Types of sensors

 Capacitive
 Capacitive displacement sensor
 Doppler effect (sensor based on Doppler
effect)
 Eddy-current
 Inductive
 Magnetic, including magnetic proximity
fuse
 Optical
o Photoelectric
o Photocell (reflective)
o Laser rangefinder
o Passive (such as charge-coupled
devices)
o Passive thermal infrared
 Radar
 Reflection of ionizing radiation
 Sonar (typically active or passive)
 Ultrasonic sensor
 Fiber optics sensor
 Hall effect sensor

Applications
  Parking sensors, systems mounted on car
bumpers that sense distance to nearby cars
for parking
 Ground proximity warning system for
aviation safety
 Vibration measurements of rotating shafts
in machinery[citation needed]
 Top dead Centre (TDC)/camshaft sensor
in reciprocating engines.
 Sheet breaks sensing in paper machine.
 Anti-aircraft warfare
 Roller coasters
 Conveyor systems
 Beverage and food can making lines
 Mobile devices
o Touch screens that come in close
proximity to the face[1]
o Attenuating radio power in close
proximity to the body, in order to
reduce radiation exposure[2]
 Automatic faucets

Proximity sensor
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the
presence of nearby objects without any physical
contact.

A proximity sensor often emits an

electromagnetic field or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance),
and looks for changes in the field or return
signal. The object being sensed is often referred
to as the proximity sensor's target. Different
proximity sensor targets demand different
sensors. For example, a capacitive proximity
sensor or photoelectric sensor might be suitable
for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor
always requires a metal target.[

Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and

long functional life because of the absence of
mechanical parts and lack of physical contact
between the sensor and the sensed object.

Proximity sensors are also used in machine

vibration monitoring to measure the variation in
distance between a shaft and its support bearing.
This is common in large steam turbines,
compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type
bearings.
International Electro technical Commission
(IEC) 60947-5-2 defines the technical details of
proximity sensors.

A proximity sensor adjusted to a very short range

is often used as a touch switch.

Proximity sensor installed on the front of an

iPhone 5 next to the earpiece automatically
turning off the touchscreen when the sensor
comes within a predefined range of an object
(such as a human ear) when using the handset.
Temperature Sensors Information

Temperature sensors are measurement devices

that determine temperature by sensing a
corresponding physical characteristic, such as
electrical resistance, electromagnetic field
(EMF), or thermal radiation. The way a
temperature sensor works depends upon the
physical property that is measured. Sensor
options include:

 Thermocouples
 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
 Thermistors
 Bimetal switches
 Noncontact infrared temperature sensors

Types
There are five common types of temperature
instruments. Each has advantages and
disadvantages.
Thermocouples

Thermocouples are accurate, highly-sensitive to

small temperature changes, and quickly respond
to changes to the environment. They consist of a
pair of dissimilar metal wires joined at one end.
The metal pair generates a net thermoelectric
voltage between their opening and according to
the size of the temperature difference between
the ends. A temperature reading is made by
calibrating the device with known temperatures,
then placing one of the metal junctions on ice (or
something else of a known temperature) and the
other on the object whose temperature needs to
be identified. The voltage displayed is read using
the calibration formula, and the temperature of
the object can be calculated.

Advantages of thermocouples include their high

accuracy and reliable operation over an
extremely wide range of temperatures. They are
also well-suited for making automated
measurements both inexpensive and durable.

Disadvantages include errors caused by their use

over an extended period of time, and that two
temperatures are required to make
measurements. Thermocouple materials are also
subject to corrosion, which can affect the
thermoelectric voltage

Thermocouple temperature sensors are divided

into various types, and include devices made of
Chromel and Constantan (Type E), iron and
Constantan (Type J), Chromel and Alumel (Type
K), and copper and Constantan (Type T).
Chromel, Alumel, and Constantan are registered
trademarks of the Hoskin Manufacturing
Company. Nobel metal thermocouples are also
available from some temperature sensor
suppliers. Each type operates within a specified
temperature range.

RTDs

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are

wire windings that exhibit changes in resistance
with changes in temperature. The hotter they
become, the higher the value of their electrical
resistance. Platinum is the most commonly used
material because it is nearly linear over a wide
range of temperatures, is very accurate, and has a
fast response time. RTDs can also be made of
copper or nickel, but these materials have
restricted ranges and problems with oxidation.
RTD elements are usually long, spring-like wires
surrounded by an insulator and enclosed in a
sheath of metal.

Advantages of RTDs include their stable output

for long periods of time. They are also easy to
calibrate and provide very accurate readings.

Disadvantages include a smaller overall

temperature range, higher initial cost, and a less
rugged design.

Thermistors

Thermistors are extremely sensitive, but have a

limited temperature range. A thermistor is a
semiconductor device with an electrical
resistance that is proportional to temperature.
There are two types of thermistors: negative
temperature coefficient (NTC), where the
resistance drops nonlinearly with a rise in
temperature; and positive temperature coefficient
(PTC), where the resistance increases as the
temperature rises. There are several advantage
and disadvantages to using an NTC thermistor
thermometer.
Advantages of thermistors include their small
size and high degree of stability. NTCs are also
long lasting and very accurate.

Disadvantages include their non-linearity, and

unsuitability for use in extreme temperatures.

Bimetal Switches

Bimetal switches use a bimetal spring as their

temperature-sensing element. This coil spring is
made of two different types of metals that are
fastened together. These metals could include
copper, steel or brass as long as one has low heat
sensitivity while the other metal has high heat
sensitivity. Whenever the welded strip is heated,
the two metals change length based on their
individual rates of thermal expansion. Since the
two metals expand to different lengths, the
bimetallic strip is forced to bend or curl towards
the side with a lower coefficient of thermal
expansion. The movement of the strip is used to
deflect a pointer over a calibrated scale, which
then indicates temperature to the user.

Advantages of bimetal switches include their low

cost and toughness. they are also easy to use and
install, and accurate over a wide range of
temperatures

Disadvantages include that only indicating types

are available, the possibility of calibration
change due to use or environment, and that
bimetal switches are not as accurate as glass
stem thermometers.

Noncontact Infrared Temperature

Sensors

Noncontact infrared temperature sensors absorb

ambient infrared (IR) radiation emitted by a
heated surface. They are used in a variety of
applications where direct temperature
measurement is not possible. With noncontact
infrared temperature sensors, incoming light is
converted to an electric signal that corresponds
to a particular temperature.

Advantages of Noncontact infrared temperature

sensors include separation from the source being
measured, laser spot aiming and ease of use.

Disadvantages include higher cost and the

requirement for electrical power.
LIGHT SENSORS
Light sensors help you every day by detecting
and reacting to different levels of light in
appliances, switches and machines. Light sensors
vary from those that respond to changes, collect
current or hold voltage depending on light levels.
People use light sensors for motion lights, robot
intelligence and much more. Light sensors often
detect light that's not visible to the human eye,
like x-rays, infrared and ultraviolet light.

TYPES-

Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic light sensors are also called solar
cells. The light sensors for photovoltaic cells
respond to light levels by generating current or
voltage and storing it in silicon cells for use as
emergency or alternative energy. In low light
situations photovoltaic sensors don't generate
current. Photovoltaic cells are small and generate
low wattage, but they commonly come in panels
for large amounts of current. These light sensors
respond only to light visible on the human scale.
Light Dependent
Light-dependent sensors are inexpensive and
commonly used for gauging and responding to
light levels. These light sensors work as
automatic switches for different devices. They
belong to a group called photo resistors because
their resistance increases as light levels increase,
which is why they're commonly present in
outdoor lights like streetlamps. As light levels
increase, their resistance increases and turns the
lights off or down.

Photo Diode
Digital technology like cameras, video recorders
and remote controls use photo diodes to detect
light levels ranging from infrared to the visible
spectrum. Photo diodes respond to levels of
infrared and act as switches. Remote controls,
for example, transmit different light levels to the
light sensors in your television to perform a
function. Photo diodes respond instantly to slight
changes in light and generate a relatively small
amount of current.

Proximity
Proximity light sensors respond to changes in
infrared light to detect motion or proximity to
another object. Proximity sensors help robotic
machines navigate obstacles and avoid bumping
into objects. They are also used for devices in
vehicles that sound an alarm when the vehicle is
close to bumping into an object. Proximity light
sensors are common in outdoor lights to detect
motion for security purposes.

Pressure sensor-
A pressure sensor is a device which senses

pressure and converts it into an analog electric

signal whose magnitude depends upon the

pressure applied. Since they convert pressure into

an electrical signal, they are also termed as

pressure transducers.

Types of Pressure Sensors

Types of Pressure Sensors

Based on the type of applications they are used in,

pressure sensors can be categorized into many

types. However, following are most common

types of pressure sensors that have been

widely used:

1.Strain Gauge Type:

These sensors are similar to a wheat stone bridge

in their working. In wheat stone bridge, the ratio

of resistances of two adjacent arms connected to

one end of the battery should be equal to that of

other two arms connected to another end of

battery. When the two ratios are equal, no output

is generated from the wheat stone bridge. In the

case of a strain gauge, one arm of the wheat stone

bridge is connected to a diaphragm. The

diaphragm compresses and expands due to the

pressure applied. This variation in the diaphragm

causes the output in the bridge to vary. A voltage

would be generated proportional to every

deviation from the normal balanced condition, so

every single compression or expansion movement

of the diaphragm will produce an output

indicating a change in pressure conditions. Since

resistance change is the main cause for potential

difference, these sensors are also termed as piezo-

resistive type of pressure sensors.

Fig. 1: Circuit Diagram of Quarter-bridge Strain Gauge Pressure

Sensor

2. Capacitive Pressure Sensor: A capacitor

has two metal plates and a dielectric sandwiched

between them. In capacitive pressure sensor, one

of these metal plates is permitted to move in and

out so that the capacitance between them changes

due to varying distance between the plates. The

movable plate is connected to a diaphragm which

senses the pressure and then expands or

compresses accordingly. The movement of the

diaphragm would affect the attached metal plate’s

position and capacitance would vary.

These sensors, though much ineffective at high

temperatures, are widely used at ambient

temperature range due to their linear output.

 Fig. 2: Diagram Showing Internal Structure of Capacitive

Pressure Sensor

3. Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor:

Piezoelectric crystals develop a potential

difference (i.e. voltage is induced across the

surfaces) whenever they are subjected to any

mechanical pressure. These sensors have the

crystal mounted on a dielectric base so that there

is no current leakage. Attached to the crystal is a

horizontal shaft to which a diaphragm is

connected. Whenever the diaphragm senses

pressure, it pushes the shaft down which

pressurizes the crystal and voltage is produced.

What is a Displacement
Transducer?
A Displacement Transducer is an
electromechanical device used to convert
mechanical motion or vibrations, specifically
rectilinear motion, into a variable electrical
current, voltage or electric signals, and the
reverse. Actuating mechanisms used primarily for
automatic control systems or as mechanical
motion sensors in measurement technologies. The
classification of electromechanical transducers
includes conversion principles or types of output
signals.
Linear variable differential
transformer

Cutaway view of an LVDT. Current is driven through the

primary coil at A, causing an induction current to be
generated through the secondary coils at B.
Principle of rotary variable differential transformer

The linear variable differential transformer

(LVDT) (also called linear variable
displacement transformer, linear variable
displacement transducer, or simply
differential transformer is a type of electrical
transformer used for measuring linear
displacement (position). A counterpart to this
device that is used for measuring rotary
displacement is called a rotary variable
differential transformer (RVDT).
Actuator
An actuator is a component of a machine that is
responsible for moving and controlling a
mechanism or system, for example by opening a
valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover".

An actuator requires a control signal and a

source of energy. The control signal is relatively
low energy and may be electric voltage or
current, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or even
human power. Its main energy source may be an
electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or
pneumatic pressure. When it receives a control
signal, an actuator responds by converting the
signal's energy into mechanical motion.

An actuator is the mechanism by which a control

system acts upon an environment. The control
system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or
electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer
driver, robot control system), a human, or any
other input.[1]
Hydraulic

A hydraulic actuator consists of cylinder or fluid

motor that uses hydraulic power to facilitate
mechanical operation. The mechanical motion
gives an output in terms of linear, rotatory or
oscillatory motion. As liquids are nearly
impossible to compress, a hydraulic actuator can
exert a large force. The drawback of this
approach is its limited acceleration.

The hydraulic cylinder consists of a hollow

cylindrical tube along which a piston can slide.
The term single acting is used when the fluid
pressure is applied to just one side of the piston.
The piston can move in only one direction, a
spring being frequently used to give the piston a
return stroke. The term double acting is used
when pressure is applied on each side of the
piston; any difference in pressure between the
two sides of the piston moves the piston to one
side or the other.[3]
Pneumatic

Pneumatic actuators enable considerable forces

to be produced from relatively small pressure
changes. A pneumatic actuator converts energy
formed by vacuum or compressed air at high
pressure into either linear or rotary motion.
Pneumatic energy is desirable for main engine
controls because it can quickly respond in
starting and stopping as the power source does
not need to be stored in reserve for operation.
Moreover, pneumatic actuators are safer,
cheaper, and often more reliable and powerful
than other actuators. These forces are often used
with valves to move diaphragms to affect the
flow of air through the valve.[