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General Chemistry Chem. 101: Chemistry, Physics and Biology Students
General Chemistry Chem. 101: Chemistry, Physics and Biology Students
Taibah University
Faculty of Science and Arts
Chemistry Department
General
Chemistry
Chem. 101
For
Chemistry , Physics and Biology
Students
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Chemistry: An overview
1.6 Temperature
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Chemical Foundations
Chemistry: An overview:
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• An Observational Science
• An Experimental Science
• A Laboratory Science
• An Interesting Science
• An Important Science
• A “Hard” Science
What Is Chemistry?
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The Study of Matter and its Properties, the Changes that Matter
Undergoes, and the Energy Associated with those Changes.
For example: Oxygen atom, hydrogen atom, water molecule
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Example: Information
Convert 7.8 km to 7.8 km Given: 2 significant figures
miles. ? mi Find:
Conversion Factor:1 km = 0.6214 mile
km → mi Solution Map:
0.6214 mi
1 km
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
2-Zeros
(a)Leading zeros do not count as significant figures.
(b)Captive zeros always count as significant figures
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Numbers
1-Exact
2-Measured: Significant Figures
• Exact: Sometimes you can determine an exact value for a quality
of an object.
• Often by counting.
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
• Books on a table.
• Sometimes by definition
• 1 cm is exactly 1/100th of 1 meter.
• Measured: Whenever you use an instrument to compare a quality
of an object to a standard, there is uncertainty in the comparison.
0.00012340
1. Locate the decimal point.
0.00012340
2. Move the decimal point to obtain a number between 1 and 10.
1.2340
3. Multiply the new number by 10n .
• Where n is the number of places you moved
the decimal point.
1.2340 x 104
4. If you moved the decimal point to the left, then n is +;
if you moved it to the right, then n is − .
1.2340 x 10-4
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Rounding
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
1 kilometer 1 mile
NOT OK: =
0.62137 mile 0.62137 kilometer
Copyright©2000 by Houghton Mifflin
Company. All rights reserved.
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
1.6 Density
• Inverse relationship between mass and volume.
• Solids = g/cm3
– 1 cm3 = 1 mL Mass
• Liquids = g/mL Density =
• Gases = g/L
Volume
• Volume of a solid can be determined by water
displacement—Archimedes Principle.
• Density : solids > liquids > gases
– Except ice is less dense than liquid water!
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Solids
• The particles in a solid are packed
close together and are fixed in
position.
– Although they may vibrate.
• The close packing of the particles
results in solids being
incompressible.
• The inability of the particles to
move around results in solids
retaining their shape and volume
when placed in a new container
and prevents the particles from
flowing.
Tro's "Introductory Chemistry",
Chapter 3
Liquids
• The particles in a liquid are closely packed,
but they have some ability to move around.
• The close packing results in liquids being
incompressible.
• The ability of the particles to move allows
liquids to take the shape of their container
and to flow. However, they don’t have
enough freedom to escape and expand to
fill the container.
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Mixtures
Heterogeneous Homogeneous
Matter Summary
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Chapter :2
Atoms, Molecules and Ions
1-Fundamental Chemical Laws
1-Conservation of Mass
2-Definite Composition
3-Law of Multiple Proportions
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Lecture :1
1-Fundamental Chemical Laws :
Three Laws that Led to the Atomic Theory
• Law of Mass Conservation: The total mass of substances does not
change during a chemical reaction (Lavoisier).
• Law of Definite ( or Constant ) Composition: No matter what its
source, a particular chemical compound is composed of the same
elements in the same parts (fractions) by mass (Proust).
• The Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements form a
series of compounds, the masses of one element that combine
with a fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small
integers to each other (Dalton).
1-Conservation of Mass
• Matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
• In every chemical operation an equal quantity of matter exists
before and after the operation.
• Mass is conserved in a chemical reaction.
• Moreover, in chemical change, the mass of the elements is
conserved, element by element.
• Development of this law was made possible by the analytical
balance.
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Problem
• Potassium chlorate (KClO 3 ) decomposes to potassium chloride
(KCl) and oxygen (O 2 ) when heated. In one experiment 100.0
g of KClO 3 generated 36.9g of O 2 and 57.3 g of KCl. What
mass of KClO 3 remained unreacted?
• Mass of KClO 3 before reaction = mass of KCl + mass of O 2
+ mass of unreacted KClO 3
• 100.0 g of KClO 3 = 57.3 g KCl + 36.9g O 2 + g unreacted KClO 3
• g unreacted KClO 3 = 100.0 g - 57.3 g - 36.9 g = 5.8 g
2-Definite Composition
Chemical analysis of a 9.07 g sample of calcium phosphate shows
that it contains 3.52 g of Ca.
How much Ca could be obtained from a 1.000 kg
sample?
Mass fraction Ca = 3.52 g Ca / (9.07 g total) = 0.388
(i.e., 38.8% Ca by mass in any sample of compound)
Mass Ca in 1.000 kg =
(1.000 kg total)x(0.388 g Ca/ g total) = 0.388 kg C
= 388 g Ca
2-Law of Definite Proportions
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
5-The cathode ray is attracted by the plate bearing +ve charges and
repelled by the plate bearing –ve charges so it must consists of
negatively charged particles called electrons
A cathode-ray tube: the fast-moving electrons excite the gas in the
tube, causing a glow between the electrodes(see fig.)
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
– Elements:
– Each element has a unique number of protons in its nucleus.
– All carbon atoms have 6 protons in their nuclei.
– The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the
atomic number.
– Z is the short-hand designation for the atomic number.
– Because each element’s atoms have a unique number of
protons, each element can be identified by its atomic number.
– The elements are arranged on the Periodic Table in order of
their atomic numbers.
– Each element has a unique name and symbol.
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Atomic Definitions
Z
X The Nuclear Symbol of the Atom, or Isotope
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Periodicity
= Metal
= Metalloid
= Nonmetal
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
= Transition metals
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Important Groups—Hydrogen
• Nonmetal.
• Colorless, diatomic gas.
– Very low melting point and density.
• Reacts with nonmetals to form molecular compounds.
– HCl is an acidic gas.
– H 2 O is a liquid.
• Reacts with metals to form hydrides.
– Metal hydrides react with water to form H 2 .
hydrogen halides dissolve in water to form acids
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Atom Happiness:
• The number of electrons determines the physical and chemical
properties of an atom
• When the protons=electrons atoms are electrically neutral
• But Atom Happiness only comes about when the atom has the
same number of Electrons as a noble gas
• Atoms will not gain and loose protons because protons are at the
center of atoms, very far away from outside, in an electrical shroud
of negative charge
• Atoms will gain and loose electrons, which are on the outside
surface of atoms
• When an atom gains or looses an electron the electrical balance is
lost
• But, atoms are happier with a charge
Ions:
– Ions with a positive charge are called cations.
– More protons than electrons.
– Form by losing electrons.
– Ions with a negative charge are called anions.
– More electrons than protons.
– Form by gaining electrons.
– Chemically, ions are much different than the neutral atoms.
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
1A
2A 3A 5A 6A 7A
Cs+ Ba2+
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Isotopes
• All isotopes of an element are chemically identical.
– Undergo the exact same chemical reactions.
• All isotopes of an element have the same number of protons.
• Isotopes of an element have different masses.
• Isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons.
• Isotopes are identified by their mass numbers.
– Protons + neutrons.
Neon:
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Ionic Compounds
• Metals + nonmetals.
• No individual molecule units, instead have a 3-dimensional array
of cations and anions made of formula units. Ionic compounds are
made of ions called cations and anions.
• Cations = + charged ions; anions = − charged ions.
• The sum of the + charges of the cations must equal the sum of the
− charges of the anions.
• If Na+ is combined with S2-, you will need 2 Na+ ions for every S2-
ion to balance the charges, therefore the formula must be Na 2 S.
•
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Type II
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
The ion with fewer O atoms takes the nonmetal root and the
suffix “-ite”.
The ion with most O atoms has the prefix “per-”, the nonmetal
root and the suffix “-ate”.
The ion with one less O atom has just the suffix “-ate”.
The ion with two less O atoms has the just the suffix “-ite”.
The ion with three less O atoms has the prefix “hypo-” and the
suffix “-ite”.
Binary Compounds
(Type III; Covalent – Contain Two Nonmetals:
• The first element in the formula is named first, using the full
element name.
• The second element is named as if it were an anion.
• Prefixes are used to denote the numbers of atoms present.
• The prefix mono- is never used for naming the first element, e.g.
CO is carbon monoxide.
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
No. of O atoms
“ ” ite chlorite bromite iodite
[ ClO2-] [ BrO2-] [ IO2-]
Binary Compounds
(Type III; Covalent – Contain Two Nonmetals
• The first element in the formula is named first, using the full
element name.
• The second element is named as if it were an anion.
• Prefixes are used to denote the numbers of atoms present.
The prefix mono- is never used for naming the first element, e.g. CO is
carbon monoxide
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Subscript—Prefixes
• 1 = mono-
– Not used on first nonmetal.
• 2 = di-
• 3 = tri-
• 4 = tetra-
• 5 = penta-
• 6 = hexa-
• 7 = hepta-
• 8 = octa-
Drop last “a” if name begins with vowel
Example—Naming Binary Molecular, BF 3 , Continued
R R
Fluorine ⇒ fluoride.
4. Add a prefix to each name to indicate the subscript.
monoboron, trifluoride.
4. Write the first element with prefix, then the second element with
prefix.
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101
Naming Oxyacids:
• If polyatomic ion name ends in –ate, then change ending to –ic
suffix.
• If polyatomic ion name ends in –ite, then change ending to –ous
suffix.
Write word acid at end of all names
Example—Naming Oxyacids, H 2 SO 4 ,Continued
R R R R
SO 4 = SO 4 2- = sulfate.
4. If the anion has –ate suffix, change it to –ic. If the anion has –ite
suffix, change it to –ous.
SO 4 2- = sulfate ⇒ sulfuric.
4. Write the name of the anion followed by the word acid.
sulfuric acid
(This is kind of an exception, to make it sound nicer!)
Writing Formulas for Acids
• When name ends in acid, formulas starts with H.
• Write formulas as if ionic, even though it is molecular.
• Hydro- prefix means it is binary acid, no prefix means it is an
oxyacid.
• For an oxyacid, if ending is –ic, polyatomic ion ends in –ate; if
ending is –ous, polyatomic ion ends in –ous.
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Prof.H.A.Mohammed General Chemistry – Chem 101