) at the left, above, have
as coordinates elements of the set:
Without marking in your book, locate these points on the graph (a).
You will find that these 5 points also are on the line drawn in
the graph. The graph could be said to contain the union of the
set of points given by the number pairs in sets T and U. Can we
say that a point will be on this line, if its coordinates satisfy
the condition, or relation y = 2 x?
In the shaded part of graph (b), above, are located the points
for which the coordinates satisfy the condition y > 2 x. The
shaded region is one of the half-planes determined by the line
designated by y = 2 x. Let us select a point in this region, for
example, K. The coordinates of K are ("2, "3). If we substitute
these numbers in y > 2 x, we have
If x = 0, then y =
(3)(o) +2 or y = 2
If x = 1, then y =
(3)(1) +2 or y = 5
If x = "1, then y =
(3)("l) +2 or y = ~1 (Check this)
If x = 2, then y =
(3) (2) +2 or y = 8
If x = "2, then y =
(3) ("2) +2 or y = "4 (Check this)
Set T below contains some of the ordered pairs of rational
numbers described by y = 3 x + 2.
y = "2 x + ("3)
If x = "2, then y =
("2) ("2) + ("3) = 4 + ("3) or y = 1
The number pairs in P are plotted on the graph (a) y = "2 x +("3)
below.
Sometimes we display coordinates of points, which satisfy a
relation, as a table. In this example the table would be
X "2 "1 0 1 2
(a) y=-2x+(-3) (b) y > ["2x + ('3) ] (c) y < ['2x+ ("3) ]
\ Y
\
\\
2
": -j ;
V 0 I > X
V
A
-4
-K \
\
'y.
\ k
Exercises 1-9
(a) (1,10) (b) (-5,6) (c) (-2,0) (d) (0,0) (e) (-6,'6)
8. Draw careful graphs of the following conditions:
(a) x - -5 (d) 7 - "(|) x
(c) Is it
true that the y-coordinate of each point is the
square of the x-coordinate of the corresponding point?
^
(d) Does the condition y = x describe the points named by
Set S?
(a) y - x'
(c) y < x2
Chapter 2
EQUATIONS
is cents, since the total cost is ll0 cents, the ticket would
10
be priced at 100 cents (or 1 dollar). But $1.00 - $.10 does not
equal $1.00. The problem stated that the ticket cost 1 dollar
more than the tax. The correct answer is 5 cents, or x = 5.
The correct price of the ticket is $1.05. The amount of the
tax is
$.05. Does $1.05 - $.05 = $1.00?
In both of the problems above the clues were used to write
number sentences. Each clue was a statement about numbers. Some
of these numbers were known and some unknown. Since the verb in
each of these sentences was the "equals" sign, we call such
number sentences equations When we are finding what number x
represents, we say we are solving an equation for the unknown x
(or whatever letter we are using to represent the unknown).
You may have already used a special kind of equation. For
example, to find the number of square units of area in
a rectangle you used the following:
=J ur:
"
A
This is
abbreviation of a rule. In words, this rule is
an
"The number of square units of area in a rectangle
is (or, is equal to) the product of the number of
units in the length and the number of like units
in the width."
When such a rule is abbreviated and written in the form of an
equation it is called a formula. If the length and width of
a rectangle are known, then this formula may be used to find
the area of that rectangle.
Equations are used in many ways in many different fields.
We solve equations to find the currents in an electrical network
when we know the voltages and the resistances. We solve
Exercises 2-1
In Problems 1-4 below, use your knowledge of arithmetic to find
the value of the unknown in each of the equations so that the
equations will true statements.
be
1 . Find the value of the unknown in each of the following
equations:
(a) x + 3 = 5 (d) m + 25 = 31
x = ? m = ?
(b) y + 5 = 12 (e) s + 17 = 42
y = ? s = ?
(c) k + 13 =
15 (f ) t + 10 =
5
k = ? t = ?
2-1 62
(c) n - 9 = 2 (f ) x - 5 =
3
n = ? x = ?
(c) 5w = 35 (f) 7y =
"56
w = ? y = ?
n =
?
(b) a =
(e) _- =
4
a =
?
= =
"7
k
=
k
75-
b-14"
63 2-1
11. To find 19$ of $750 you may use the percentage formula,
p = rb
where p is r
the rate (or percent);
the percentage; is
and b is the base. In this problem, r = 19$ or 0.19
and b = $750. Find the value of p for this problem.
12. Find the area of the floor of a circular room whose radius
o op
is 13 feet. The formula is A = "r . (Use =£ or
3.14 for TT) .
2-1 64
a=7
Find the area of the trapezoid
shown at the right. Use the
formula
A
=| h(a + b)
where h is the height or altitude;
a is the length of the upper base; b=ll
7*- gallons .
q
The formula F = ^ C + 32 may be used to convert a tem
perature reading on a Centigrade thermometer to a tem
perature reading on a Fahrenheit thermometer. Find the
correct Fahrenheit temperature reading for each one of
following readings on a Centigrade thermometer.
(a) 0° (b) 100° (c) 37°
65 2-2
3 + 5, 9, + V, and 10
represent specific numbers. In each of these examples, the
value of the number phrase is known, or it can be determined.
represented by x
What number is - 4? We cannot determine
the number represented by x - unless we know the value of x.
4
7y, .
2
+
Exercises 2-2
1 . Translate each of the following number phrases
into symbols.
(a) The sum of x and 5-
(b) The number x decreased by 3.
(c) The product of 8 and x.
(d) One fourth of the number x.
(e) The number x increased by 10.
(f ) The number 7 multiplied by x.
(g) The number which is 11 subtracted from x.
(h) The number divided by 2.
x
(i) The number which is 6 less than x.
(j) The number x decreased by 9.
67 2-2
(a) x + 1
(d)
i§
(b) x - 3 (e) 4x
(c) 2x (f) "6 + x
Find the number represented by each of the number
phrases in Problem 3 x = 6. if
Find the number represented by each of the number
phrases in Problem 3 x = ~2. if
The unknown number is
not always represented as x.
Translate each of the following number phrases into
symbols using the letter of each part as the unknown
number. For example, in Part (a) uses "a" as the
unknown number.
(a) The sum of six and a number.
(a ) 2n + 5
(b) 6 - ?q
(c) (b-1) 7
(d) 5-d
( e) 15 + 2w
(b) q = "l ( d) q = 5
69 2-3
Do you agree that these are all sentences? They are examples
of number sentences. Each of them consists of two number
phrases connected by a verb. What are the verbs in these
sentences? The first two are easy to find. The word "is"
is the verb in the first sentence, and the word "has" is the
verb in the second. What is the verb in the sentence
"x + 3 = 8 "? Perhaps you have never thought of "=" as a
verb in a sentence. What are the verbs in the remaining
sentences?
three most common verbs in number sentences are "=",
The
"<", and ">", but there are others. "Six is a factor of
twelve" is a number sentence, and it is sometimes written
"6 j 12." The symbol
"
I
"
is another "number verb" meaning
"is a factor of".
One word of caution: We would not use the name "number
sentence" for such vague statements as,
2-3 70
or
hard to find."
"123,456 x 654,321 is
These sentences involve more than statements about numbers.
They involve our reactions to numbers. We are interested only
and "8 are called solutions of the open sentence. The set
D> ~8) is called of the open sentence.
the set of solutions
When we find the entire set of solutions of an open
sentence, we say that we have solved the sentence. An equation
is a particular kind of number sentence. It is a number sentence
which involves the verb "=". Hence to solve an equation means
to find its entire set of solutions. The set of solutions of an
equation may contain one member or it may contain several members.
It might even be the empty set.
Is this sentence an equation?
"x - 4 > 7."
What is the verb in the sentence above? Is it "="? Since the
verb is not "=", the sentence is not an equation. We might
2-3 72
say that the sentence indicates that the two phrases, x-4 and
7 are not equal. Such a sentence is called inequality.
determine the set of solutions for the inequality
Can you
x - 4 > 7? How large must the number x be in order for the
inequality to be true? Is 5-4 > 7? Is 7 - 4 > 7? Is 12 -4>7?
Do you see that "x-4 > 7" is true if
greater
x is any number
than 11? Also, "x-4 >7" is false for any other value of x.
Thus the set of solutions of the inequality is the set of all
numbers which are greater than 11.
Exercises 2-3a
Translate each one of the following number sentences
into symbols.
(a) The number increased by 5 is equal to 13.
x
(b) The number 3 subtracted from x is equal to 7.
(c) The product of 8 and x is equal to 24.
(d) When x is divided by 4 the quotient is 9.
(e) Ten more than the number x is 21.
(f ) The number 7 multiplied x by is equal to ~35.
(g) The number 11 subtracted from x is ~5-
(h) The number 6 less than x is 15.
(i) The number x divided by 2 is equal to "7.
For each one of the equations you wrote in Problem 1,
find the set of solutions by using your knowledge of
arithmetic.
Translate each one of the following number sentences
into symbols.
(a) The number x increased by 2 is greater than 4.
(b) The number multiplied
5 by x is less than 10.
(c) The result of dividing x by 7 is greater
than 2 .
5
"10
> 9
(h)
(i)
|k -> 9
7 = "2
(e) 5m < 15 (j) = = 6
We picture of
can draw a a solution set using the number
line. Consider the following for
- -- - -- --
example the open sentence,
x + 3 = 8.
This open sentence has only one solution, 5. The set of
solution is (5). the number line this set of solutions
-
On
can be represented as shown below:
-2 -I 0 +1 + 2 +3 + 4 +5 +6
•^ 1 1 I 1 5 4 1 • 1 ^-
-2 -I 0 +1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +5 + 6
-------------
is represented on the number line as shown below:
+ +
"2 "I 0 +l +
2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +ll 12 13 +14 +15
5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 k-
The number "11" is
not in the set. We indicate this by drawing
an open circle on the point corresponding to on the number ll
line. The part of the number right of
line to the the ll is
shaded showing that all points to the right of ll are in the
set of solutions.
Consider the equation ll + x = 4. What is the set of
solutions? Try some numbers. Recall \vhat you have learned
about negative numbers. What is 11 + ( ~7) ? Is ("7) a solution?
Can you find any other solutions? You should not be able to do
so. The set of solutions for this equation is ("7). This is
represented on the number line as shown here:
Try some numbers. You should find that the set of solutions
is the set of all numbers less than +5- On the number line
this is represented as an "open" circle at the point corre
sponding to +5 and a heavy black line drawn along all
points of the number line which lie to the left of "*"5.
C
-4 -3 -2 -I 0 +1 + 2
1110 + 3 +4 +5 +6
1
+ 7
1
+8
h-^
Exercises 2-3b
Using your knowledge of arithmetic, find the set
of solutions for each one of the following number
sentences.
(a) x + 2 = 6 (e) x - 4 > 1
(b) 4 + x = 0 (f)
(g)
| = "l
(c) 2x = 6 2x < 10
The total cost is 110 cents. The cost of the ticket is 100
cents more than the tax. What is the amount of the tax?
Since this is a problem involving numbers, we might state it
this way:
If a certain number, the tax, is added to 100 more than
the same number, the result is 110. What is the number?
If we let "x" represent the number (the amount of the tax),
we might state the problem in this form:
x +
(
x + 100) = 110.
We in three different ways. Which form
have stated the problem
would be the easiest to use in finding the set of solutions?
Consider the following problem:
The Prairie Express travels at 80 miles per hour. How
long does it take for this train to make a 500- mile
trip?
An equation here, but it is not too clear as stated
is involved
above. Since the problem asks us to find a certain number let
us restate the problem as follows:
Let "t" represent the number of hours the train travels.
Then, 8ot represents the number of miles traveled in t
hours .
The equation can be stated thus: 8ot = 500.
The question really is, then,
"If 8ot = 500, what is the number t ?
81 2-3
Exercises 2-3c
1. You are to write each of the following sentences in
symbols. First describe what number the letter
represents. Then write the sentence.
2-3 82
a + c = b + c and c + a = c + b.
Can you discover subtraction property of "equals"?
a
How can we use the addition property to solve the equation
x + 3 = 7?
We notice that the solution would be easy to find the "3" if
were not there. If we use the addition property, adding the
number ~3, we have:
If S"+T =
then
By the associative
r(^TT)
a 4-
-TT
c
=
T c
3 + ~3 = 0,
we see that (x+3)+~3=x+ (3 + "3) and x + (3 + "3) = x.
Therefore,
if (x + 3) +"3 = 7 + ~3
then x = 7 + "3.
Since 7 + ~3 = 4, we. see that
x = 4.
by writing it as
x + ("3) = 8.
Exercises 2-4a
1. (I) Use the addition property to find the only
possibilities for solutions of the following
equations. (II) Then show that the number ls_
a solution.
Example: x + ("3 )
= 11
-
(d) x 7 =
"7 ( J) u + 14 =
|
( e) t + 6 =
"13 (k)
(f) * - • + 3 (D x +
"(£)
=
"(f3)
Apply the addition property to these equations,
adding
the indicated, number, and write the resulting equation.
Example: 3x + 4 =
5 (add "4)
(3 x + 4) 4 "4 =
5 + "4 by the addition
property.
3x + (4 + ~4) = 1 by the associative
property.
The resulting equation is: 3x = 1 .
( a) 2 x + 5 = 10 ( add "5)
( b) 3x + 10 =
5 ( add ~10)
( c) 5x + 2 = "2 ( add "2)
( d) lOx + "1 = 9 (add 1)
( e) 2u + 1 = ll ( add "l )
(f) 2x + "3 =
9 (add 3)
g) "4y (add 3)
( -i- "3 =
§
(a) What number do you add (using the addition
property) to solve x + 3 = 2?
(b) What number do you add (using the addition
property) to solve x + ( "7) = 4?
(c) What is the relation between 3 and ~3
relative to addition?
( d) What is the relation between 7 and ~7
relative to addition?
2-4 88
i
(a) x + 3 = 11
(b) x + "6 =
(c ) x -
-
| |x =
(d) 2x 7 =
(First add "x)
"x -2x
i
=
(e) 7
(f ) ix + 2 =
1.5 - x
If a = b does
|a
=
89 2-4
If 2x = 10
c a c b
of multiplication, we have
gC2x) «
*
2)x
-
x x. all know that *
10 « 5,
(|.
= = We
1
|-
so, x =
5.
If x =
5
then 2x = 2*5 = 10
and 2x = 10
-t-
+
1
1
or 2x + = 11.
1
^2..
or "4 -
x =
Now, since we know that ~Vx = W^., we can find what x must
be by using the multiplication property. By what should we
multiply "~4x in order to get x? Using the multiplication
property, we have
Is "(-tA) a solution?
If x =
*"
then ~Vx =
so that "ii -
x
Then -Vx + ~3 =
+"3 = +
or -*•» .
6
9.
-3
|5
+ = =
Thus ~(-g^-)
is a solution, the only solution.
The solution set of
=
3
91 2-4
(d) x - y
j
5 =
15 (k) 19 = 6
(e) 6
TB
=
(1)
•
n =
15 + 0.4
(f) 14 - x
*
= 0 (m) 45 b = 1
(g) |x =
17 ( n)
7 _
c
-L
m/ 2(m + 5) 2) ( 3m) - 72 =
50
(c) \ -1- -z 6 (
3
*( h) (\ l) -^
= "26
-18
/
n
(2) 2(m + 5)
( 2 ) 4 = "26n
U) (1) ~x =
5
*( i) ( 1 ) 5x - 2 = 3x + 6
(2) x = "5
(\ 2 /) 2x - 2 = 6
(e) (l) (£k) + 1 = 1
(2) ik = o
(a) 7 =
3x + 1 Addition property with ("l).
(b) 6 =
3w Multiplication property with
(c) 75-
- 1.7 = ~1.3 Multiplication property with
(2).
(d) b =
yg Multiplication property with
(18).
(e) 0.14 + x = 5.28 Addition property with (-Q.14)
*(f ) 5x - 7 = 2x Addition property with
Exercises 2-4b .
2
1
=
=
6
7 (e)
(d)
|- -
?x
3
5
- '*
= ~4
(e) y - 3 = 5 *(k) 2t - 11 =
5t + 1
(c) 4x 1
(f)
+
0~7T2~
2-5
X y
0
_!_
2
Before you continue reading, copy this table and work out the
missing numbers. For example, to in the third line, set fill
x = 2 in the above equation. Ask yourself, "what are the
possible values of y?"
You must read the rest of this chapter with pencil and
paper handy. Do not go on to a new paragraph until you have
answered all the questions the paragraph you have just read.
in
In much of this section you will need to use graph paper
and a ruler, too.
If x = 0 and y = 1, then the equation x + 1 = y is
95 2-5
is not true.
pair in which the objects are considered in a definite
A
order is called an ordered pair.
The ordered pair (2,7) is the same as the ordered pair
(x,y) if x = 2 and y = 7, and only then. This pair is
different from the ordered pair (7*2).
The solution set of the above sentence
x + 1 = y
is set of ordered pairs of numbers.
a For what number y is
the ordered pair (2,y) in the solution set?
In order to picture the solution set on your graph paper,
pick out two lines for the X-axis and the Y-axis and draw
them in heavily with your pencil. Label the vertical and
horizontal lines as shown.
1
X
_• /*>
J -1
>
I ^J ^^
1I
0
->
O
^i
2-5 96
so -6 + y = ~1.
Thus 5 is a solution, the only solution.
Thus, ("5,5) is a solution of the equation 2x + y = "l .
Follow this example to complete the table of solutions of
2x + y = "l on the next page. Perhaps you can do some of the
steps in your head.
97 2-5
X y
-2 5
-1
0
4
"2
0
2
Exercises 2-5a
1 . Draw the graphs of the f ollowing linear equations on
the same set of axes:
y = x-fl, y = 2x + 1,
3x + 1, y
y = ~2x = + 1.
2. On another set of axes draw the graphs of the
following equations :
y = x + 1, y = x + 2, y=x+ "5.
3. Do the same for x + y = 0, x + y = 1, and x + y = ~1.
have x > 0 and y > 0, and the number sentence which really
describes the situation is this:
2x + 2y = 16 and x > 0, y> 0.
We can find several ordered pairs in the solution set. Which
of the following pairs are solutions?
f),
14
124
10
6-1
t 10 15 20 25 30
X y X
I
1
"4 4 1
7
"3 2
"2 3
"~1 1 4
TT
Plot these point on your graph paper. Then sketch the graph
of the equation.
2
All points with coordinates (x,
1
-q-x
), where x is any number,
lie on the parabola. Where will a point with coordinates ( x,y)
lie if y > ix ? If a point (x,y) lies above the parabola what
1 2
can you say about y and ^-x
? Which must be greater?
Exercises 2-5b
(f) x 1. =
(S) x2 = 0.
(h) X = 0 and y = 0.
2
(i) x2 + y = 0.
*(J) y = the larger of the numbers x + 1 and 2 - x.
*(k) y = x when x > 0 and y = ~x when x < 0.
Consider the number sentence
N
and x and y are
non-negativeintegers,"
with each of the following equations filling in the
blank. List the solution set in each case, and
write the number of solutions which the sentence has .
(a) x + y = 1. (g) x + 2y = 3-
(b) x + y = 2. (h) x + 2y = 4.
(c) x + y 20. =
(i) x + 2y = 25.
(d) x + 2y = 0. (J) 5x + 7y = 35.
(e) x + 2y = 1. (k) 5* + 7y = 36.
(f ) x + 2y = 2. (1) 5x + 7y =
37.
A chain store has 5 tons of coffee in its warehouse
in Orleans .
New It sends s tons to San Francisco
and n tons 'to Nev; York. The total amount shipped
is the entire warehouse supply. Write a number
sentence in symbols which describes the relation
between s n. On a pair of axes labeled "s"
and
and "n" draw the graph of this number sentence.
105 2-5
§
d •0
o d
•H § o S
£ rH •H •H CO
H H H d
•H H H 0
h •H •H X5
43 .0 E -P
•d •d •o •d TJ
0) 0> 0) 0) V
T3
V c c 0) C G <U c CD 0) 4)
c: 3 0) o> d 3 C 3 0) C 3 Q) d
o -p o x; -P x; o x; O x: o
3,141,592,653,589,793
x: O 43 4> 4>
mark the decimal point; e.g., 563.12 read "five hundred sixty-
is
three and twelve hundredths." This use of "and" does not cause
confusion since 563.12 means 563 + 0.12.
You may not know that the British different way of
have a
denoting large numbers. Their words "thousand" and "million" mean
the same as ours, but their "billion" means what we would call
"a million millions" or "one trillion." They would read the
109 3-1
1-|
%
(c) Find the smallest distance from earth to sun.
(d) Find the largest distance from earth to sun.
(e) Write the numbers found in Parts (d) and (e) in
scientific notation.
Definition. number is expressed in scientific notation if it
A
1
the proper power of ten. Also number is expressed in scientific
a
notation when it is written just as a power of ten.
are in scientific notation.
3
Exercises 3-1
Write the following in scientific notation:
(a) 1,000 (d) 102 x 107
(b) 101x 101x 101x 107 (e) 10 X 105
93,000,000 x 11,000 =
Exercises 3-2
Multiply, and express your answer in scientific notation;
(a) 6 x 107 x 103 (e) 102 x 105 x 7.63
(b) 1013 x 12 x 105 (f ) 60 x 60 x 60
(c) x 3.5 x 109
1021" (g) 7 x 3 x 105
(d) 300 x 105 x 20 (h) 9.3 x 107 x 10 x 10
Multiply, and write your answer in scientific notation:
(a) 9,000,000 x 70,000 (c) 25,000 x 186,000
(b) 125 x 8,000,000 (d) ll00 x 5 x 200,000
115 3-3
2 4
Divide 10 by 10, obtaining the result 10. Starting with 10 and
dividing by 10 three times, we obtained
L. -3 p i
10 , 10°, 10 , 10 .
Notice that the exponents decrease by one each time. Now divide
10 by 10. We know that the result is 1. Also, we see that if
the exponents are to continue the pattern of decreasing by one,
the next exponent should be 0. For this reason, It is
convenient
to define 10 as 1, that is 10 =1. Now we have obtained the
following:
10 =
,n3
10 '
103 = 10
,n2 102 =
,nl
10
10 =
,nO
10
10 To »
10 >
10
The exponent in each answer above is 1 less than the exponent
immediately preceding it. 0
Again divide by 10: As the next number we get =
^Q TQ-
If the pattern of exponents is to continue, we should expect the
next exponent to be 1 less than 0. This is the number which we
write ~1; it is a negative number. Hence, it seems reasonable to
define 10 as. meaning . Now divide 10 by 10. The number
-
is a positive number. 10
~2
. is 1
10 3, 10 5, 10 7, 10 6.
0-• lip
^ ~
= -i
10
+
2
100
= 10.
100
+ _?_
100
. JL1.
100
In a similar way show that 0.6937 =
In similar that x 10
->.
a way show 0.00007 = 7
Now let us write 0.42 in scientific notation,
°-« •
T§o
•
000306
O.OOOJOt? = = 3^05 = 10*
x 1U
X
0
1,000,000
^T
3
'
10b
~k
We can now write 0.16 x 10 in scientific notation,
4
0.16 x 10 = 0.16 x
10
16 „ 1.6 x 10 —
1
A
*
17
^
10 10
- 1-6 v
6
'
1
10
)
io4 10 104
X
= =
1(P
3-3 118
Exercises 3-3
Write each of the following in scientific notation.
1
(a) 0.093 (f)
icr
(b) 0.0001 (s) 0.7006
(c)
lo5 (h) 0.000000907
(d) 1 (D 6
(e) 0.00621 (J) 0.0045
119
3
Multiply 4.3 x 10 5 by 2 x 10
120
(4.3 X 10 5) x (2 X 10 3) =
(4.3 X 2) X (10
5 x 10~3)
= 8.6 x -i- x
= 8.6 X -4r
10 _
= 8.6 x 10 8
10
~C
D
x 10
-Q J = 10^
(~C^ + J;
~0)
(4.3 x 105) x (2 x 10 3) =
(4.3 x 2) x (105 x 10 3)
= 8.6 x (105 x
-J^.)
= 8.6 x 10^
10^
3 +
105 x 10 = 10^5 3^.
~U 3 (~k' + 1\'
Show as above that 10 x 10 = 10V . We can now see
that when we multiply 10a by 10 the result is 10^a
+ ' no
matter whether a and b are positive or negative.
121 3-4
= 25.38 x 104
4
=
(2.538 x 10) x 10
= 2.538 x (10 x 104)
= 2.538 x 105.
In this problem the numbers 4.7 and 5.4 were multiplied to
obtain 25-38 and then this number was written in scientific
notation as 2.538 x 10. Then, 2.538 x 10 was multiplied by
10*.
Exercises 3-4
1. Write the following products in scientific notation.
2
(a) 10 5
x 10 (e) 0.0001 x 0.007
(b) 0.3 x 10 f (f) (5.7 x 10-3) x 10 7
6
(c) 10 7 x 10 (g) 1012 x 10-3 x lO1^
8
(d) 0.04 x 0.002 (h) 1012 x 10 7 x 10
2. Write the following products in scientific notation.
6 *
(a) 0.0012 x 0.000024 (d) 3 x 10 x 10
3
x 10 7 x
3
(b) 6 9 x 10 (e) 38 x 10 x 0.00012
3
(c) 14 x 10 x 10 5 (f) 0.000896 x 0.00635
3. Using scientific notation find the products of the following:
23
(a) 10,000 x 0.01 (c) 1017 x 10
= 10
(c) Are 10
•(
4. 10
2
and 10V
(7-2)' numerals for tne same
number or different numbers?
3. (a) Find b - "3.
"
(*) Find 10^6 *) .
(c) Use the illustrative example above to determine whether
e —„ ir "o\
10 4. 10 and 10 ' are numerals for the same
number.
r"k - ^\
*"
4. (a) Find 10V .
4 4 " ^'
(b) Is 10 4- 105 equal to 10^ ? Why? (You found
the first number in la)
2
5. Is 10 4- 10 7 = 10^
2
7^?
a b
6. Write another numeral for 10 •*• 10 .
Exercises .3_-5
1. Write the answers to the following in scientific notation,
(a) IO5* 102 (e) 1011* 1013
17 4-1012 3
(d) 10 (h) 10 4- io4
4. Write the answers to the following in scientific notation.
2 3 1
(a) 10 5 4- 10 (e) 10 4- 10
4 12
(b) 10 144- 10 (f) 10 17 4- 10
10
(c) lo'11* io"13 (g) 10 4- io"20
(a) 12 Jg =
TO
00
=
^f = 12 x 10[==l = 1.2 x
46 = 4.6 x
(d) 350^= =
350 x lO^^I =
3.5 x 10I=:J
If -3^*3-150x101=1 .1.3X10
2 1
3214 x 10 and 1.6 = 16 x 10 then
32.14 x 1.6 =
(3214 x 10 2) x (16 x 10 I)
2
x 16) x (10 x 10
-1)
=
(3214
x 16) x 10
3.
=
(3214
3.
51424. 51424 10
-•3 •
The factor 10 merely places the decimal point in proper
position. Starting from the whole number 51424 there should
be three decimal places in the result:
3
51424 10 = 51.424.
x
32.14 3214
2
x 10
1.6 = 16 x lo"1
19284
3214
x
3
51424 10 = 51.424
127 3-6
2
14.72 = 1472 X 10
6.1 61 x 10*1
- W2 x 10(-2
- "I) = 1472 x ^
First we divide 1472 6l. This is an operation on
by
whole numbers though a decimal fraction may appear in the quotient,
The result of this operation is 24.13. This part of the
quotient is correct to two decimal places. But we must multiply
24.13 by 10 I.
Hence,
"^'I2 = 24.13 X 10
I = 2.413.
o.l
The final answer for this problem is now correct to three decimal
places. Once again the exponent "1 is used to fix the position
of the decimal point in the answer. Note that powers of ten were
used in such a fashion that actually we were dividing one whole
number by another whole number.
Remember that you can have as many decimal places in the
answer as are needed.
Exercises 3-6
1. Place the decimal point in the products to make the following
number sentences true.
I 1 1
6.5 x 65 x 10
' =
(c) 65000 = 101
-1 2
(d) 38.216 = 382.16 x 10 = 3821.6 x 10 = 38216 x 10^—^
(r>\ 8750
(c) B7T5
129 3-7
*7. How many pieces of popcorn each weighing 0.04 ounces will
it take to make enough to fill 840 bags? Each bag will
contain 6 ounces of popcorn.
8. BRAINBUSTER: A flying
saucer can travel at 100,000 miles
a second. About how long (in years) will it take it to
visit and return from a star that is light years 5^-
away?
1 light year % 6.3 x 1012 miles
1 1
1 centimeter = of a decimeter or x = of a
To -r-^-
10
-T-TT
10 100
meter 0.01 meter
=
Table 1
1000 m. 100 m. 10 m.
103 m. 102- m. 101 m. 10° m.
m- m* m.
To loo Tooo
Notice that all the names of the metric units (except "meter")
use the word "meter" with a prefix. It is
important to remember
these prefixes, because they are used also to name other units
of measure in the metric system.
3-7 132
Prefix Meaning
cent! y or 10 "2
mill! or
Exercises 3-7a
1. Write in expanded form each of the following:
Example: 1234.56? =
(l x 103) + (2 x 102) + (3 x 101) +
3 dekameters +
4 meters +
5 decimeters +
6 centimeters +
7 millimeters
or: 1 km. + 2 hm. +3 dkm. + 4 m. +5 dm. +6 cm. +7mrn.
(a) 1111.111 meters (d) 0.564 m.
(b) 5.342 m. (e) 6043.278 m.
(c) 245.36 m. (f) 2020.202 m.
Complete each of the following:
(a) 1 kilometer = hectometers
(b) 1 kilometer - dekameters
(c) 1 kilometer = meters
(d) 1 kilometer = decimeters
(e) 1 kilometer = centimeters
(f) 1 kilometer = millimeters
133 3-7
Figure 1
J x cm- =
TSo
of a meter 1 sq. cm. = - x
100
1 cm. =
100
of a meter
sq
107000
We can now show the multiples and subdivision of the square meter.
Table 2
"
( #" refers to the units that are used most frequently)
Length # km. hm. dkm. # m. dm. # cm. # mm.
1 -_1
1000m. 100m. 10m. 1m. ^^•™»TT1 m m
10 100 1000
103m. 102m. loV 10°m. urtt. 10" 2m. 10" 3u
Exercises 3-7b
1. Complete each of the following:
2
Example: 1 sq . dkm. --10 sq. m. or 100 sq. m.
1 cu. cm. = m x m X m
1
1,000,000 cu. m
lcm?iobm
3-7 136
$
i
Length
1
052*.
1
(1000)2 (ioo)2 sq.m.
1
[7
<u
ioo2 1000
sq.km. sq .hm.
sq .dm. sqcm.
l( 1000)
0)
1
I?
3
-D
rH
o ioo3 1000°
cu.km cu.hm. cu.dkn. cu .dm. cu . cm .
Exercises 3-7c
1. Complete each of the following:
Example: There are 10^ or 1000 cu.m. in cu.dkm.
1
or in
3
The metric unit for the measure of mass was defined as the
weight of water contained by a vessel whose volume is one cubic
centimeter. The mass of 1 cubic centimeter of water is called
a gram. Thus, when we know the volume of the interior of a con
tainer, immediately know the mass of water it can contain.
we
For example, if
the volume of the interior of a container is 500
cu. cm., then the mass of water it can contain is 500 grams.
Capacity is another name for volume, and it usually refers
to those vessels that can contain something, while volume refers
to any portion of three dimensional space.
A box is a rectangular solid. You have learned how to find
the volume of its interior. To speak of its capacity is to
refer to what it can contain.
In everyday life in America, we may say the capacity of a
tank is a certain number of gallons, its volume is so many
cubic feet, and the weight of its contents is so many pounds.
To measure capacity we usually use special units, such as pint,
quart, and gallon in the English system.
In the metric system the usual unit of capacity is the liter.
It is defined to be the capacity of a cube whose edges each
measure 10 centimeters or decimeter.
1 Thus a cube, the length
of whose edges is 1 decimeter, has a volume of 1000 cu. cm.
It can contain a mass of 1000 grams of water and its capacity
is 1 liter. One liter is about 1 quart.
3-7 138
leu. km. = lcu.hm.= leu. dkm. = Icu.m. leu. dm. = leu. cm. = leu. mm. =
1 1
V (1000)3
cu.m.
(100)3
cu.m.
do)3
cu.m. I?
cu.m.
1003
cu.m.
10003
cu.m.
i/.
C
1
1000
ky.
/.
1
100
hj>.
J .
1
10
dk^.
j> .
1 d/.
fc>
1
100
cJ.
f-
i
iSo"o~y-
my.
Table 5
Exercises 3-7d
(b) kilograms?
3. Write in expanded form:
(a) 6666.666 liters
(b) 2.03 liters
4. (a) What is the capacity in milliliters of the rectangular
solid mentioned in Problem 2 above?
(b) What is its capacity in liters?
Often it is
necessary to convert from the metric system to
the English system, and vice versa. Table 6 gives a conversion
list of the more commonly used measures.
Table 6_
Metric English
2.5^ centimeters % 1 inch
1 meter % 1.1 yards % 39-37 in.
1 kilometer or 0.6 miles
.£.
liter % quart
1
Exercises 3-7e
1. Convert each of the following metric measurements to equiva
lent English measurements. You may refer to the table of
conversions .
(a) 25.4 cm. = in. (the length of the usual slide rule)
3-7 140
Research Problems:
Use the Twentieth Yearbook of the National Council of
Teachers of_ Mathematics as your reference book.
information.
(c) Which weighs more, a pound of feathers or a pound of
gold?
Table J
Length
10 millimeters (mm.) = 1 centimeter (cm.)
100 centimeters (cm.) = 1 meter (m.)
1000 meters (m.) = 1 kilometer (km.)
Capacity
1000 milliliters = 1 liter (1.)
Mass
1000 grams (g.) = 1 kilogram
1000 kilograms (kg.) = 1 metric ton (t.)
Chapter 4
Exercises 4-1
1. Find out what these tools are and how they are used by draftsmen.
(a) 30-60 triangle.
-
(b) French Curves.
(c) Pantograph.
IN SOLVING THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS, DECIDE WHETHER A ROUGH SKETCH OR
fourth side?
9- The inside diameter of a pipe is 9 inches. The material of the
pipe is TT inch thick. What is the outside diameter?
A cross section of a doughnut is 4 -j- inches in diameter and
1
10. *
the width of a cross section is 1 75- inches. What. is the diam
1
Plane figures.
Plane figures are figures that lie completely on a surface
such as your paper or the chalkboard. Lines, angles, and polygons
are examples of plane figures.
Lines are the simplest of these figures. The relation of two
or more lines on a plane is of special interest. Perpendicular
147 4-2
Triangles
Triangles can be drawn with a ruler protractor if you
and know
the measure of two sides and the angle between those sides, or if
you know the measures of two angles and the length of the side
between the angles.
For the first set of measures, two sides and the angle between
the sides, follow these steps:
a. Use your protractor to draw an angle of the given size.
b. Use your ruler to measure one side of the triangle on
one ray of the angle. Be sure the measure starts at
the vertex.
c. Measure the other side on the second ray of the angle.
d. Connect the endpoints of the segments to form the third
side.
As an example, draw a triangle with a 40° angle between
sides that
at are 2 inches and
an 1 - inches long. Your completed draw
ing should look like this:
l-V
2"
When two angles and the side between the angles are known, a
triangle is drawn by using the following steps:
a. Use the ruler to draw a segment with the same length
given in the problem.
b. Use your protractor to measure one angle. The vertex
of this angle should be at one endpoint of the segment.
The segment is one side of the triangle.
c. Measure the other angle so that the vertex is at the
4-2 150
2"
Exercises 4-2
1. Draw segments whose lengths are:
a. 2inches
TT b. 1 •£- inches c. 4 yz- inches
2. Draw angles whose measures are:
a. 42° b. 174° c. 300°
3. a. Draw a horizontal line and mark two points, A and B, on
it. Draw perpendiculars at each point.
b. What is the relationship between the last two lines drawn?
4. oblique line and mark two points A and B. Draw
Draw an
lines through points A and B so that they are parallel to each
other and so that each line intersects the oblique line forming
angles of 60°.
5. a. Draw a triangle that has two angles of 60° with a side 2 i
inches long between the angles,
b. kind of triangle is this?
What
6. Draw a triangle with sides of 2 TT inches and 1 TT inches. The
angle formed by these sides is 110°.
151 4-3
y
Draw arcs that cross the
first two arcs.
Measure the two parts of the original segment. Are they the
same length? How are the segment and the bisector, that was con
structed, related?
4-3
3. Bisecting an angle
Use your protractor to measure the two angles. Are they equal?
155 4-3
Exercises 4-3a
1. Use your ruler to draw a horizontal line 1 -^ inches long.
Construct a vertical segment the same length.
Use your ruler to draw a vertical segment 2 -jr inches long.
3
2.
\/
Check with your protractor to see if the two lines are perpendicular.
158
6. Copying an angle
Use your protractor to check this construction, Are the angles the
same size?
159 4-3
Exercises 4-3b
Use your ruler to draw a horizontal 4 -^ inch segment. Leave
about 3 inches above the segment. Mark points as follows:
a. On the segment, 1 inch from the left endpoint.
b. About 1 i
inches above the center of the segment.
c. At the right endpoint.
Construct perpendiculars that pass through each point.
Draw an acute angle and an obtuse angle. Copy each angle using
compass and straightedge only.
a. Draw a triangle. Then construct the bisector of each
angle. Extend the bisectors until they cross.
b. What notice about the figure?
do you
Draw an obtuse angle and divide it into four equal angles. Use
compass and straightedge.
a. Draw a triangle. Then erect perpendiculars from each
vertex to the opposite side. Extend the perpendiculars
until they cross. (It may be necessary to extend the
sides of the triangle so that the perpendicular meets
this line. )
Exercises 4-4
1. Draw a line segment about as long
as this one. A
b. 4 concurrent lines.
c. 5 concurrent lines.
10. Draw three rays such that the endpoints of the rays are the
only point of intersection.
11. How many angles are formed by the rays in problem 10?
12. Construct a segment that has the same length as the difference
in length between the lengths of these two segments.
a
Exercises 4-
Draw a circle. With the same radius, use any point the
on
circle center and mark off arcs on the circle
as at equal dis
tances from the point. Move the point of the compass to one
point where the arc crosses the circle. Mark another arc on
the circle. Continue until the arc drawn falls at the starting
point. If you do this carefully you will discover that the last
arc drawn falls exactly on the first point.
a. How many arcs are there?
b. Connect Intersection of the circle
each and an arc to the
intersection on each side of it.
c. What figure do these segments form?
d. How can you use these points to construct an equilateral
triangle?
e. How can you form a six-pointed star?
f. Using the radius as the circle, draw an arc from one
same
point on the circle to another. Move the point of the
compass to either intersection and repeat. Continue around
the circle. What does this figure look like?
Draw a circle and one diameter. Construct diameter perpen
a
dicular to the first diameter. Connect the endpoints of the
diameters in order.
a. What figure does this form?
b. How can you form a polygon with twice as many sides? There
are two ways that this can be done. Can you find both of
them?
165 4-5
1-x =
^'100
and
x =
25.
Let us try again and this time use y^ of an inch to represent one
yard.
1
IF x
'
~~T~ 100
i -x = -
100
x = 6 -
16? 4-6
160
T"
X =
inches
inches
Exercises 4-3
1, Draw a parallelogram using only a ruler.
2. Draw a regular pentagon with each side 1 inch in length. Each
angle is 108°.
3, Use a ruler and protractor to draw a regular hexagon, with
each side 1 inch in length. Each angle is 120°.
4, Use a rulero protractor to
and draw a regular octagon with
_
4-7. Solids
which are contained within a
You have been drawing figures
plane. You are now to practice drawing on the surface of your
paper pictures of figures in space. You have found that it is
easy to draw a plane figure on the surface of your paper or on the
chalkboard. You will find that it is not so easy to draw pictures
of solids on paper or on the chalkboard. This is because you must
draw the figure on a surface in such a way that it will appear to
have depth. In other words, you want to make a drawing on your
paper have the appearance of a box. This requires the use of
projection which you have possibly studied in art.
(a) Prisms
(l) Rectangular Prisms . A good example of a rectangular
prism is a cereal box. One way to draw a box is as
follows:
a. Draw a rectangle such as ABCD in the figure
below.
b. Now draw a second rectangle RSTV in a position
similar to the one in the figure.
c. Draw AR, BS, W and "CT.
i
i
i
(b) Pyramids
this is the first time you have heard of the
Perhaps
set of solids, called pyramids, in a mathematics text.
You have probably heard of the famous Pyramids of Egypt.
A pyramid has one base, which is a region formed by a
polygon, and triangular faces which are made by joining
the vertices of the polygon to a point which is not in the
plane of the polygon. A more accurate description of
pyramids will come in a later chapter. Let us draw one.
a. In this drawing let the base represent a square with
a vertex at the bottom of the drawing. Here again,
you must be careful to get the proper perspective by
making the horizontal length longer than the vertical
length.
b. First, draw only two sides of the square, such as AB
and BC, as shown in the figure below.
c. Now select a point P, directly above point B, and
draw ]?5, PB and "PC.
d. AD, "CD and "EB may now be drawn as dotted line segments
intersecting on "PB, with "AD parallel to BC and CD
parallel to AB.
e. How many faces does this pyramid have?
173
(c) Cylinders
You know that a cylinder has two bases, equal in area,
which are circular regions. In drawing cylinders on the
surface of your paper you are again confronted with the
problem of getting the correct projection. you con If
struct two circles with your compass and then draw line
segments connecting the end points of parallel diameters
of the two circles, the figure you have drawn will not
have the appearance of a right cylinder. In order to have
the proper perspective you must draw the bases as ovals as
shown in the figure below. Let us now draw a right
cylinder.
a. Draw a rectangle such as ABCD in the figure below.
b. Now use AB and DC as diameters of the circular
bases to be shown and draw the circles. Be careful to
get the proper perspective by making the horizontal
length of the oval longer than the vertical length.
B
4-7 174
(d) Cones
The cone another solid with which you are familiar,
Is
but which you may not have studied. An ice cream cone is
\
c. Now draw a line through R so that it appears to pass
through the surface of ABCD. This will require some
practice.
d. You will have a better picture if the line through R
is not parallel to a side of the parallelogram.
Exercises 4-7
1 . Draw a rectangular prism so that it will appear to be tall and
slender.
2. Draw a triangular prism so that the triangular faces will
appear to be right triangles.
3. Draw a pentagonal prism.
4. Draw a rectangular prism so that it will appear to be short
and fat.
5. Draw a pyramid with the base a quadrilateral which does not
appear to be a square, a rectangle or a parallelogram.
6. Draw a pyramid with a triangular base.
177
(preliminary edition)
Prepared under the supervision of the Panel on yth and 8th Grades of the School
Mathematics Study Group:
Financial support for the School Mathematics Study Group has been provided by the
CONTENTS
Chapter
5. SYMMETRY, CONGRUENCE AND THE PYTHAGOREAN PROPERTY . . l8l
5-1. Symmetry l8l
5-2. Congruent Triangles 187
5-3.
5-4.
The
One
Right Triangle
Proof of the Pythagorean Property .... 201
210
5-5.
Table
Quadrilaterals
- Squares and Square Roots of Numbers .... 215
219
8. PROBABILITY 293
8-1. Chance Events 293
8-2. Empirical Probability 306
8-3. Probability of A or B 312
8-4. Probability of A and B 318
5-1 Symmetry
In the last cnapcer you worked with geometric constructions.
In this chapter you will explore some of the properties of the
figures you constructed. All but one of the constructions are
examples of symmetry and all are examples of congruence. Both
of these topics will be studied in this chapter.
The first topic taat is studied is symmetry. Section 1 is
developed so tnat you will be able to discover for yourself wuat
is meant by symmetry.
D B
Figure 5-1-a.
5-1 182
Figure 5-1-e.
Exercises 5-1
1. Draw a rectangle and draw its axes of symmetry. Label each
axis of symmetry. How many axes of symmetry does a rectangle
have?
4. Draw and label the axes of symmetry, if there are any, for each
of the figures. How many axes of symmetry does each figure
have?
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
(g) (h)
Fold a piece of paper down the middle and then cut designs in
it. Unfold. Is the design symmetrical with respect to the
fold? Is the fold an axis of symmetry?
5-1 186
5. Fold piece of paper down the middle, and repeat the folding
a
a second time. Cut a design in it and unfold. Where are the
axes of symmetry?
5-2. CongruentTriangles
In Section 5-1 when you cut along a right triangle on a folded
sheet of paper, you produced an isosceles triangle. The axis of
symmetry (the fold) forms with edges two right triangles which
have the same size and shape. When two figures have the same size
and shape we say that they are congruent . The two right triangles
are congruent triangles.
Can you think of other congruent figures? How about two
circles, each with a radius of five inches? Are two line segments
having the same length congruent?
Since an angle is a geometric figure, may we talk about two
congruent angles? Congruent angles have the same size and shape.
Now if two angles have the same measure they have the same size,
and to say that two angles have the same size means that they
have the same measure. Appearance tells us that two angles with
equal measures have the same shape.
l_ B is congruent to /
F, and we may write /. B = F, where /
the symbol " = " stands for the word "congruent" . Is /_ F = /_ G?
We know that two circles are congruent if
they have the same
radius. Two squares are congruent if
they both have the same meas
ure for their sides. Two line segments are congruent if they both
have the same length. Two angles are congruent if their measures
are the same .
Is this the case for two rectangles? Are two rectangles
congruent if their bases are equal? No. If their heights are
equal? No. If their bases and heights are equal? Yes.
5-2 188
You can see that the rectangle requires two conditions for
congruency.
Triangles are so basic in much of mathematics, science, and
engineering, that we need to know conditions under which triangles
are congruent. The situation here involves more conditions than in
the figures we have already discussed.
If triangle DEF were traced on paper and the paper cut along
the sides of the triangle, the paper model would represent a tri
angle and its interior. The paper model could be placed on tri
angle ABC and the two triangles would exactly fit. The two tri
angles are congruent. If point D were placed on point A with DP
along AC, point F would fall on point C, and point E would fall on
point B. In these two triangles there would be these pairs of
congruent segments and congruent angles:
AB = DE Z B =
Z E Use your ruler
and protractor
CB = FE / C
v
/ F to check these
measures .
CA=FD Z A =
Z D
189 5-2
Class Exercise
J
-4- H
K
>
J
-f-
M
M K
K -+-
Figure 5-2a
(c) Connect J
with the intersection of the arcs by a line
segment and connect K with the intersection of the arcs by
a se g.ie nt .
Is your triangle the same size and shape as triangle JKM? Use
compass and ruler to check. Two triangles are congruent the if
three sides of one triangle are congruent respectively t(3 the
three sides £f the other triangle . We will refer to this as
Property S.S.S. (Side, Side, Side)
2. Construct a triangle as follows:
(a) Use JK for one side.
(b) Construct /_ J at point J. Set the compass for the
length of JM and with J as a center make an arc
intersecting the second side of the angle.
Is your triangle the same size and shape as triangle JKM? Use
your compass and ruler to check.
191 5-2
Is your triangle the same size and shape as triangle JKM? Use your
compass and ruler to check. Do you recall using protractor and
Exercises 5"2a
1. Use the triangle ABC in the following exercises.
Do you recall
the construction of a perpendicular to a line
through a given point on the line? In this construction, from
Chapter 4, we used two of the properties about congruent tri
angles. In this construction
two arcs intersect at point J.
If we draw the segments GJ and
JH, then there are two triangles,
GPJ and HPJ formed. By con
struction GP = TS, GJ = HJ. The
perpendicular to line ^ has the
segment JP on it. JP is a side
of each triangle, and so is called a common side. By applying
Property S.S.S, we know that triangle GPJ = triangle PHJ, since
three sides of one triangle are congruent to three sides
of the other triangle. Angle JPG (opposite GJ) in triangle GPJ
corresponds to angle JPH (opposite JH) in triangle PHJ. By
applying the property that says if two triangles are congruent
then each pair of corresponding angles is congruent and each pair
of corresponding sides is congruent, we know that /
JPG is
congruent to /
JPH. If a protractor is laid along PH with the
vertex mark at P and 0° then the 180° mark
mark on PH,
will be on the ray PG. This means that the sum of the measures
of the angles at P is l80 and, since these measures are equal,
each must be 90. Hence, angles JPG and JPH are right angles.
195 5-2
Exercises 5-2b
1. In the figure the construction of the bisector of / ABC is
shown. Two segments, AD and CD are drawn.
3 Use your
. protractor to find
the measures in degrees of the 3
angles in each triangle.
4. wishes to measure
Mr. Thompson
the distance between two posts on
edges of his property. A grove of
trees between the two posts
(X and Y) makes it impossible to
measure the distance XY directly.
He locates point Z such that he
can lay out a line from X to Z
and continue it far as needed.
as
Point Z is also in a position
such that Mr. Thompson can lay out
a line YZ* and continue it as far
as needed. Mr. Thompson knows that
/ 1 =
/ 2 since they are vertical
angles. He extends YZ so that
QZ = YZ.
_' >
199 5-2
*ll. (a) How many pairs of congruent triangles are there in the
figure for Problem 10? List them by pairs.
201 5-3
Sometimes it is
convenient to name triangles according to
measures of the angles. Consider the following three sets of
triangles:
Set A
Set B
m (/ x) is 120. m (/ y ) is 110,
Set C
Exercises 5-3a
Using your straightedge and protractor draw the following
triangles:
(a) Obtuse triangle
(b) Acute triangle
(c) Right triangle.
c2 = a2 + b2
c2 - 32 + 42
c2 = 9 +16
c2 = 25.
Exercises 5.-3b
When approximate values are used in these problems, use the
symbol, «, in the work and answer.
13 =
5
132 +
-/-2
(5) = b (addition property of
equality)
= b
= b
12 - b
(b) c = 26, a = 24
(c) c = 39, b =
15
(a) How much wire is needed to stretch one wire from the
ground to the point on the pole at which the wire is
fastened?
(b) If 5 ft. of
wire are required to fasten each wire to the
pole and the ground anchor, how much wire is needed for
each pole?
5-3 208
rafter be if
it extends 18
inches over the wall of the
house?
*9- How long is the throw from home plate to 2nd base in a soft
ball game? The bases are 60 ft. apart and a baseball diamond
is square in shape. Give your answer to the nearest whole foot
*10. Draw a square whose sides are of length 1 unit. What is the
length of the diagonal? Check by measurement. Now draw a
right triangle with the sides 1 unit long. What is the length
of the hypotenuse?
*11. Now right triangle of sides "square root of 2" and 1
draw a
units in length as shown in the figure. In the figure the
measure of the length of AB is the square root of 2. What Is
the length of the hypotenuse of this new triangle?
5-4 210
Draw two squares the same size. Separate the first square into
two squares and two rectangles as shown here:
A=ab A=b2
A=a2 A=ab
Figure 1.
and the measure of each side of the small square be b. Notice "the
areas of the small squares and rectangles.
2
One square has an area of measure a .
2
The other square has an area of measure b .
P b
b R a
Figure 2.
Mark the lengths off as shown here and draw the segments
QR, RS and SP.large square is separated into
The 4 triangles
and a quadrilateral that appears to be a square .
The measure of each triangular area is «• ab. There are four
congruent triangles. The sum of the measures of the areas of
all four triangles is )j ab) or ab
2
(-^
+
b
A
square
*
(from Figure
?)
square ab) +
ApQRS
^ 2ao
PQRS
5-4 212
2 2
Therefore a -f 2ao + b = 2ab + A Why?
2 2 -
a + b
APQRS (addition property of
equality. )
2 2
This shows that area whose measure is a + b units,
PQRS has an
but a
2
is the measure of the area of one small square in the first
figure and b 2 is the measure of the area of the other square.
Prom this the area of the figure in the center of the second square
is equal to the sum of the areas of the two small squares.
2
Place the square whose area measure along the side of is a
length a of one triangle in the second square. Place the square
2
whose area measure is b along the side of length b of the same
triangle. The areas of the squares on the two sides of the triangle
are equal to the area of the figure in the center of Figure 2. All
we need to do now is
that this figure is
prove a square !
A= ab A=b2
A = a A=ab
(2) m(/ 1) =
m(/ 4) Why?
(4)
(/_
+ m +
m(/ = Why?
Jl
)
180
3)
(5) 90 = Why?
+
m(^
and m(/
3)
(c) = 90 Why?
PQRS has been proved to be a square and its area has also
been proved equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the
other two sides.
5-4 214
Exercises 5-4
1. Use the table to find:
(a)
(b)
(c)
6. The edge of the roof of a two story house is 24 feet above the
ground. A painter needs a ladder that will reach the roof.
The foot of the ladder must be 10 feet from the wall in order
to protect a flower bed. What is the shortest ladder that the
painter can use?
Draw two congruent squares with sides of units, inch is
(g-
7. 17
5
units and 12 units in length. Use the method developed in this
section to show that the area of the square on the hypotenuse
of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the areas of the
squares on the other two sides for a triangle whose shorter
sides are units and 12 units in length.
5
in relation to s.
5-5 Quadrilaterals
Symmetry and congruence can be found in some quadrilaterals or
parts of quadrilaterals. It is
also possible to find applications
of the Pythagorean Property. This section has problems based on
quadrilaterals that make use of these three ideas.
You should be familiar with most quadrilaterals but those that
have been discussed previously are given here.
trapezoid has only one pair of parallel sides.
A
sides.
Exercises 5-5
. figure is symmetrical with respect to a line if it has at
1
(a) Trapezoid.
(b) Parallelogram.
(c) Rectangle.
(d) Square.
(a) A rectangle?
(b) A square?
3. Is it
possible to draw a trapezoid that is symmetrical with
respect to a line? If so, draw one.
4. Is it
possible to draw a parallelogram that is symmetrical
with respect to a line? If so, draw one.
You should know that the vertical angles are congruent and
that corresponding angles are congruent.
(c) There are four more pairs of congruent angles. Name them
and give your reasons to show that this is true for one
pair.
5-5 218
B
Quadri lateral Parallelogram Parallelogram with
all sides congruent
Figure A Figure B Figure C
B B B
Trapezoid Rectangle Square
TABLE
SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS OF NUMBERS
Square Square
No Square s roots No Square s roots
1 1 1.000 36 1,296 6.000
2 4 1.414 37 1,369 6.083
3 9 1.732 38 1,444 6.164
4 16 2.000 39 1,521 6.245
5 25 2.236 40 1,600 6.325
Square
No. Squares roots
71 5,041 8.426
72 5,184 8.485
73 5,329 8.544
74 5,476 8.602
75 5,625 8.660
76 5,776 8.718
77 5,929 8.775
78 6,084 8.832
79 6,241 8.888
80 6,400 8.944
8l 6,561 9.000
82 6,724 9.055
83 6,889 9.110
84 7,056 9.165
85 7,225 9.220
86 7,396 9.274
Q«v/
Q 7,569 9-327
7,744 9.381
89 7,921 9.434
90 8,100 9.487
91 8,281 9.539
92 8,464 9-592
93 8,649 9.644
94 8,836 9.695
95 9,025 9.747
96 9,216 9.798
Q*7 9,409 9.849
9,604 9-899
99 9,801 9.950
100 10,000 10.000
Chapter 6
REAL NUMBERS
between 3002 and ^002 ? between 168 and 169 ? Between any
two counting numbers is
there always another counting number?
In Chapter 1 you studied positive and negative rational numbers
The set of integers contains the set of counting numbers (called
positive Integers). For each positive integer a there is an
opposite number "a . The opposites of positive integers are
called negative integers. a If
is a counting number, then
a + "a = 0 . What integer is neither positive nor negative?
6-1 222
(a) 5| (e) ^
(b) 7£ (f ) 6 4
^
(c) 12 (g) 3-7
9. How can you tell whether two fractions represent the same
rational number?
6-1 224
c
10. What are three other names for the rational number y ?
Exercises 6-1
1. Look at each statement below and tell which of the properties
listed for rational numbers it illustrates.
O C "I "1
^ is
^
(a) (if)
+
|j =
Y2' and a rational number.
(b) + 0 =
(c) l.
-
(d) "(T)-"^^ = ' an(^ ^s a ra"ki°nal number
il
10
+ rJ_
110
+ -L.)
10;
- (ii
UO
, ^_)
10'
, 2.
10
(b) (e) 10
-=f
(f)
i
(a) (d)
6|
(e)
_
-
(b) 756 (d)
6. The only rational number that does not have a reciprocal is the
number £ when p is .
*8. Find the average of the two rational numbers "8 and 4.
Now consider all the rational numbers, and the points on the
number line which correspond to them. Such points are called
rational points. On the number line below are shown the rational
points between "3 and 4 which may be named by the fractions
with denominators 2, 3, 4, and 6.
c
-3-2-1
I .1. , .1. I .1. , .1, I I
0
.1.
Figure 6-2
I .1. I
I 2
I ,1. I ,1.
34
I .1. I .1. I
>
Exercises 6-2a
1. Make a drawing of a number line similar to the one in Figure
6-2. Mark the points which correspond to these numbers:
(I\
("2")
,
0123
2' 2"' 2, 2
•
2. On the number line which you drew in Problem 1, find the points
that correspond to these numbers:
Suppose that you then locate points for fractions with denom
inator 8. How many new points will there be between the points
for any two consecutive integers?
Consider all rational points from 0 to 1 which are named
by fractions with denominators 1 to 8 inclusive. These points
are named below. The first row shows the fractions with denom
inator 1, the second row the fractions with denominator 2,
the third row fractions (for new points) with denominator 3,
and so on.
0 1
T T
123
555 1
1
7
2
7
3
13
T T
r
1
1
•6
2345 r r r
5
r r
6
7
8"
(c) Why are there more new points named in the row for fifths
and in the row for sevenths than in the row for sixths?
6-2 228
0111112132314352534567
TS7S5IT7SS572-75S3"7ir5S7B" 1
y
Explain why the first six fractions should be in the order
shown; the last six fractions.
8. In Problem 7 the row of fractions (and the corresponding set of
rational points) could be increased by inserting next the frac
tions with denominator 9, then the fractions with denominator
10, and so on. How many new points would correspond to frac
tions with denominator 9? With denominator 10? With denomina
tor 11?
^ 1
p* , ^ uuoing r 10 r ^
0 r 2r
e
adding s to r ^
0 r 4 r+s
OS
adding r to s ^
0 s r+s
.«= —— 1 , r
iir s
^\ adding s to s
2s
229 6-2
r <
-^(r
+ s) < s. It is not difficult to show that r <
^-(r
+ s) <s,
even if r
is negative or r and s are both negative. You might
try to prove this yourself using the number line, if you wish. The
number
^-(r
-f s) is the average of the numbers r and s. We have
observed, then, that the average of two rational numbers is between
these numbers. On the number line what point do you suppose corre
sponds to the average of two numbers? It is the mid-point of the
segment determined by the two numbers. If r and s are rational
numbers, is + s) a rational number? What properties of the
^-(r
rational number system tells us that it is?
We can summarize what we have observed: The mid-point of the
segment joining two rational points on the number line is a rational
point corresponding t£ the average of the two numbers.
The mid-point of the segment joining the points for -^
and •*•
is
•1C
the point corresponding to the number W, since
1/1
" , 1N =
1/8 , 7 \ = 15
Exercises 6-2b
1. Are the integers dense? is, is there always a third inte
That
ger between any two integers? Illustrate your answer.
2. Is there a smallest positive integer? a largest?
3. Is there a smallest negative integer? a largest?
4. Is there a smallest positive rational number? a largest nega
tive rational number?
5. Think of the points for 0 and y^r on the number line. Name
the rational point P which is halfway between 0 and
Name the point halfway between the point P and 0; between
the point P and
| = 0.5,
^
= 0.25, g = 0.125, i = 0.2,
^
= 0.04
3-
= 0.33333 . ..
| = 2.6666666 ...
Y
= 0.142857142857142857 ...
= 0.07692307692307 ...
j7j
...
^
=
0.09090909
=
8.7857142857142 ...
The examples we have discussed
to suggest that the decimalseem
expansions for rational numbers either terminate (like -* = 0.5) or
<-
repeat (like = 0.3333333
...). would reasonable way to
I
What be a
6-3 232
this:
0.153846153
13)2.000000000
1 3 remainder
70 7
65
50 5
Tib 11
104
6
>2
JO 8
To 2
13
70 7
65
"50 5
TTo 11
etc .
233 6-3
to as a periodic decimal.
In order to write such a periodic decimal concisely and without
ambiguity it is customary to write
Exercises 6-3
1. Find decimals for these rational numbers. Continue" the division
until the repeating begins, and write your answer to at least
ten decimal places.
(e)
(d) (l)
(e)
(a) \ (g)
\
(b) \ (h) I
(c) \ (i) &
(J)
(e) | (k) ^
w } u &
235 6-4
(a) i (d) y
(b) | (e) |
(c) f (f) f
-,
999n = 132 so that
132
n = or in simplest form,
44
11 :
333"-
.
We find by this process that 0.132132132T3T ...
The example here illustrates
general procedure which mathema
a
ticians have developed to show that every periodic decimal repre -
sent s a rational number . We see, therefore, that there is a
6-4 236
of 2, such as 39.
7 -4
By multiplying by 1=2- vie can write
3-25 3-32 = 96
5- 100,000
237 6-4
.A Nice Little
Proof For Future Ma t hematicians
In order to establish a general fact of this kind suppose we
£
q
= Ji
Therefore q-N = p-10k.
b
are counting numbers.
3.1 1.03
,
v
\
(a)
k /
99 999
'
i, , ,
'-;
(e)
9
5. The first
step in writing a rational number in decimal form as
a fraction is to choose the power of 10 by which the original
decimal number should be multiplied. For each of the following
numbers N find the smallest number of the form 10 (10, 100,
1000, etc.) so that (10 •
N)- N is a terminating decimal.
Show this to be true.
Example: N = 1.324"2T ...
100N =132.42423" .. .
N = 1.324"2T . . .
100N-N =131.10000 . . .
Exercises 6-4
1. What rational numbers have these decimal expressions?
(a) (e)
6-5 240
4. Assuming the
Q
a to have the value one (l) in the rational
number T-, what numbers between 63 and 101 may be b and
give a terminating decimal expression for
-P-
?
6-5 Rational Points on the Number Line
P
between the integers and on the number line. Graphically
2
123456789
P
V
i
i
i
i
0
10
below
JL i i • 1^^* I I i. I 1! ! ]|
P (2.3...) 2:0 ^~T
^^i
^- ^ ^ 3.0
.
^^
. . i i i i
^^
l
P
i
P 12.39. . ) 2.30 0
~
P (2.396...) 2.390 ^^"^ V^ 2.400
i~~"~-~i--
V
-^i
i
i
(2.39614...) 2.39610 2.39620
P
- on the number
compare — •=•
or 0. 425571 ...?
-5
Exercises 6-5
1. Arrange each group of decimals in the order in which the points
to which they correspond would occur on the number line. List
first the point farthest to the left.
(a) 1.379 1.493 1.385 5.468 1.372
(a) 0.23 (b) 0.49 (c) 0.80 (d) 0.6 (e) 0.08 (f) 0.95
4. Arrange each group of rational numbers in order of increasing
size by first expressing them in decimal form.
/ x 3 4 17 / N 3 4
(a) 9' To '
50
( '
7' 9
2 7 67 152 415
3"' 10, 100 W
/Hx
333"' 909
243 6-6
-2 -I I
Figure 6-3.
Now consider two questions:
222
1. We can use the Pythagorean property to find AC.
AC = BC AB
22
+
AC^ - :r + :r2
AC2 = 2
AC = V2, so
AD =
Then p
22
a
=
is
2q
an integer.
may be written as (2a)
P
= 2q
?
Exercises 6-6
1. Construct figure like Figure 6-3, and label point D " V^" .
a
Then use your compass to locate the point which corresponds to
the number "( 2) , and label it.
Draw a number line, using a unit of the same length as the
unit in Problem 1. Use the letter A for the point 0 and
the letter B for the point
construct a segment
2. At B
perpendicular to the number line and 1 unit in length, and
call it BP. Draw AP". What is the measure of segment AP"?
Use the drawing for Problem 2, and locate on the number line
the points which correspond to "^5" and "(V^)- Label the
points.
Do you think "y^ is a rational number or an irrational number?
Why?
V3. Can you work out a way to locate the point for
For
Locate the points which correspond to these numbers:
it
<p
were not a factor of p then how could be a factor of p ?)
456,3
a
and the set of counting numbers like this:
Counting Numbers 1 2 3
A A A A A A A
I
1
w
2
W w \f
Y
3
W W w
Rational Numbers
T T T
In this listing of the rational numbers we have followed the
snaky line, but we have left out all fractions which are not in
simplest form, because they are only other names for numbers already
in our list. In this display -^l is the 3rd rational number, y 4
is the 6th rational number , what is the 8th rational number? The
c
llth? If the above were continued, •£ would be the what-th rational
number?
249 6-7
mean when we say that the rational numbers leave more places
empty on the number line than they fill .
If you are interested in learning more about this important
phase of mathematics you might refer to One Two Three . . . Infinity
by George Gamow (pages 14 -23 ) . A brief but interesting history of
Cantor's life can be found in Men £f Mathematics by E. T. Bell
(Chapter 29).
"'"This tells us that ~y2 is greater than 1 and less than 2, but
we already knew that. We might try a closer approximation by test
ing the squares of 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5. A little arithmetic
of this sort (try it!) leads us to the result
*<\T*° 1.96 =
(1.4)2 < (V2)2 < (1.5)2 = 2.25,
1
and therefore we conclude that 1.4 <"y2 < 1.5.
The arithmetic involves a little more work at the next stage
but we see with a little more computation that
s-\ 1.9881 =
(1.41)2 < (Y2)2 < (1.42)2 = 2.0164,
A/ and therefore
1.41 < Y2 < 1.42.
If we try to extend the process further we get at the next stage
Y^ =
1.4142135 . . .
where the three dots indicate that the digits continue without
terminating, as the process above suggests.
Geometrically the procedure we have followed can be described
as follows in the number line. Looking first at the integers of
the number line on the segment from 0 to 10, we saw that
10
and again magnifying this picture, ~\2 lies within the interval
(1.41, 1.42)
j = 0.3333333 . . . and y =
0.14285714 ...
We pause to ask, how are they different and how can we tell a
rational from an irrational number when we see only the decimal
representations of the numbers?
The one special feature of the decimal representation of
a rational number is that it is a periodic decimal. As we have
seen, every periodic decimal represents a rational number. Then
the decimal representation of y2 cannot be periodic, for "y2
is irrational. We can be sure that as we continue to find new
digits in the decimal representation
\p2 = 1.41412135 . . .
Exercises 6-7
1. Between what two consecutive integers are the following irra
tional numbers? (write your answer as suggested for (a)).
< SO <
(e) V9315
253 6-8
(a) (Y3)2
(b) (1.732)2
(c) (1.733)2
(d) Find the difference between your answers for (a) and (b);
find the difference between your answers for (a) and (c).
(e) To the nearest thousandth what is the best decimal expres
sion for
6. IO 7. Y1^ 8- Y221
*9. For what number n is n
2
= 10?
non-repeating representation.
decimal
The system composed of all rational and irrational numbers we
call the real number system.
From this we see that any real number can be characterized by
a decimal representation.
If the decimal repre sentat ion is periodic the number is a
rational number , otherwise the number is an Irrational number.
With every point P on the real number one line we associate
and only one number of this form by a process of successive loca
tions in decimal intervals of decreasing length. The drawings
below illustrate the first few steps in finding the decimal corre
sponding to a point P on the number line. Consider point P
J
between 3 and 4.
P 4
A
,3. . . .
_
3.0
| i i i i I
I.' A
P
i I
4.0
| ^
3.6 . . .
3.00 4.00
P
I i i i l .,,1 i 1 1
>
A
3.67.. .
Pl P2
know about the operations themselves. You should not have much
trouble understanding the meaning of addition in the real number
system in terms of the number line. Even though there is no simpler
name for a sum such as V2" + VJ
than the symbol " V2" + VT "
itself, you can think of a method of constructing the point
+
V^" on the number line by placing segments of length
and YS~ end to end.
The meaning of multiplication is somewhat harder to illustrate.
Given -segments of length V2""" and V^~ it is possible to describe
a geometric construction of a point which we would naturally call
~^2~
•
~^3 . However, you will have to study Chapter 9 before you
will be prepared to understand such a construction. The two opera
tions can also be given meaning in terms of the decimal representa
tion which we have described, but here, too, difficulties are
6-8 256
encountered which you are not yet ready to handle. This should
not cause you undue concern. Even a mathematician often has to
accept things which he does not fully understand in order to get
on with the work which is of immediate interest to him. But if
they are important, he always returns to these points as soon as he
can and masters them. You will return to the real number system
again as you study mathematics in the future, and each time you
will understand more of the definition and the meaning of the oper
ations.
We list first
the familiar properties which the real number
system shares with the rational number system.
Property !_. Closure .
Property Associativity.
3_.
If a, b, are real numbers, then
c)
and
(b
a)
+ +
a
c
(a
= + -h
b
c
.
)
If a, b, and are real numbers, then (a.b)-c - a-(b-c).
b)
c
Property Identities
4-.
+
0
Identity element for the operation of addition.
c
_5.
numbers, then a- (a-c).
c)
(a-b)
(b
= +
+
Property Inverses.
-6.
0
/
b
a
<
b.
a
>
=
^
'
T)
'
¥
' ' '
To
=
^ ' To
is an rvth root of ^n~-
Tne number
are
i
V
V
o
positive rational numbers — 0.
b
f
,
259 6-8
This assures us that we can find among the real numbers such
numbers as ^ 1 +
y> V and any other
nth roots of positive rational numbers.
In addition to irrational numbers which arise from finding
roots of rational numbers there are many more irrational numbers
which are called transcendental numbers. One example of a tran
scendental number is the number which you have met in your study
IT
ir = 3.1^159265 . . .
22 22
cannot be repeating. The number TT is not -rr-, although -=- is
a fair approximation to TT. (Compare the decimal representation of
•^
with that of IT.)
When you study logarithms in high school, you will be studying
numbers which are almost all transcendental numbers. If N is
any positive real number and x is the exponent such that
10X = N
Exercises 6-8
7 Y^
(d) YT (j) g
(e) 0.783T2. .. (k) 0.959559555955559 . . .
(f) |
2. Write each of the rational numbers in Problem 1 as a decimal
and as a fraction.
3. For each of the irrational numbers in Problem 1 write a decimal
correct to the nearest hundredth.
4. (a) Make up 3 terminating decimals for rational numbers.
a = 4.219317 . . .
b = 4.23401001000100001 ...
These numbers are quite close together, but any decimal which
begins 4.22... will be greater than a and less than b. We can
26l 6-9
and 2.369369. • •
8. Do you think that the real number system contains square roots
of all Integers? Support your answer by an example.
Is it as good as
22
A B C D E
t i
±-» *fe
0 1 /T 2 3 ir
>/9 < ,9
Exercises 6-10
1 . Which of the following numbers are rational and which are
irrational?
The number of units in:
(a) the circumference of a circle whose radius is -* unit.
(b) the area of a square whose sides are one unit long.
(Use .
•
f\ I &, ^ / "•*
/ I
I 4 ^ CHAPTER 7
3 2,
\ PERMUTATIONS AND SELECTIONS
r * V \
11. What is
the ratio of the number of possible committees in
cluding both B and E to the number of committees including
B?
Exercises 7 -la
From the club (A,B,C,D,E, } , one possible committee with four
members is (A,B,D,.E).
(a) Make a list of all the possible committees, each with four
members .
(b) How many in the club are excluded each time a committee
with four members is formed?
(e) Use parts (c) and (d) to make a list of the possible
committees with three members each.
3. Make a list of all the possible committees, and note how many
'1 5 10 10 5 1
»
14641
The same
following:
5. What data of this type do we have for a club with only one
member?
Let us collect table the data for the various
into a
clubs. Each row of the table shows the information for a
club of certain size. )
121
1 1
1331
14641
1 5 10 10 5 1
Let us examine again the entry in the table telling how many
possible committees of three members each can be named from the
club (A,B,C,D,E). In the table the entry is which of the 10's?
A committee of three may include E or it may not. We will
The entry 10 is
the sum of the two numbers, 6 and 4,
nearest it on the preceding line.
The table we have been studying is
part of the array known
a
as the Pascal triangle. (The French mathematician Pascal, seven
teenth century, contributed to geometry and the theory of proba
bility.) The table would resemble even more an equilateral tri
angle if we supplied a vertex at the top; this is sometimes done,
but we shall not be concerned with it. In our version of the
Pascal triangle, the first, second, third, fourth, fifth rows show
271 7-1
Exercises 7-lb
1. Check that (except for the ones) every entry in the table is
the sum of the two numbers nearest it on the preceding line .
2. (a) What does the 6 in the 4th row mean?
U,C} (B,D,E,F)
7-2 272
7-2 Permutations
Suppose that the club whose five members are A,B,C,D, and E
chooses an executive committee to conduct the business. The ex
ecutive committee has three members and is composed of B, D, and
E. These three members, in a meeting of the committee, decide that
they should assign responsibilities. One should be chairman, anoth
Exercises 7-2a
A club has eight members whose initials are A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, H. An executive committee [A,F,H) distributes its jobs
among its members. One possible way is:
Chairman A, Secretary H, Treasurer F.
^^44
0> tt> fl> CD
M ro GJ -PT
PRTS R P T S S . . . T * • •
PSRT R • . • S . . . T • • •
PSTR R • • • S . . . T • • •
PTRS R * * • o . . . T • • •
PTSR R • • • o . . . T • • •
There is
obvious difference between the problems you have
an
just been working and the problems of Section 7-1. In Section 7-1
the order in which you named individuals did not matter. The com
mittee ABC was the same as committee CBA, for example." There, we
were interested only in the set containing the three elements
A, B and C.
In the last group of discussion exercises we forming execu
were
tive committees of the individuals B,D and E. Let us agree that
when we name such a committee the first named will be chairman, the
second will be secretary and the third treasurer. Thus (B,D,E)
would represent B as chairman, D as- secretary and E as treasurer.
The executive committee (E,B,D) would be different from the executive
committee (D,E,B), for example. In the relay race problem the relay
team PTRS would be different from the team RTFS because the order
in which the boys run is different. In Problem 3 of the last set
the preference listing (mashed, french fried, baked) is different
from the listing {french fried, mashed, baked) because of the order
in which the items are listed. Such problems in which the order is
important are called permutation problems.
Different arrangements (or orderlngs) of the objects or persons
are of interest in a permutation problem. We would say that PTRS
and RTFS are two different permutations (or arrangements) of P,R,
S and T. So, in the relay race problem we want to count the number
of permutations of four things, namely P,R,S and T. In the pref
erence poll problem we needed to count the number of permutations
of three things, namely, three ways of cooking potatoes.
7-2 276
Upto this time you have been counting the number of permuta
tions merely by listing them. You had to be careful to list them
in an orderly fashion and not miss some permutations. A faster
and more efficient method of doing this counting is needed, es
pecially if
a large number of objects is involved.
Suppose you want to indicate your preference for three flavors
23
of ice cream - vanilla, strawberry and chocolate (name these by
letters V, S, and C). You want to designate first, second and
third preferences. Your possible listings are, by columns:
For your first preference you have 3 possible choices, which you
may indicate by a 3 in the first box. this first preference
Once
has given you have only two
been possible choices for second pref
erence. This is indicated by placing a 2 in the second box.
Now, having chosen your first preference and also your second pref
erence there is only one possible third preference, which you in
dicated by a 1 in the third box. Thus the total number of pref
erences is 3-2.1. Again we observe that for each choice for first
position, there are two choices for second position.
As another illustration of this box device let us look at the
possible different running orders for the relay team of P,R,S and
T discussed in Problem 2, Exercises 7-2a. For first runner we may
choose any one of the four boys. We indicate this by a 4 in the
first box of the diagram below:
Having chosen the first runner we may choose any of the 3 remaining
boys to run in second position. With any specified choice for the
first two positions we have two possible choices for the third
position. Finally, having chosen three boys, there remains only
1 choice for the fourth position on the team. Hence the total
number of possible running orders is 4 -3 •?•! = 24. These are the
24 orderings of PRST which you enumerated in the last paragraph.
Exercises 7-2b
1. Two-digit numerals are to be formed using the digit 6, 7, 8
and 9. No digit is
to be used more than once ( that is,
numerals like 77 are not permitted here).
7-2 278
(a) How many choices are there for the first digit?
(b) The first digit having been chosen, how many choices
are there for the second digit?
(c) How many two-digit numerals of the type permitted can be
written? (Leave the answer as an indicated product.)
In the following problems leave all answers as indicated
products (9*8 should not be written as 72).
(b) After the first person chooses a seat, in how many ways
could the second person choose?
279 7-2
(c) Is your answer to part (b) the same for each way the first
person can choose? Why?
(d) In how many different ways can the choice of two seats be
made?
P4,3
= 4-3'2 P26,2
- 26.25
= 4.3.2.1 =
15-14.13. 12
P^4 P15^4
Pn,2
=
n(n-l) P^3 =n(n-l)(n-2).
The symbol P
n, r,v makes sense only when n and r are counting
numbers and r < n.
There is a special case of P
n, .r which is of considerable
importance. In Problem 4 you were finding "the number of permuta
tions of 4 things arranged 4 at a time," or, in abbreviated
280
7-2
form, P
4,4' The answer was This number is the
product of all the counting numbers in succession from 1 to 4.
Similarly, Pp. j- = 5- 4 -3 -2-1 is the product of all counting numbers
from 1 to 5. Such products using successive counting numbers
as factors occur frequently in mathematics and we have a special
symbol for them. We write 5! = 5-4.3-2-1 and we read 5! as
"five factorial." Similarly, "four factorial "is 4! = 4-3-2-1.
In general, ri factorial, written n.1, means the product of
all counting numbers in succession between 1 and n. Thus,
n! = n- (n-l) (n-2)
• 3-2-1.
Note that it is equally correct to write:
5! =
1-2-3-4-5 and
n! = 1-2-3 (n-l)(n).
In much of your work here it is probably more convenient to write
n! as n-(n-l) 2-1 but you may write n! = 1-2.3 n
if you wish.
You should check, on a separate piece of paper, that
1! = 1
2! = 2-1 = 2
3! = 3-2-1 = 6
4! = 4-3-2-1 = 24
51 = 5-4-3-2-1 = 120
6! = 6-5-4-3-2-1 = 720
8! = 8-7-6-5-4-3-2.1 - 40,320.
\a time
and
Pn,n
' n!
Exercises 7-2c
1. Express the following in product form:
(a) 61 (b) 7! (c) 10! (d) 15!
2. Notice that 4! 4(3-2-1) = 4(3!). In a similar
= 4-3-2-1 =
A^
General Multiplication Property
In our thinking about arrangements and selections we have often
made use of the following:
Multiplication Property
If operation can be done in
an m ways and, after it has been
performed in any one of these ways, a second operation can be per
formed in n ways, then the two successive operations can be per
formed in m x n ways.
As a pleasant illustration of this property think of the problem
which faces you in choosing a sundae at a dairy or drug store. You
have a choice of 3 flavors of ice cream (say, strawberry, vanilla,
and chocolate). After you have chosen the flavor of ice cream, you
may choose either of 2 toppings (marshmallow or nut). You may per
form the first selection in 3 ways and then, after you have chosen
any particular flavor, the second choice may be made in 2 ways.
Thus the total number of different sundaes is 3-2 or 6. In words,
j The number j the number of ways f the number of
<of different)
^
=
^
<of selecting a fla->x (ways of select-]
^sundaes J \yor of ice cream J
\ing a topping
As a second illustration we ask: possible license
How many
plates are there consisting of a letter followed by 2 digits? Do
r
26 I 9 I 101
Exercises 7-2d
1. A boy has seven shirts and four pairs of trousers. In how many
different ways can he choose a shirt and a pair of trousers?
2. A baseball five pitchers and three catchers. How many
team has
batteries (consisting of a pitcher and a catcher) are possible?
3. If the first two call letters of a television station must be
KT, how many calls of four different letters are possible?
4. A disc jockey has 50 records in his collection. He wants to
make a program of different songs. How many possible pro
two
grams are there? (Count different orderings of the same songs
as different programs . )
6." How many possible license plates are there consisting of one
letter followed by 3 digits? (The first digit may not be zero.
As in the illustration above, repetition of digits is allowed
for the 2nd and 3rd digits.)
7. A set of five flags has one of each of the colors red, green,
yellow, blue, and white as a signal. Three flags are to be
hoisted, one above the other on the same mast. How many
different signals are possible?
8. How many different license plates are possible using two letters
followed by two digits? The first digit may not be zero.
9. How many license plates would be possible using 4 digits, the
first of which may not be zero?
A Permutation Formula
General
Suppose we have a set of seven flags, each one a different
color. How many different signals may we form from 3 flags, hoisted
vertically on the same mast?
A signal thus means an arrangement of 3 of the 7 flags, or, as
we have said, a permutation of 7 things arranged 3 at a time . We
use the symbol P7I , 3q, you recall . The first flag may be selected
from any one of the 7 possibilities.
After it has been selected, there
remain 6 possibilities for the
second flag. After both these
choices have been made there remain
5 of selecting the third flag.
ways By the multiplication property
the total number of permutations is 7-6-5, or
P7,3 =7-6-5-
285 7-2
P7 5
=
7j 6 • 5 •4 . 3 , when n = 7, r = 5
5 factors
and P2l|_ 3
=
2^4-23.
22, when n = 24, r = 3.
3 factors
Exercises 7-2e
1. Write the new symbol which represents the proauct
•
t.
\ <\ 1
r!2,3-
P
which is a factorial.
7-2 286
(b) Use the clues in Problem (b) and 4(b) and select a
2
(d) Express P
n, r as a quotient of two numbers, each of
which is a factorial.
7. A monkey sits at a typewriter and types a "monkey -word"
of five letters by touching 5 different keys in succession.
(a) How many possible "monkey-words" are there?
8. A telephone dial has a finger hole for each of the ten digits.
(a) How many telephone numbers, each with five digits, are
possible? Zero may be used as a first digit.
(b) How many telephone numbers, each with five digits but
with no digit repeated, are possible?
9. Five players on a football squad can play either left end or
right end. In how many ways may the coach choose the two ends
for the opening lineup?
*10. Suppose we want to send messages in code. We use certain
symbols, of them.
say (The symbols might be letters or
n
flags or sounds or designs or any other type of symbol.) Each
message is composed of four different symbols, arranged in
order. The number of possible messages which we may wish to
send is l600. What is the smallest number that n can be in
order to meet the requirement?
taken r
at a time is often represented by the symbol ( ) . In
this unit you may read this symbol by saying: "the number of se
lections of n things r at a time," or, "the number of combina
tions of n things r at a time."
In terms of sets, we may say that is
"the number of
(£)
r-subsets in an n-set. By an n-set we mean simply a set of n
"
elements. An r-subset is
set of r a elements, each of which
is one of these n elements.
The entries in the Pascal triangle are values of For
(£)
.
example, from the fifth row of the Pascal triangle we find read
ing from the left that
(|)
(|)
= 5, = 10, = 10, and so on.
You will want to note that the new symbol we have introduced
can be easily distinguished from fractional symbol, because the
a
new symbol does not have a bar between the two numbers and the
parentheses are always written as part of the symbol.
Note: Other common symbols for the number of combinations
n
of n things taken r at a time are and n r. You will
C
r^
is to be
9
)
preferred.
Exercises 7-3a
1. Write the special symbol for each of the following:
a time;
time;
a
time;
a time.
289 7-3
PO
,52\ • • 8 '
t (^ P T-
-^ • J J-O
}
V -i o / •> Q 7
^, (
' t.
TT
(a) and ;
(2) (^)
(J)
^0 V0 X0 V0
(b) What general notion do these examples illustrate?
*7. Show that if n is a counting number different from one,
n(n -
X)
then (n) =
.
3
!
7-3 290
7,3 P3,3 or
P
^ • 3!
ry
This last equation gives us a way to calculate (1), the number
of selections of 7 different things taken 3 at a time. For vie
can see from the preceding equation that
P
The same type of argument shows that for two counting numbers
n and r, with r < n, we can write
P
n,r - V
(n) • P r,r or
1 taken a
la time time
*
.
and since
n, r
=
n(n-l) ••• (to r factors)
P
Exercises 7-3b
1. Ten men are qualified to run a machine that requires three
operators at a time. How many different crews of three are
possible?
2. A disc jockey had a set of 15 records. Each night he selects
5 records to make a program. How many nights can he do this
without repeating any program? Disregard the order in which
the individual records occur within a program. (You do not
need to perform any multiplications, but may leave your answer
in whatever symbols you think are convenient.)
3. Eight points are given in space, and no four of them lie in the
same plane. (Remember that any three of them determine a
plane.) How many different planes are determined by the eight
points?
4. On a certain railway there are 12 stations. How many differ
ent kinds of tickets should be printed to provide tickets be
tween any two stations:
5. A man has six bills, one each of the amounts of $1, $5, $10,
$20, $50, $100. How many different sums of money may be formed
by using one or more of these six bills together?
6. A restaurant has prepared ^ kinds of meat, 3 kinds of
salad, and 5 kinds of vegetables. A platter consists of a
meat, a salad, and a vegetable. How many different kinds of
platters are possible?
7. There are eight teams in a baseball league. During the season
each team played every other team five times. How many games
are played in the league altogether during one season?
9. A girl has four skirts, six blouses, and three pair of shoes.
How many weeks can pass while she wears a different costume
every day?
11. A salesman has customers in eight cities away from his home.
He wishes to plan a travel route which will take him to each
of the eight cities in turn and afterwards back to his home.
How many possible routes are there?
Chapter 8
PROBABILITY
tail will show. We assume the coin is perfectly balanced and that
neither side is
weighted in any way. Such a perfectly balanced coin
is sometimes called an "honest coin."
Consider the question, "What is a measure of chance that if we
toss a coin and allow it
to fall freely it will show heads?"
In probability it is useful to use a number to indicate the
measure of chance that an event will happen. If we toss a coin we
consider two possible outcomes: (l) it will show heads or (2) it
will show tails. That the coin will show heads is one favorable
outcome out of two possible outcomes. We say the measure of chance
P(A) =
|.
If we use the letter
to represent the event of the coin
"B"
showing tails, we are concerned with the probability of B. We
heads and tails. Not so! The probability that the coin will show
heads remains ^
for each toss. In probability we do not say that
if the coin shows heads on the first toss it must show tails on the
second toss. We cannot predict whether the coin will show heads or
tails.
Suppose you use two pennies. What is the measure of chance that
if two coins are tossed, one head and one tail will show? That is,
what is the probability that the event of one head and one tail
showing will occur? The table below shows that there are four
possible outcomes:
Possible Outcomes
First Coin Second Coin
Heads Heads
Heads Tails
Tails Heads
Tails Tails
Note that there are two outcomes showing one head and one tail.
Two outcomes out of four possible outcomes are favorable. The
probability that the event will occur is 2
^
or 1
-^
. If we use
the letter "E" to represent the event, we may write the following:
P(E) =\.
What is the probability that exactly two heads will show if two
coins are tossed? Of the four outcomes, how many ways are there
for this event to occur? If we use the letter "G" to represent
the event that two heads show, we may write the probability of the
event G as
P(0) =
%
•
P(B) -£.
where P(E) is the probability that an event E will occur, t is
the number of outcomes in which E occurs, s is the number of
possible outcomes. If r is the number of outcomes in which E
does not occur, then we may say
P(not E) =
| .
P(E) +
P(E) + P(not E) = 1.
Exercises 8-la
1. Two black marbles and white marble are in a box. You are
one
to take out one marble, without looking inside the box. Find
the probability of the event that when, without looking, one
marble is taken out of the box, the marble will be black.
2. Using the data in Problem 1, find P for the event that if one
marble is taken out of the box, it will be white.
297 8-1
(c) Does the outcome of the first 9 tosses have any affect
on the tenth toss?
other outcomes are possible. (We exclude for the moment the
possibilities of twins, triplets and other multiple births.)
P(girl)
i.
(a) Mr. and Mrs. Jones already have one boy when the second
baby arrives. What is
probability of its being
the boy?
a
(b) Mr. and Mrs. Richards have eight children, all girls, when
the ninth baby arrives. What is the probability of its
not being a girl?
7. There are 25 students in a class, of whom 10 are girls and
15 are boys. The teacher has written the name of each pupil
on a separate card. If a card is drawn at random, what is the
probability that the name written on the card is:
(a) the name of a boy?
(a) What is the chance that the first card you draw is the
ace?
(b) Assume you draw the jack on the first draw. What is the
chance that the second card you draw is the ace?
(c) Are your answers for (a) and (b) the same? Why?
(d) After drawing the jack, assume the second card you draw
is the ten. What is the chance that the third card you
draw is the ace?
H H
H T
T H
T T
THE
First Coin Second Coin Third Coin
H H H
H H T
H T H
H T T
T H T
T T H
T T T
Note how each column is grouped: the first by fours; the second
by twos; the third alternately, H and T. This is one systematic
way in which the number of possible outcomes might be listed in
order to count the possibilities.
301 8-1
How many possibilities are there in the table for two coins?
Note, there are four. How many possibilities are there in the
table for three coins? There are eight. Can you find a relation
between the number of sides (two) of the coin, and the number of
possible outcomes? With two coins each having two sides there are
four possible outcomes. With three coins each having two sides
there are eight possible outcomes. Can you predict the number of
possible outcomes with four coins? There are 16 possible outcomes.
If we use the number of sides, 2, as the base, and the number
of coins, 2 or 3 and so on, as the exponent, we can determine
the number of possible outcomes without listing them in table form.
We need only determine the number represented in exponent notation.
If we use two coins there will be ...
o
2 or 4 possible outcomes.
If we use three coins there will be ...
2
2 or 8 possible outcomes.
We can express this result as a formula:
T - Sn.
T is the total or possibilities,
number
S isthe number of sides of the coin or object used
(a cube or some other object with more than two
faces may also be used),
and n is the total number of coins or objects used.
Having determined of possible outcomes, it is
the total number
then easier to set up the table. You might recall the patterns
in the table for two coins and the table for three coins. If we
use 4 coins, how many outcomes must be listed in a table? By
using the formula T = Sn where S = 2 and n - 4, we find
T = 24 = 2 -2 -2 -2 = 16.
8-1 302
There are 16 possible outcomes with four coins. What could the
pattern be for the first column? The second column? The third
column? fourth column?
The
In making tables, such as those described above, experimental
observations were not used. Rather, all possible outcomes of
events were listed, as in the cases of tossing two or three coins.
The probability is based on the outcomes listed in the table. In
the tables discussed we assume that each separate possibility,
or outcome, has the same chance of occurring. We say that each
outcome is "equally likely" to occur.
In this section we have been concerned with some simple events
governed by chance. We assigned measures of chance, which we called
probabilities, for the outcomes of these events. The numbers we
used to represent "P" were numbers like one -half, two-thirds, one-
fourth, and so on. If we actually toss an honest penny once, we
cannot predict whether it will show heads or tails. But if we toss
an honest penny a million times, then it is almost certain that the
number of heads will be between 490,000 and 510,000. The ratio of
heads that show to the number of tails that show will be almost
certainly between y^n and j^ . We cannot in this chapter study
all the mathematics required
to make such conclusions.
It should be kept in mind that probability is not the tossing
of coins or drawing of marbles. Probability is a part of mathe
matics which has been found exceedingly useful in describing chance
aspects of games, selections, science, business, and activities of
government which are not completely predictable . In this chapter
we will study some of the more elementary ideas of this mathematical
theory.
303 8-1
Exercises 8-lb
1. If three honest coins are tossed, what is the probability
that three heads will show? Use the table above showing
8 possibilities.
2. If three honest coins are tossed, what is the probability
that 2 heads and 1 tail will show?
3. Without listing them, determine the number of possible out
comes in tossing 5 coins.
4. Notice the pattern which is involved in a count of the number
of outcomes in tossing coins. H is heads; T is tails; (H,T)
is a head and a tail in either order.
1 coin 1(H) 1(T)
2 coins 1(H,H) 2(H,T) l(T,T)
3 coins 1(H,H,H) 3(H,T,T) 3(T,H,H) l(T,T,T)
Add a fourth and fifth line in this table.
Does this remind you of Pascal's triangle?
5. Use Problem 4 to find the probability of getting 2 heads and
2 tails if 4 coins are tossed.
6. If five coins are tossed, what combinations of heads and tails
are most likely to occur? Why?
9- (a) If one penny is tossed, what is the chance that a head will
show ?
(b) How many heads might you reasonably expect to get if the
penny is tossed 50 times?
8- 304
(a) What is the chance that you will pick a white marble in
one draw?
(b) Assuming you pick a white marble the first time and do not
replace it, what is the chance that you will pick a black
marble the second time?
(c) Assuming you pick a white marble the first time and a black
marble the second time and do not replace them, what is the
chance that you will pick a gray marble the third time?
(b) How many outcomes are there if two such tetrahedrons are
rolled?
(c) How many outcomes are there if three such tetrahedrons
are rolled?
(d) Find the measure of chance for the following statement:
"If the tetrahedron is rolled it will stop on side A."
13. You are to placed in a line with two girls (or boys) one
be
of whom is your favorite. If the line contains exactly 3
persons including yourself what is the probability that you
will stand next to your favorite? In such a problem we assume
that you are not placed according to any plan (including your
own). If you crowd in next to your favorite, chance would not
play a role.
If you toss it, what is the chance that it will stop with a
white side down?
15. If there are 225 white marbles and 500 black marbles, what is
the chance of picking a black marble on the first draw?
letters to distribute.
*17. When six coins are tossed, what is the chance that one and only
one will show heads?
8-2 306
Exercises 8-2
A teacher has taught eighth grade mathematics to 1600 students
during the past 10 years. In this period he has given A's to
152 students.
21 92,588 683 99 1 1
4 . Sunny 14 . Showers
5 . Sunny 1 5. Sunny
8 . Sunny 18 . Sunny
1 0. Sunny 20 . Sunny
8-3 Probability of A or B
In mathematics we are always looking for general principles
which describe a certain situation. In this section and the next
we will identify two of the most important general principles of
probability.
Consider the following problem.
dial and a pointer like
A the one
illustrated will be used for the prob
lem. The pointer spins and we can tell
whether it
stops at 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5-
What is the probability that the
pointer will stop at an even
number?
313 8-3
P(A or B) =
|.
Could we find this probability by considering events A and
B separately? We know that
P(A) = 1. Why?
P(A or B or C) =
P(A) + P(B) + P(C).
P(A) Why? Also P(B) = i and P(C)
-i i
=
Y
=
y.
P(A or B or C) + + i-w.
315 8-3
Exercises 8-3
1. On the dial, the numbers
are equally spaced around
the dial .
(b) What is
the probability of not getting a 6 or a 1 on
one roll of a cube with faces numbered 1 through 6?
(b) Could you use the probability which you have obtained in
Problem 2 (a) to solve Problem 2 (b)?
5. Let A be any event. Let B be the event "A does not occur."
Write an equation which relates P(A) and P(B).
on a die .
(j) The event of stopping the car and of starting the car.
317 8-3
(a) How many different pairs of cards are there in the bag?
Hint: (|).
(b) How many different pairs of red cards are there in the
bag?
(c) How many different pairs of black cards are there in the
bag?
(d) How many different pairs are there in the bag consisting
of a red card and a black card?
8-4 318
(e) How does the sum of the numbers of pairs in (b), (c),
and (d), compare with the number of pairs in (a)?
call event A the event that one coin shows heads, and B the
event that the other coin shows heads, then
-|
Note that
B)
P(A and
*
(^)
= =
*.)
.
.
^
(
319 8-4
A and B the event that both coins show heads. For this ex
Is
ample we see that P(A and B) = P(A)-P(B). It should be observed
that events A and B are independent events. Whether one coin
shows heads or tails has no effect whatsoever on the other coin.
Consider the tossing of a coin and the spinning of a pointer
on a dial with 1, 2, 3 and 4, equally spaced. If the coin is
tossed, no matter what side of the coin appears up, this outcome
has no effect upon the outcome of the spinning pointer. This is
another example of independent events. If we let A be the event
that a head will show when the coin is tossed and B be the event
that the pointer stops at 4, then A and B are independent
events.
If wish to find the probability of a head appearing and
we
H,3 T,2
H,l means that coin will show heads and the pointer will stop
at one.
The desired event is H,4 which is one of eight possible outcomes.
Thus
P(A and B) =
jj .
P(A) =
|, P(B) =
i i
^.
Notice that x = TT which is the probability that we found for
event (A and B) .
8-4 320
(|)
(^)
P(A and B) = -jpP(A) = • = .
|
Let us think about one more example:
You are taking a test of multiple -choice questions where there
are choices of answers for each question. You have answered
5
9
By elimination, you know that the correct answer for is one
7
of selections, and the correct answer for is one of
2
3
9
selections. You decide to guess. Find the probability of getting
both and correct, assuming your guess on Question does
7
7
Question 7, and be the event that you choose the correct answer
B
earlier examples
= •
We .
Also P(B) =
-j. Therefore
-
(|)
guessing is -7- .
Exercises 8-4
1. You tosscoin twice in succession. Let be the event that
a
tails show on the first toss of the coin. Let be the event
B
(b) Find the probability that the coin will show heads on
both tosses.
(b) If your team won the first game, what is the probability
of winning the second?
Dial A Dial B
Both pointers are made to spin. Assume both are honest.
(e) The event being sunny and the event of the next
of a day
day being partly cloudy.
323 8-4
10. A certain problem is to be solved. The chance that one man will
2
solve the problem is -•• The chance that another man will solve
the problem is -rp •
(a) What the chance that the problem will not be solved
is
when both men are independently working on it?
12. When six coins are tossed, what is the chance that at least
one head will be obtained?
13. Almost a hundred years ago a monk named Mendel did many experi
ments in breeding plants, especially garden peas. The results
of these experiments were so important that our modern knowl
edge of heredity is based on his findings .
We now know that inherited traits are controlled by genes,
are produced when a plant has two R genes (RR), and white
flowers result when a plant has two r genes (rr) . But, if
a plant has one R gene, and one r gene, then the flowers
are pink.
(c) What is
the probability of getting red flowers when pink-
flowered plants are crossed with pink-flowered plants?
(d) That the sum of the two numbers is less than 20?
(e) That the sum of the two numbers is more than 20?
325 8-4
16. BRAINBUSTER:
(b) If the same four coins are thrown and exactly three come
up heads, what is the probability that one of the three
is the dime?
(c) That exactly two come up heads and one of these is the
dime.
(d) That exactly three come up heads and two of these are a
dime and a quarter.
Chapter 9
the same shape . We say that the two triangles are similar.
329 9-1
In the table the x's and y's are numbers which are measures
of the lengths of the various segments AC, CB, etc. In this
chapter we will also use the notation CB for the measure of
the length of CB, AC for the measure of the length of AC,
etc .
Right
tri
angle
yl " CB Xl AC yl " CB
ABC = CB = = AC = t- " " "
y1 x-j^
xx
AC
rI AB
rl AB
y2 y2
ADE y2
= ED =
x2
= AE - .." ED X2 '
AE
AD
' " ED
AD
"
AE
x2 r^ r2
y3
AFG y3
= GF - x3
= AG = - GF X3 - AG
AF
~
y3
- GF
AF
"
AG
X3 r3 r3
AHI y4
= IH =
Xj|
- AI - y4
J IH
AI
X4 " AI
AH
y^ IH
.:i
X4 r4 r4
and —
^,
r
same. The four triangles have the same shape. They are similar
triangles.
It appears that in similar triangles the corresponding sides
are proportional. ratio is certain fixed If
^
The number.
a
A
you know what this number is, then you can solve all problems of
the following kind:
Let ABC be a triangle in which
/ABC is 90° angle and BAG
a
angle Tables have been made, showing the value of such ratios
BAC.
as ^- for different angles. We shall learn how to use such tables
to solve problems of indirect measurement .
Exercises 9-1
1. On a sheet of paper draw a ray, lay off three equal lengths:
OA, AB, BC, perpendiculars to the ray at A, B, and C,
and draw
Draw another ray starting at 0 and complete a drawing like
the following, labeling the points as shown.
/
1
i t
VY
(
L
yj
/
t
it
0 k. E1 (
OA
Find three ratios equal to: AA'
If two triangles are congruent what can you say about the
measures of the corresponding sides and angles?
12, T and S are points at which trees are located on one side
of a river and R is a point directly
<— >
across the river from S, so that RS
is perpendicular to ST. With a
sextant the measure in degrees of
/ STR is found to be 60. The
distance ST has been measured
as 1000 feet . Draw a figure to
scale, using 3 in. to repre
sent feet. Find the width
1000
of the river (or, rather, the
distance from tree R to tree S) .
AB AC BC
2. A'B' B'C
the third angles are also congruent. Thus we have two alternate
definitions of similarity which seem to require less than the
definition given above:
Alternate Definition 1: If ABC and A'B'C' are two tri
angles with the property that the angle at A is to the
congruent
angle at A', and the angle at B is congruent to the angle at
B', then the triangles are similar.
Alternate Definition 2: If ABC and A'B'C' are two triangles
with the property that
AB AC BC
Exercises 9-2
1. In each of the following, ABC and A'B'C' are two similar
triangles, in which A and A', B and B' , C and C' are
pairs of corresponding vertices. Fill in the blanks where it
is possible. Where it is not possible, explain why.
(a) m(/ A) = 30, m(/_ B)
= 75, m(/ A') = ? , m(/ B') = ? .
I
A T3 O
(c) 22 = , A'B' = 5, B'C' = ? , A'C' = ? .
= = = =
(d) .
?
?
,
,
A) ^
= = = = .
?
?
,
(c) If A 1 p:• :
AC
incT and AW =
W — then triangles ABC
(d) If A^i T
=
AT§T
then triangles ABC and A'B'C' are
similar •
and the lengths of PQ and P'Q' are equal, then the triangles
PQR and P'Q'R' are congruent. It follows that the lengths of
the other pairs of corresponding sides are also equal:
PR = P'R1 and QR = Q'R' .
PQ QR PR
TR
i
2
3
4 Q
etc.
9-3
3Q
As you know, the triangles PQR and PQ'R1 are similar. There
fore the ratios
&
PR
and
anC &1.
PR'
are equal. This ratio depends only on QPR and not on the /
length of the sides.
In the table which we were thinking about before, the ratio
PO
WFT would be the same for all values of PQ on each page. If
PO
we knew this one number •=§ we would be able to work out the whole
page without measurement . So we need only to make a table like
this:
M(/ QPR) PQ
PR
1
etc.
This table will contain as useful information as the other table and
will have only (how many?) entries.
The ratio,
PQ _" measure of the length of adjacent side,
PR measure of the length of hypotenuse
Exercises 9-3a
1. Construct a fairly large circle and mark off rays from the
center making angles of measurement 10 each with the previous
one .
90
10'
decimal places):
//.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
20°
30°
40°
50°
60°
70°
80°
" 5-2
0777
Is 27.6 » 27.0 ?
9-3
m(/AOB ) OA AB OB m(/ABO
(a) 30 7
(b) 6 65
In order to find the value of sin 60° and tan 60°, we must find
AB, which we shall call y. By the Pythagorean property we know
that
(OA)2 + (AB)2 = (OB)2,
or 1
2
+ r2 =
2
2^,
Thus 2
1 +
2 = 3,
1.7321.
o
(Check this approximation for -/T by calculating (1.7321) .)
9-3
and
tan 60° =
OA
:
r « 1.7321,
Exercises 9-3b
1. Find the values of sin 30°, cos 30°, and tan 30°
(c) Find CM
9-4 Slope of a_
Line
On a sheet of graph paper draw the line joining the origin to
the point P whose coordinates are (2,4).
-=> x
Where does this line intersect the vertical lines through (3,0),
(4,0), and (2,0)? For each of these intersection points (x,y)
find ^ . What do you notice? Complete the sentence: For each
of these points on the line OP, y is
^ ^
x .
Take any point Q, on OP. Let the coordinates of Q be
(x,y) . Drop the perpendicular from Q to the X-axis. and let
B be the foot of this perpendicular.
^ x
\ X
they have a pair of acute angles which are equal in measure? What
do you know about the ratios of the measures of the lengths of
corresponding sides in similar triangles? What do you conclude
about the ratios
349
AP »
Since iB , or 2, and
^ = *•, what do you conclude about
the ratio ^-
x
for any point on line OP ?
If you know the value of x for a point on
<— >
OP, how can you
find the value of y?
If ^-
X
= 2 then y =
( )x. (What is the missing number?)
("1,"2), ("2,"4), and ("3,"6) on your
Plot the points
graph. Do they lie on the line OP? For each of these points
calculate the ratio %• . What do you observe? Is ^ = 2 ? What
relation holds between the coordinates x and y of any point
Q on the line OP ?
For OP, m was 2, and for OP1, m was In each case, you
T|.
observed that the equation was satisfied by the coordinates of
any point on the line.
—>
If
,«
(x,y) is on OP then = 2x.
y
If (x,y) is
-|x.
on OP then =
y
'
In general, if is point for which the ratio is
^-
m,
a
P
Exercises 9-4a
1. Find the equations of the lines joining the origin to each of
the following points: (4,1), (3,l), (l,l), (1,2), (1,5).
2. Consider the line OP1 discussed in the text, where ^ (2,3).
P1
What is the tan AOP1, where AOP1 is the angle the line
/
Ch ange in Ui
q
Yi
:*-!f
film n > ,S
\/
lx-
=
C
3
I
352
(c) What have you proved in (a) and (b)? Answer by completing
the statement: If the coordinates of Q satisfy the
equation then Q lies on .
9-4
As you have seen from these exercises, the equation of any line
through the origin (except the y-axis!) has the form
y = mx,
Consider any
4
/= T)X
X
V
Exercises 9-4b
2
1. Graph the lines y = TyX, y =
1
-JT-X, and y = 4x on the same set
of axes. Use four values of x for each graph. Find the
slopes of these lines.
I a
ab
The construction makes use of the plane containing the number line,
and we will actually construct
length ab units somewhere else
a
in the plane. It will then be
easy to use a compass to transfer
the length ab units to the number line. Construct X- and Y-
axes carefully on five sheets of paper, making your unit about
356
1 incv. and using large enough paper so that each axis contains
points U and 4. Use straightedge and compass and make your
drawings neat and careful enough so that you can make straight
edge and compass constructions on them later on. We will treat
the X-axis as our number line.
Y
-3
-2
-I
-2 -I number line
-I
-2
-3
1. (a) On one of your pairs of axes draw the line through (1,0)
perpendicular to the X-axis. Label this line
22
Construct a perpendi
(d)
cular to the X-axis at the point
P corresponding to the number
Let Q be the intersection of
this perpendicular and line k .
(b) On your drawing for (a) draw the line kp through (0, 0)
and A. What is the slope of k0?
-O • What is the equation
of
(b, ?).
359
(a) On another one of your pairs of axes draw the line J&
perpendicular to the X-axis at (l, 0). Mark any point
you wish on ^ (less than two inches away from the X-axis)
and call its coordinates (l,a).
Do not find the particular number which "a" represents
on your drawing.
(b) Draw the line through (0,0) and (l,a) and label kg.it
What is the slope of ko? What is the equation of
k3?
(c) If the following points all lie on k~ find the missing
coordinates.
(2, ?)
(-1, ?)
('2, ?)
(b, ?)
(e) Mark any point P1 you wish on the X-axis and call its
coordinates (b, 0). Construct the perpendicular to the
X-axis at P1 and let Q1 be the point of intersection
of this perpendicular and ko . What is P'Q'? (There
should be no numbers in your answer - only "a" and "b" . )
9-4 360
( ^
6. (a) On the drawing which you made for Problem 3 construct the
point corresponding to JT' v/T on the X-axis. Use the
method which you described in Problem 5 and find a length
for ^/2~- */3~ from your drawing for Problem 2.
(c) On your drawing for (a) plot the points on the X-axis
corresponding to -/2~' */%~ and *fiT. What do you notice?
361
(d) From your observations In (b) and (c) find the missing
numbers:
u
9-5 362
-*- •Ma in
t-
/ \ 1^
(0,1)
a a
s^
X
s r
(1,0) (1,0) (1,0)
\ f \ f
(1,0) (1,0)
a-b - ?
column with "Sine" at the top. The number in the 20° - row and
the Sine-column is 0.34, so we find that sin 20 » 0.34. But we if
want to know cos 70°, we find 70° in the column on the right.
Therefore we use the column headings at the bottom. We look for
the number in the 70° row and the column with "Cosine" at the
bottom, and find cos 70° « 0.34. This is the same number as before.
This is as it should be, for angles of 20° and 70° are complement
ary, so that sin 20° = cos 70°.
Just as we call the sine of the complement of the angle the
cosine of the angle, so we call the tangent of the complement of
an angle the cotangent of the angle. For instance, we have
cot 70° = tan 20°.
9-5
TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
Angle Sine Tangent Cotangent Cosine
1° .0175 .0175 57.290 .9998 89°
2o .0349 .0349 28.636 .9994 88°
3° .0523 .0524 19.081 .9986 87°
4° .0698 .0699 14.301 .9976 86°
5° .0872 .0875 11.430 .9962 85°
6° .1045 .1051 9.5144 .9945 84°
7 .1219 .1228 8.1443 .9925 83°
8o .1392 .1405 7.1154 .9903 82°
9° .1564 .1584 6.3138 .9877 81°
25o
.4226 .4663 2.1^:45 .9063 65°
26° .4384 .4877 2.0503 .8988 64°
27o .4540 .5095 1.9626 .8910 63°
28° .4695 .5317 1.8807 .8829 62
29° .4848 .5543 1.8040 .8745 61°
30° .5000 .5774 1.7321 .8660 6°o
31° .5150 .6009 1.6643 .8572 59°
32° .5299 .6249 1 . 6003 .8480 58°
33° .5446 .6494 1.5399 .8387 57°
34° .5592 .6745 1.4826 .8290 56°
35° .5736 .7002 1.4281 .8192
54°
Exercises 9-5
1. Use the table to find the following:
(b) The sine of an angle increases with the size of the angle
from 1° to 89°.
Exercises 9-6
1. Suppose cost
peanuts $.60 per pound. Make a table showing
the cost of various amounts of peanuts:
Amount in pounds 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cost in dollars
Make a graph showing how the cost is related to the weight.
Let w be the weight in pounds and c be the cost in dollars,
We have
C
A
I
• (1,0.60)
(0,0) I
Stretch in inches 4 4
'3
0 3
¥
Make a graph showing the relation between the weight w in
pounds and the stretch s in inches.
9-6 370
pounds on it .
P 15 20 25 30
Board
Support
.Table
b 2 4 6 8 10
V= 100
s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
h
Make a graph showing the relation between and h . Give
a formula expressing h in terms of s.
c =
(0.60) (what operation must be performed?)
When you graphed this relation, you obtained a straight line
through the origin:
i i
1,0.60)
w
(0.0)
9-7
What is the equation of this line? What is the slope of this line?
If you increase the amount you buy by 10 pounds, how much does
the cost increase? What is the change in the cost for each unit
change in the weight?
We say that c varies directly as w, or that the cost is
proportional to the weight. We say that 0.60 is the constant
of proportionality. In this relation, the ratio of the measure
of the cost to the measure of the weight is always 0.60. Because
it does not change, we call it a constant.
If
your father drives along a straight road at the speed of 50
miles per hour, how far does he go in 1 hour? 2 hours? 3.5 hours?
t hours? The measure d of the distance traveled is given in
terms of the measure t of the time by the formula:
d = 50t.
We seethat the measure of the distance is a constant times the
measure of the time. The ratio
t of the measure of the distal
-r-
Exercises 9-7
1. Write sentence in mathematical terms about the total cost,
a
t cents, of n gallons of gasoline at 32 cents per gallon.
In this statement the cost may also be stated as d dollars.
Write the sentence a second way, using d dollars.
2. Suppose the gasoline you bought cost 33.9 cents a gallon.
Write a sentence showing the cost, c cents, of g gallons
of this gasoline.
3. If your pace is
normally about feet, how far will you
2
20 2
50 5
-70 -7
100 10
"110 "11
Exercises 9-8
1. (a) The table below, as it is now filled in, shows two possible
ways in which a distance of 100 miles can be traveled.
Copy and complete the table .
Time (hours) 10 5
377 9-6
(b) From part (a), use r for the number of miles per hour
and t for the number of hours and write an equation
connecting r and t and 100.
(c) When the rate is doubled what is the effect upon the
corresponding time value?
Number of rows 24
~4 1 3 8 19 41
~8 2 2 6 16 38 82
10, Study the number pairs which follow: ("2, 8); ("1, 2); (0,0);
(1,2); (2,8)3 (3,18); (4,32).
(a) Does it appear that y varies directly as x?
11 (a) Supply the missing values in the table below where xy = l8.
x 1123456789 18
te
150 --
100
50
--
0 --
Exercises 9"9a
1. (a) What is the area of each face of a cube whose sides have
length 2 inches? How many faces are there? What is the
total surface area, the total area of all faces?
(b) Make a table showing the relation between the lengths of
each side of a cube and the surface area.
s 1 2 3 4 5 6
d = kt2
9-9
5. Suppose grass seed costs 70 cents per pound, and one pound
will sow an area of 280 sq. ft.
(a) How many pounds of seed will be needed to sow a square
plot 10 ft. on a side?
(b) How much will it cost to buy seed to sow a square plot
10 feet on a side?
(c) If C cents is
the cost of the seed to sow a square plot
s feet on a side, find an equation connecting C and s.
(d) How much will it cost for seed to sow a square plot 65
feet on a side?
(a) Prom the information above, what equation can you write
connecting d and t ?
(b) Find how far the ball falls in the first 3 seconds.
9-9 384
(c) If you are also told that the ball falls 144 feet in
the first 3 seconds, write an equation connecting
d and t .
(d) Using the equation you wrote in (c), can you find how far
the ball falls in the first 5 seconds?
Newton's law of gravitation says that the force with which two
objects attract each other varies inversely as the square of the
distance between them:
k
where k is a constant.
The problems in this chapter give you some idea of the many
different ways in which two quantities may be related to
varying
each other. In most of the cases we have discussed, the relation
can be expressed by an equation of the form
y = kxn
or
Exercises 9-9b
Use the following notation: e cm. is the length of one edge
of a cube; P cm. is the perimeter of one face of the cube;
S sq. cm. is the total area of all faces of the cube; V cu,
cm. is the volume of the cube.
1. Find an equation connecting P and e; S and e; V and e
385 9-10
(a) P varies .
(b) S varies .
On one set of axes, plot the graphs of the three equations you
found in (a). Use the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 for e.
A1 C'
9-10 386
AC BC AB
A'fi B'C A'B'
The following pairs of ratios are also equal:
AC
n
A'C' , BC
M
B'C' , BC
" B'C'
AB A'B' AC A'C' AB A'B1
If
corresponding angles in two triangles are equal in measure
ment, then the triangles are said to be similar.
In a right triangle the following trigonometric ratios are
important
sin /. CAB =
CB
AB
tan / CAB = cos CAB =
*-
k = tan 6
If Q (x,y) is any point on the line other than the origin, then
I-"-
As a point Q moves along the line, then
Change in y " _ ,
Change in x
';
»l()Pl •
Exercises 9-10
1. If y varies directly as x, and if y is 16 when x is 2,
find y when x is 5.
(preliminary edition)
Prepared under the supervision of the Panel on yth and 8th Grades of the School
Mathematics Study Group:
Financial support for the School Mathematics Study Group has been provided by the
'6> f
CONTENTS
Chapter
10-1 Tetrahedrons
geometric figure of a certain type is called a tetrahedron.
A
A tetrahedron has four vertices which are points in space. The
drawings below represent tetrahedrons. (Another form of the
word "tetrahedrons" is "tetrahedra." ("Tetra" Is the Greek word for
four . )
Can you see how the drawing on the left above suggests the
construction with ruler and compass? The arc through Q and R
has center at P. The other arc through R has the same radius,
but its center is at Q. The segments PQ~, P"R~, and Q^ have
the same length and are congruent.
Now mark the three points that are halfway between the pairs
of vertices. Cut out the large triangular region. Carefully make
three folds or creases along the segments joining the "halfway"
393 10-1
Exercises 10-1
1. Make a cardboard or heavy paper model of a regular tetrahedron.
Make your model so that its edges are each 3" long.
2. Make a model of a tetrahedron which is not regular.
10-2 Simplexes
single point is probably the simplest object or set of
A
points you can think of. A set consisting of two points is
probably the next most simple set of points in space. But any
two different points in space are on exactly one line, and
are the endpoints of exactly one segment (which is a subset of
the line). A segment has length but does not have width or
thickness, so it does not have area. We speak of a segment or
a line as being one -dimensional . Either could be considered as
the simplest one -dimensional object in space. In this chapter
we will think about the segment, not the line .
A set consisting of three points is the next most simple set
of points in space. If
the three points are all on the same line,
then we get just a part of a line. We are not much better off
than we were with just two points. Let us agree, therefore, that
our three points are not to be on the same line. Thus there is
exactly one plane containing the three points and there is ex
actly one triangle with the three points as vertices. There is
also exactly triangular region which together with the tri
one
angle which bounds it, has the three points as vertices. This
mathematical object, the triangle, together with its interior, is
395 10-2
four points are not all in any one plane. This requirement also
guarantees that no three can be on a line. If any three were
on a line, then there would be a plane containing that line and
the fourth point and the four points would be in the same plane.
We have four points in space, then, not all in the same plane.
This suggests a tetrahedron. The four points in space are the
vertices of exactly one solid tetrahedron. A solid tetrahedron
has volume and it is three-dimensional. It can be considered
as the simplest three-dimensional object in space.
Here we have four objects each of which may be thought of as
the simplest of its kind. There are remarkable similarities among
these objects. They all ought to have names that sound alike and
remind us of their basic properties. We call each of these a
becomes - becomes
(after (after
first second
process ) process)
B B B
397 10-2
and get the union of the faces. We apply it once more and get
Exercises 10-2
1. (a) A 2-simplex has how many 1-simplexes as edges?
N '
399 10-3
Exercises 10-3
Make two models of cubes out of cardboard or heavy paper.
Make them with each edge 2" long.
10-4 Polyhedrons
A polyhedron is
the union of a finite number of simplexes. It
could be just one simplex, or maybe the union of seven simplexes,
or maybe of 7,000,000 simplexes. What we are saying is that it is
401 10-4
(HJK), it is
not of (DEF). How
ever, the polyhedron which is the
union of these two 2-simplexes is
also the union of three 2-simplexes which do intersect nicely,
(DEH), (DHF), and (HJK).
The figure on the left rep
resents the union of the 2-sim
plexes (ABC) and (PQR). They
do not intersect nicely. Their
intersection seems to be a quadri
lateral together with its interior.
X Z X Z
P <r \--/
Exercises 10-4
1. Draw two 2-simplexes whose intersection is one point and
(b) By adding one vertex near the middle (in another drawing
of the figure), express the polyhedron as the union of
eight 2-simplexes all having the point in the middle as
one vertex.
(a) List eight 2-simplexes
whose union is
the surface
of the triangular prism on
the right. (The figure is
like that used earlier.)
(b) Regarding F as a point in
the interior of the prism
list eight 3-simplexes
(each containing F) whose union is the solid prism.
Exercises 10-f
The figure the right repre
on
sents a 1 -dimensional polyhe
dron. How many polygonal paths
does it contain with endpoints
A and B? How many simple
closed polygons does it contain?
\
\\
\\
\ N
You may look at the drawings above or you may look at some
models Let us count the number of vertices, the number
(or both).
of edges and the number of faces. But the surface of a cube can
be considered in at least two different ways. We can think of the
F E V
Surface of
tetrahedron ? 6 ?
??
Surface of cube
(square faces) ? ? 8
Surface of cube
(two 2-simplexes 12
on each square face)
It is
not easy from Just these three examples to observe any
relationship among these numbers. What we are looking for is a
relationship which will be true not only for these 2-dimensional
polyhedrons but also for others like these. See you can dis if
cover a relationship which is true in each case.
Exercises 10-6
1. Make up a table as in the text showing F, V, and E for the
2-dimensional polyhedrons mentioned there.
2. (a) Draw a 2-dimensional polyhedron in the plane with the
polyhedron the union of ten 2-simplexes such that its
boundary is a simple closed polygon.
(c) Draw another, such that its boundary is the union of two
simple closed polygons which do not intersect.
The marked one should be in the middle and you won't see it any
more. The surface of the object you have represents a simple sur
face. You can see how to fasten a few more tetrahedrons to get
more and more peculiar looking objects. Suppose it is true that
whenever you add a solid tetrahedron the intersection of what you
add with what you already have is oneface, two faces, or three
faces of the one you add. The surface of what you get will be
a simple surface.
10-7
Exercises 10-7
Using a block of wood (with corners sawed off possible), if
draw a simple closed polygon on the surface making it inter
sect most or all of the faces of the solid. Start coloring
at some point. Do not cross the polygon. Color as much as
you can without crossing the polygon. When you have colored
as much as you can, start coloring with a different color on
some uncolored portion. Again color as much as you can with
out crossing the polygon. You should have the whole surface
colored when you finish.
Go through the same procedure as in Problem 1 but with another
3 -dimensional solid. Use one of your models or another block
of wood. Make your simple closed polygon as complicated as
you wish.
417 10-8
5. Take 3 of the
cubes same size to be placed together so that
they intersect nicely.
There are the same number of edges and faces coming into the point
A, three of each. One may see that on the base there are the same
number of vertices and edges. We have two objects left over: the
vertex A at the top and the face (BCD) at the bottom. Other
wise we have matched all the edges with vertices and faces. So
V + F - E = 2. Now let us ask what would be the relationship if
one of the faces or the base were broken upsimplex- into several 2
All the vertices and edges are now used up. All the
vertical faces are now used up. We have the top and
bottom faces left.
So V + F - E must be 2.
419 10-8
What would happen if each face were broken up into two 2-simplexes?
For each face of the cube you would now have two 2-simplexes. But
for each face you would have one new 1-simplex lying in it. Other
things are not changed. Hence V + F - E is again 2.
Suppose we have any simple surface. Then do you suppose that
V + F - E = 2? In the exercises you will be asked to verify this
formula, which is known as the Euler Formula, in several other
examples. Euler (pronounced "Oiler") is the name of a famous
mathematician of the early l8th century.
Let us now observe that the formula does not hold in general
for surfaces which are not simple. Consider the two examples below.
In the figure above on the left (the union of the two tetrahe
drons having exactly the vertex A in common), V + F - E = ?
Count and see. Use models of two tetrahedrons if
you wish.
V + F - E should be 3 . On each tetrahedron separately the number
of faces plus the number of vertices minus the number of edges is
2. But the vertex A would have been counted twice. So V + F
is less than E + 4.
one
The figure on the right above is supposed to represent the
union of eight solid cubes as in the last section. The possible
ninth one in the center is missing. Count all the faces (of cubes),
edges and vertices which are in the surface. For this figure
V + F - E should be 0. (As a starter, V should be 32)
10-8
Exercises 10-8
1. Take cardboard model of a non-regular tetrahedron.
a In each
face add a vertex near the middle. Consider the face as the
union of three 2-simplexes so formed. Give the count of the
faces, edges, and vertices of the 2-simplexes on the surface.
How do the faces, edges, and vertices of this polyhedron com
pare with those of the polyhedron you get by attaching four
regular tetrahedrons to the four faces of a fifth?
2. Take a model of a cube. Subdivide it as follows. Add one
vertex in the middle of each edge. Add one vertex in the
middle of each face. Join the new vertex in the middle of
each face with the eight other vertices now on that face.
You should have eight 2-simplexes on each face. Compute F,
V, and E. Do you get V + F - E = 2?
//
(a) (b)
///
6. Place four solid cubes together as in the sketches below.
Find V + F - E in each case.
(a) (b)
////
Chapter 11
2
Thus in this case A = s-s or A = s .
/!" A
b
li.
b
Figure Measurements
long.
425 11-1
b, B
ABCD
= hb
6 15 = 45
1AABC
i 6 7 = 21 45 + 21 = 66
AADC 2
A b B
1
1 h
" h •
b ->
"ABCD 2 bi 2
Then by the distributive property,
A ABCD =
\ h
<bl
+
b2)
Exercises 11-lb
In Problems 1 to 5, find the area of trapezoids with the given
measurements .
6j-
5. 3^
*6. The area of a trapezoid is 696 sq. in. The lengths of the
bases are 23 in. and 35 in. Find the height of the trape
zoid.
*7. piece of land between two streets is the shape of a trapezoid:
A
374'
130'
418'
Area of a_
Regular Polygon.
(a) (b)
=
|h(b +b+b+b+b)
But (b+b+b+b+b) is the measure of the perimeter of the
polygon. Thus =
75-
hp. In words, the area of a regular poly-
gon is found by
b multiplying 1
^ the measure of the height of the
congruent triangles by the measure of the perimeter.
11-1 430
Exercises 11-lc
Find the areas of the following regular polygons:
Kind of Polygon Distance from the Length of a
Center to a Side Side
Area of a Circle
Consider circle 0 in the figures below.
A =
ir(2irr)
A = irr2
Exercises 11-ld
Compute the area of the interior of each of the following
circles. The measurements in each case are in inches.
Express the answer in terms of TT.
(a) r = 5 (d) r =
(b) r = 10 (e) d = 30
(c) r = 20 (f ) d = 28
11-2 432
/
and these
drawn on the playground? Our s
experience certainly suggests that
the pole is perpendicular to each of these lines. In fact, if it
were not, then from certain positions the pole would
appear like this, which is not
at all in accord with our observa
tion. describe this relation
We
the same way that every edge of the solid is perpendicular to the
planes of two of its rectangular faces. Notice the line where
435 ll-2
Q
a plane r to the plane r is the segment perpendicular to that
plane .
This shortest distance is called the distance from to r.
Q
Exercises 11-2
Give five pairs of parallel planes with lines
examples of
perpendicular to both planes in each example.
Examine Models and 7. Note the sets of4 parallel planes and
the distance between them.
Make models 9 and 10. Note the sets of parallel planes and
the distances between them.
If two parallel planes P,
-/ 0, then J ,
J
must be
c. 1
BRAINBUSTER: A segment
Q
has its ends on the parallel i
planes
t^
and Pg. If §3" J_
is perpendicular to ?„, prove
it must also be perpendicular
i
to P . [Hint: Draw two planes S
through
#£
2(
= Jt*> + J>£ +
S
B,
)
this type all faces are rectangles, so any pair of parallel faces
can be considered as the bases. Can you state these formulas in
words? Try it.
439 ll-3
Cube.
A cube is a special case of the rectangular right prism in
that all of its edges are congruent.Let us designate the measure
of its edges by s as in the figure below. Study again Model 1.
Since a cube is a right prism its surface area and volume are
obtained in the same manner as you used for the rectangular right
prism. The formulas, however, can be shortened since
S = 2 ( Jtv + JA + wA )
S = 2 (s2 + s2 + s2)
S = 2 (3s2)
S = 6s2
v ^
V = s-s-s
and V = 23 = 8.
11-3
Since the area of the surface is the sum of the areas of the
bases and the faces, we have:
^
(Ji
A-
d)
S =
2(2 ab) + + +
b
c
d)
ab
(b
=
A
+ +
+
S
= ab p,
A
+
S
You have used the volume formula before, but it is given below
by way of review.
= ab or =
V
V
or B^,
V
-| ap^ V
= =
V =
7rr2/£ .
The formula for the area of the surface will be remembered as:
S = 2.TTT ^ + 27rr2,
Exercises 11-3
Compute the volume of each right rectangular prism whose
measures are as follows:
(a) S = 1,* = 2, = 2
S
a|,
^/= 2,
A
l,
=
l,
(b) =
2
(c) S ^ = =
A
=
2
5. (a) and
8
(c) Find the volumes of these four models. Use your ruler
to find any additional measurements which you need.
The parallelograms ABED, ACPD, and CBEP are the lateral faces.
The lateral edges are AD, BE, and OF. Models 9, 10, 11, and 12
will help you to understand this better. In particular, compare
Models 6 and 11 by pointing out the bases, lateral faces and lat
eral edges.
Now do the same for Models 7 and 9. In these last cases did
you have any difficulty identifying the bases? How did you decide?
The difficulty here illustrates an interesting property of Models
4, 7, 9, 10. In these models all faces are parallelograms.
(Recall that rectangle is a special case of a parallelogram.)
a
In these figures any pair of opposite faces may be considered
the bases and the other faces are then the lateral faces. Such
figures can really be thought of as prisms in three ways. Because
their faces are all parallelograms, such prisms are given the
mouth-filling name parallelepipeds . The rectangular prisms which
you studied earlier are the special parallelepipeds where all the
faces are rectangles.
445 ll-4
Now push the cards a bit so that the deck will have the following
appearance in cross section.
n
Thus the area of the base is •£ sq. in. Why? You should find
the height is 4 in. (Note this is not the same as the length
of the lateral edge which is about 4rr in.) Thus h = 4.
V = = 9
(f)4
and the volume is 9 cu. in.
Exercises 11-4
1 . Check the accuracy of the last calculation by taking your cubic
inch measure, Model 1, and see if 9 fillings of it will just
fill Model 11.
11-5 Pyramids
Make and examine carefully the five Models 13, 14, 15, 16, and
17. These are examples of pyramids . What common property do you
observe of these five models?
You should see in each case a figure obtained by joining the
vertices of a polygon to a point not in the plane of the polygon,
thus forming triangles. The pyramid consists of the closed tri
angular regions and the closed region of the original polygon.
11-5
Exercises 11-'
Look at the figure which is
supposed to show a regular
pentagonal pyramid with apex
A and altitude
A§. Since Q,
(e) Can the reasoning above be used to show that all five of
the lateral edges have the same length?
__
(c) Are they equal?
_
polygon as base, the are all equal in
length, then the pyramid is .
(AM)2 + 82 = 172.
11-6 452
(a) Find its total area (sum of areas of lateral faces and
the base) .
Model 4)? How do their heights compare? Do you agree they have
congruent bases and equal heights? The interior of Model 4 is
clearly larger than the interior of Model 13, but how much larger?
Fill Model 13 with salt and pour it into Model 4. Keep on doing
this until Model 4 is full. According to your results the interior
of Model 4 is times that of Model 13?
how many
Repeat the experiment with Model 14 and Model 5. Did you get
the multiple in this case? Make a third trial with Model 17
same
and Model 6. On the basis of these experiments do you agree with
prism whose base is congruent to the base of the prism and whose
height is the same as that of the prism.
Since we know how to find the volume of a prism this leads at
once to a formula for finding the volume of any pyramid:
Exercises 11-6
1. Find the volume of the pyramids, the measurements of whose
bases and heights are as follows:
3. What is
the height of a pyramid whose volume is 324 cu. m.
11-7 Cones
Anyone who has eaten an ice cream cone has at least a rough
idea of the figure called a cone, or more strictly a right circu
lar cone. Let a circle be drawn as shown below, with center C,
and let V be a point not in the plane of the circle so that
segment VC is perpendicular to this plane.
If all the segments from V were drawn to the points of the circle,
the union of all these segments, together with the closed circular
region, forms a right circular cone . Theclosed circular region
is called the base of the cone, and the union of the segments is
11-7 456
pare their bases. Are the circles the same size? Do the two models
appear to have equal heights? How did you test this?
Now fill Model 18 with salt and empty it into Model 8. Continue
till Model 8 is full. On the basis of this experiment, the volume
of Model 8 is how many times that of Model 18? This illustrates
the following property.
Property J-. The volume of the interior of a cone is one third
that of a cylinder of the same height and whose base has the same
radius .
Since we have already learned how to find the volume of a
cylinder, this leads at once to the formula for finding the
volume of a cone:
V = Trr2 h.
p
Since irr is actually the number of square units B of area
in the base, the formula could be written as
Comparing this with Property 6 shows that we have the same rule
for finding the volume of a cone as for a pyramid.
As an example refer back to the cone mentioned above where the
radius of the base was LO inches and the height 24 inches.
Then r = 10, h = 24, so by the formula above
= - TT (10)2 24 = 800ir
and the volume is 800ir cu. in. or about 2512 cu. in.
* Lateral Area of a Cone
2-TT
The lateralarea of the cone has the same measure as the area
of the shaded part we are trying to find. The two points marked
Q in the figure come from the same point of the model. The rest
of the large circle is shown in dotted lines to help you follow
the reasoning.
Let s be the number of units in the slant height of the cone
and r be the number of units in the radius of its base. Do the
markings on the figure above on the two segments and the arc show
the correct number of units in their lengths? Why?
11-7
27TT L
L = irrs.
As an example refer again to the cone where the radius of the
base is inches long and the height 24 inches. You recall
10
we found the slant height to be 26 inches. In this problem we
have, therefore, r = 10; s = 26, so
L = TT 10-26 = 260 TT * 8l6.4
and the lateral area is about 8l6.4 square inches.
Exercises 11-7
1. If stands for the number of square units in the total
T
area of the cone (counting the base) write a formula for T
in terms of r and s.
2. The slant height of a cone is 12 ft. and the radius of its
base 3 ft. Find its lateral area and its total area in
terms of IT.
3. A cone has a height of 12 ft. and its slant height is 15 ft.
Find the radius, the lateral area, the total area, and the
volume .
11-8 460
push the models together so that the two faces marked BCQ coincide.
What can you say of the heights of these two models when placed in
this position? Models 19a and 19c, when looked at in this way, are
triangular pyramids with congruent bases and congruent altitudes.
What can you say about their volumes? What property are you using?
You should have concluded that the three Models 19a, 19b, 19c
have equal volumes. put the three models together so that
Now
faces BCQ of Models 19a and 19c coincide and so that faces
QRC of 19b and 19c coincide. What is the resulting figure?
Is it a triangular prism?
These three models with equal volumes can thus be assembled
to form a prism whose base is the same as the face ABC of Model
19a, and whose height is the same as that of 19a. This shows
again the result stated in Property 6. Actually the work is Just
the process of dissecting a prism into tetrahedrons which you
discussed in Chapter 10 except that here we have been particularly
interested in the volumes of the pieces.
If we Model 19a as originally given, we can think of
imagine
Models 19b and 19c as two more tetrahedrons which have been invent
ed having the same volume as 19a and so that they can be combined
with 19a to produce a prism of the same base and height.In this
particular case the base of 19a is an equilateral triangle, and
one of the lateral edges is perpendicular to the plane of the base.
Could this still have been done if ABCQ were any triangular
prism? The answer is yes.
11-8 462
I
463 ll-8
•r
•
'2
.. i
'2 '2
it
, i
'2
"
Tob
11-8
\ A
465 11-8
V Tab
11-8 466
(also Parallelepiped)
'60
1 II 1 "
'2 2
\
11-8
o
O"
6"
11-8 468
o
er
o
CT
11-8 470
75°30' 4?
/99°20'
"
Tab
11-8
83'
32
"
\84°I5'
104'
4_L"
^32
Tab
11-8 472
'4^r
477 11-8
Model 19a
11-8
Model I9b
ll-8 480
Model 19c
The remaining segments not labeled for length are the same
length as the segments in Models 19a and 19b joining the same end-
points. That is, segment B§ here has the same length as segment
in Model 19a.
481
from different points of one plane to the other plane are all the
same .
whose base is congruent to the base of the prism and whose height
is the same as that of the prism. (V = •*• Bh, where stands for
B
the of square units of area in the base
number and the number
h
or linear units in the height.)
Property The volume of the interior of a cone is one third
7..
that of
IP
cylinder of the same height and whose base has the
a
= •*•
Bh)
V
h
THE SPHERE
12-1 Introduction
If coin, you might
you were asked to describe the shape of a
say that it is "round." But this definition is vague. To describe
it more accurately, you might say that it is "circular." This is
more accurate because you have already learned a careful definition
of a circle:
A circle isset of points in a plane such that all points
a
of the set lie at the same distance from a particular point,
P, called the center.
Exercises 12-1
List as many games as you can in which a spherical object,
such as a ball, is involved.
List as many spherical objects as you can which are used as
containers.
Fishing is a popular sport and an important industry. Can
you think of any spherical objects which are very useful in
certain kinds of fishing?
485 12-1
(a) What geometric figure does the edge of the coin suggest?
(b) How can you describe the set of points such that all
points are located a distance greater than v from C?
12-2 486
The line passing through the poles of the earth is called the
axis of the earth. This is approximately the line about which the
earth revolves. If we think of the earth as a sphere, the diameter
contained in the axis intersects the sphere at the North Pole and
at the South Pole. We think of these two points, represented by
the poles, as being "directly opposite" each other. Since the pre
fix "anti" means opposing, we could call these points "anti-polar"
points. But the poles are not the only points on earth having this
property, since each diameter of the earth will contain two such
points. So, we use a different name. The endpoints of any diameter
of a sphere are called antipodal points. (This is pronounced
"an - tip - o - dal.") We say, then, that each endpoint of a diam
eter of a sphere is an antipode of the other endpoint. (In "anti-
pode" the accent the first syllable.) Thus, the North Pole
is on
represents a point which is an antipode of the point represented
by the South Pole . Every point on a sphere has one antipode .
(See Problem 20 in Exercises 12-4.) We can connect any point, P,
of a sphere with the center of the sphere. The line through these
two points will Intersect
the sphere in the antipode of point P.
As an example of antipodal points, think of the point on the
surface of the earth on which you are standing. The antipode of
this point would be on the far side of the earth. You might think
of hole dug straight down through the center of the earth, coming
a
out on the other side. Where would it come out? You might find
it interesting to locate the antipode of the place where you live.
To do so, use a globe representing the earth. North Pole
Now think of the earth as a
sphere with a vertical axis as
shown at the right. Consider the
horizontal planes represented in
the drawing. One plane just touches
the sphere at the North Pole, and
one just touches the sphere at the
South Pole. Such a plane, which South Pole -^
But we do call
the equator the only great circle since
not
we need to consider great circles paths between any two points
on a sphere. We have, therefore, this definition:
Definition: A great circle on a sphere is any intersection
of the sphere with a plane through the center of the sphere.
Definition: All circles on a sphere which are not great
circles are called small circles.
All great circles on a sphere have the same length since their
radii are equal to the radius of the sphere. The length of every
great circle on a sphere is greater than the length of any small
circle on that sphere.
Again, think of the earth as a sphere. We can imagine many
great circles of this sphere. A
particular set of great circles of
the earth is the set whose members
pass through the North and South
Poles. Consider half of such a
great circle. On the earth, half
of a great circle, with the poles
as endpoints, is called a meridian.
We sometimes use the term "semi
circle" in talking about half of
a circle.
The small circles whose planes are parallel to the plane
of the equator are called parallels of latitude. These circles
have their centers on the axis of the earth and their planes per
pendicular to the axis of the earth.
You know that when you face north, east will be to your right,
west to your left and south at your back. On the surface of the
earth east and west from the point where you stand will be along
the parallel of latitude through this point. When we want to
emphasize that a direction is exactly east, we sometimes say
"due east."
12-2 490
Exercises 12-2
asked to explain your answer give what reasons you can, but do
not feel that you have to prove that your answers are correct.
You should be prepared, however, to supply reasons for your
answers in most cases. The purpose of these questions is to help
you start thinking about some of the properties of spheres. You
will find it extremely helpful to make drawings on a large ball
or other spherical object.
some Such drawings will help you "see"
the things we talk about.
(a) How many great circles pass through a given point, such
as the North Pole, of a sphere?
5. (a) In how many points does each meridian cut the equator?
Explain .
(b) In how many points does each meridian cut each parallel
of latitude?
(c) Does a parallel of latitude intersect any other parallel
of latitude? Explain.
6. In the drawing shown at the
right, C represents the
center of a sphere with point
A on the surface of the sphere.
Suppose we think of a
line perpendicular to m
CD,
and intersecting m at point
A. Then let us think of point
R as any point of the inter
section of plane m with the
sphere .
(h) Compare A^, AP and any other such segments. What can
you conclude?
(i) Does this prove that the intersection set of plane m and
and sphere is a circle? Why?
the South Pole. Is there one shortest route? You should be able
to find many possible "shortest "routes. Each meridian is a possi
ble route. If
we think of the earth as a sphere, the meridians
(5) This great circle is thus the only great circle passing
through A and B.
12-3
also that through any two points there is Just one great circle
unless the points are antipodal. But great circles on a sphere do
not behave like straight lines in all respects for any two great
circles intersect in two points. There are no parallel great
circles on a sphere.
Exercises 12-3
Use a globe and length of string and a ruler to answer ques
tions 1-3.
1. Locate Nome, Alaska and Stockholm, Sweden on the globe.
(b) Using a string and ruler, what is the distance form Nome
to Stockholm along a route directly east from Nome?
(b) What is
the distance from Nome to Rome along a south
easterly course passing through the southern tip of
Hudson Bay, and through a point on the border between
Spain and France?
5. (a) Explain why going due east is not always the most
efficient way of getting to a point directly to the east.
(b) When is a route due east or west always the most efficient?
dian through Greenwich. The part of the meridian from the inter
section with the equator to the North Pole is divided into 90
equal parts, assuming that the earth is a sphere. The whole num
bers between 0 and 90 are
assigned to these points. Each
point determines a parallel of
latitude. A similar pattern is
followed for points on the meri
dian south of the equator. For
any point on earth, we may locate
the parallel of latitude contain
ing the point. For example,
New Orleans is approximately on
the parallel 30° north of the
equator. Wellington, New Zealand
is approximately on the parallel 40° south of the equator. We
Exercises 12-4
1. Using a globe, find location of each of the
the approximate
following cities. Indicate the location by listing the longi
tude first, followed by the latitude. Be sure to include the
letters E or W and N or S in your answers .
(a) New York City (e) Paris
(b) Chicago (f) Moscow
(b) 4° W, 41° N.
505 12-4
(c) If you could travel from a spot in your home town through
the center of the earth, would you come out in China?
11. Locate and name one point on the great circle route between
San Francisco and Melbourne, Australia.
12. Without looking at a map or using a reference, guess the
answers to the following questions:
*15. Are there two different points on the earth which have the
same latitude longitude?
and If so, where are they, and
if not, explain why there are none.
*l6. Are there any points on the earth that have more than one
location in terms of latitude and longitude? Explain why,
or why not.
*17. Determine a way of finding the location of
antipodal an
point, say of 90° W, 45° N, without using a globe or
map. Then find the antipodal points of each of the following:
*l8. Find the reasons for the location of the Arctic Circle and
the Tropic of Cancer.
Vc
=
(2r)3 = 8r3,
since (2r)3 =
(2r)(2r)(2r)
=
{2-2-2)(r-r.r) = 8r3.
(AT5)2 + (S15)2 =
(AB)2.
But BD = e and TB = 2r. Hence
2
2e - e = (2r)2,
2
3e = 4r2,
4 2 2.2
(r-r)
c-e
« o = f rw_rx
(— — ;(—=;
e =
A3 / 2rx3 8r3
Hence, V = e ( ~ ) = r3 =
Since the volume of the sphere is larger than the volume of this
cube,
Therefore,
Vs
509 12-5
-4-
TTT
where TT is the same number we met when working with circles, and
r is the measure of the radius of the sphere. Notice that
that 43 certainly lies n
4
or
3
irr
4,
.
The number IT is a real number though not a rational number; it
is an irrational number. Its decimal form has been computed to
many places. To five decimal places it is
TT = 3.14159 ••• .
The
r is the measure of the radius of the sphere. great circle
A
V0
s
3
s
have a cube with the same volume as this sphere. How would the
area of the cube compare with that of the sphere? The volume
of the sphere is a little more than 32, since IT is a little
more than 3. Hence, if
the number of units in the edge
e is
must be a little greater than 32,
3
of the cube, then e since
e
3
is the volume of the cube. As a result, e is a little
larger than 3. In other words, the length of the edge of the
cube having the same volume as the sphere will be a little more
o
than 3 units. Since the cube has six faces, A
'•"'
= 6e . Hence
its area will be greater than 6-3
2
=
54. This number is certainly
greater than l6ir , (Why?) the surface area of the sphere. we If
had done this work more accurately, the areas would be found to be:
Here V is about 52? and so, for a cube of the same volume,
V0c * 527. Hence e3 £ 527, so that e is alittle more than 8
o
since 8
3
= 512. Accordingly, A is a little more than 6-8 =
Exercises 12-5
For each sphere whose radius is given below, find the volume
22
of the corresponding spherical solid. Use TT- as the approx
imation for TT.
DIRECTIONS: RULER
(l) Measure the diameter . . I .
cos L
515 12-6
p =
27r(BP) =
27r(CA).
Accordingly,
To CA
cos, L =
where L° is
the latitude of the point P. the latitude of a If
point is known, the length of the small circle through the point
can be found by using values of the cosines of various angles given
in the table of Chapter 9.
Example latitude of a certain city is 35° . Find the
. The
approximate length of the small circle through the city. The
length of the small circle is about 25,000(cos 35°) miles, that is
25000(0.8192) miles, which is 20480 miles.
Exercises 12-6
Find to the nearest ten miles the length of the circle of lat
itude which passes through the point with latitude given below.
(a) 15°
(b) 75°
(c) 45°
12-6 516
*5. City D is
at longitude 90° W and latitude 60° N. City
E is at longitude 170° W. and latitude 60° N. The sun is
"directly over" city D at 7:00 a.m.
(a) At what time is the sun directly "over" city E?
(b) Did you need to find the length of the circle of latitude
60° N. in order to find your answer to (a)?
(c) If the cities had been at latitude 30° N. would the
answer to (a) have changed?
*6. Cities A and B have both the latitude 40° N and are
in the same time zone, that is, a person does not change his
watch in going from one to the other. The sun rises exactly
one hour later at A than at B. How far apart are the cities
and which direction is A from B?
Chapter 13
RELATIVE ERROR
Look at the line above, which shows a scale divided into one-
inch units. The zero point is labeled
"A", and point B is
between the 2-inch mark and the 3 -inch mark. Since B is clearly
closer to the two-inch mark, we may say that the measurement of
segment AB is 2 inches. However, any point which is more than
li inches from A and less than 2-^- inches from A would be
the endpoint of a segment whose length, to the nearest inch, is
also 2inches. The mark below the line shows the range within
which the endpoint of a line segment 2 inches long (to the
nearest inch) might fall. The length of such a segment might
be almost i
inch less than 2 inches, or almost -* inch more
than 2 inches. We therefore say that, when a line segment is
(2
inches or 0.5) inches. In the everyday world this is often
(2
4^
not the case. However, in industrial and scientific work the great
est possible error should be specifically stated. For example,
a
+ 0.05) 0.005)
+-
23
Exercises 13-1
1. Draw a line and mark on it
scale with divisions of -rr
a inch.
Mark the zero point C. Place a point between 1-^- and 1-r- ,
but closer to ITT, and call the point D. How long is CT5
1
to the nearest -jr inch?
(a) Between what marks on the scale must the end of this
segment lie?
(b) What is the greatest possible error?
inch. Then we say that the first measurement is more precise than
the second, or has greater precision. Notice also that the great
est possible error of the first measurement is — of TT inch,
523 13-2
or -TTT
inch, and of the second is -* of -* inch, or -jr inch.
The greatest possible error is less for the first measurement, than
for the second measurement. Hence the more precise of two measure
ments is the one made with the smaller unit, and for which the
greatest possible error is therefore the smaller.
It is very important that measurements be stated so as to
show correctly how precise they are. In this chapter we adopt the
1.1
convention that the denominator of the fractional part of a measure
ment indicates the unit of measurement which was used. If a line
segment is measured to the nearest TT inch, and the measurement is
ft q
2rr inches, we shall not change the fraction to -rr, for that would
make it
appear that the unit was -^ inch, rather than rr inch.
If a line segment is measured to the nearest T=- inch, and the
measurement is closer to
3 1
3 inches than to 2-jj- or 3-jr inches,
we shall state it to be 3-jr inches, so that it is clear that
1
the unit used is inch.
-jr
(3
Exercises 13-2
2^-
(b) 0.68 feet, 23.5 feet
?
All of you who say "13" must be between and IS-i-
years old.
5. (A) For each measurement below tell the place value of the
last significant digit.
(B) Tell the greatest possible error of the measurements.
(a)
5
= °-125
%r
= * °-0086
527 13-3
Percent of error is
relative error expressed as a percent.
the
In the above two examples the relative error expressed as a percent
is 12.5% and 0.86%. When written in this form it is called the
percent of error.
The measurement with a relative error of 0.0086 (0.86%) is
more accurate than the measurement with a relative error of 0.125
(12.5%). By definition a measurement with a smaller relative error
is said to be more accurate than one with a larger relative error.
The terms accuracy and precision are used in industrial and
scientific work in a special technical sense even though they are
often used loosely and as synonyms in everyday conversation. Pre
cision depends upon the size of the unit of measurement, which is
twice the greatest possible error, while accuracy is the relative
error or percent of error. For example, 12.5 pounds and 360.7
pounds are equally precise, that is, precise to the nearest 0.1
of a pound (greatest possible error in each case is 0.05 pound).
The two measurements do not possess the same accuracy. The second
measurement is more accurate. You should verify the last statement
by computing the relative errors in each case and comparing them.
An astronomer, for example, making a measurement of the distance
to a galaxy may have an error of a trillion miles (1,000,000,000,000
miles) yet be far more accurate than a machinist measuring the
diameter of a steel pin to the nearest 0.001 inch.
Again, a measurement indicated as 3.5 inches and another as
3.5 feet are equally accurate but the first measurement is more
precise. Why?
13-3 528
Exercises 13-3
In all computation express your answer so that it includes two
significant digits.
1. State the greatest possible error for each of these measurements.
3. Find the greatest possible error and the percent of error for
each of the following measurements.
8. From your answers for Problems 6 and 7, can you see any
relation between the number of significant digits in a
measurement and its relative error? What is the relation
between the number of significant digits in a measurement
and its accuracy?
(a) 36|
in., 27^
in., 32jj in., 46y
in., 22^-
in.
(b) 4.62 in., 3.041 in., 3 in., 82.4 in., 0.3762 in.
*11. Arrange the following measurements in order of their accuracy
(from least to greatest):
(6 +
^)
ft. (3.2 + 0.005) in. (7.2 + 0.05) miles
(3| +
^)
in. 3 yd. (4 +
J) in. .
123
two marks on a A and B, and then measur
ing the distances from the corner to A, from A to B, and
from B to the other corner. Measurements such as these whose
measures are to be added, should all be made with the same preci
sion. Suppose, to the nearest fourth of an inch, the measurements
were 72-jr inches, 40jr inches, 22-r- inches. You would add the
2 2
measures to get 135^.
Therefore the measurement is 135^
inches.
Of course, the distances might have been shorter in each case. The
measures could have been almost as small as 72^, ^o4, and 22jj in
which case the distance would have been almost as small as 13 5tr
2
inches, which is three-eighths of an inch less than 135jp inches.
531 13-4
Also, each distance might have been longer by nearly one -eighth
of an inch, in which case the total length might have been almost
p
three-eighths of an inch longer than 133^ inches. The greatest
possible error of a_ sum is the sum of the greatest possible errors.
If we were adding measures of 37.6, 3.5, and 178.6, the great
est possible error of the sum would be 0.5+0.5+0.5 or 1.5 .
The result of this addition could be shown as 219.7 + 1.5 .
Computation involving measures is very important in today's
world. Many rules have been laid down giving the accuracy or
precision of the results obtained from computation with approxi
mate measures. Too many rules, however, might create confusion
and would never replace basic knowledge of approximate data. If
the meaning of greatest possible error and of relative error is
understood, the precision and accuracy of the result of computa
tion with data can usually be found by applying common
approximate
sense and Judgment. Common sense would tell us that with a large
number of measurements the errors will, to a certain extent, cancel
each other.
Exercises 13-4
. Find the greatest possible error for the sums of the
measurements in each of the following.
(a) ^ in., 6|
in., 3§ in.
3
(c) 4.2 in./ 5.03 in.
(d) 42.5 in., 36.0 in., 49.8 in.
ing was done to the nearest TT inch, the measures can be stated
11 31
''
TT.
+
+_
as small as 3rr inches and the width almost as small as Ifr inches
533 13-5
////
The length might be almost as large as inches and the width
almost as large as inches.
'///// /
I T inches <
3 inches
4-
Look at the drawing to see what outside lines this means. The
show how the rectangle would look if the dimensions were as large
as possible. The inner lines show how it would look if the length
and width were as small as possible. The shaded part shows the
difference between the largest possible area and the smallest
possible area with the given measurements.
1
To find these areas, we multiply 3rr x
5
ITT to find the small -
3 7
est possible area, and 3rr x 1A- to find the largest possible area.
13 • —
325 — =
^-^—y
5
hence the area may be as small
as square inches.
PI
-rip , hence the area may be as large
21
as 6rjf square inches
However, since we have seen that the area might be either larger or
smaller than this number of square inches, it would not be correct
to give the result in this way, which means (by our agreement) that
the area has been found to the nearest l6th of a square inch.
The area could be as much as (67-17
- 5rzr) or TJT square inches
11 - R
or TH£- square inches less than 3rr
1 1
greater, or (5r7r 5?nr)
3<3
10.4
4.7
4l6
Exercises 13-5
1. Suppose a rectangle is 2-^
inches long and inches wide.
1^
Make a drawing of the rectangle. Show on the drawing that the
is
(2^
length inches and the width inches.
(l-|
-J-)
^)
+
+
Then find the largest area possible and the smallest area
possible, and find the difference, or uncertain part. Then
find the area with the measured dimension, and find the result
to the nearest -%
square inch.
2. Multiply the following approximate numbers.
3.632 0.83 .
(a) -=-
d
C
a
7. Assuming that water weighs 62.5 lb. per cu. ft., what is
the volume of 15,610 Ibs?
8. (a) (b)
Given m(/_ A)
= 22 Given: m(/ S) = 73
sin 22° =
0.3746 tan 73° = 3.2709
AB =
(34 + 0.5) ST =
(67+0.5)
Find: BC Find: RT
AT.-' '.'3
transcendental number, 259
transversal, 147
trapezoid, 215, 426
triangle, 149, 392
triangular region, 393, 426, 440
triangular right prism, 440
trigonometric ratios, 259, 336
trillion, 527
Tropic of Cancer, 502
two-dimensional, 395, 401, 410
uniqueness, 86, 89
union, 399, 406
variation, 327, 367
inverse, 376
direct, 372
vinculum, 233
volume, 432, 452, 507
'•'
67 167 A A 30
DATE DUE