Commensalism, in biology, a relationship between individuals of two species in which one species

obtains food or other benefits from the other without either harming or benefiting the latter.
The commensal—the species that benefits from the association—may obtain nutrients, shelter, support, or
locomotion from the host species, which is unaffected. The commensal relation is often between a larger host
and a smaller commensal. The host organism is essentially unchanged by the interaction, whereas the
commensal species may show great morphological adaptation. This relationship can be contrasted with
mutualism, in which both species benefit.

One of the best-known examples of a commensal is the remora (family Echineidae) that rides attached to sharks
and other fishes. Remoras have evolved on the top of their heads a flat oval sucking disk structure that adheres
to the bodies of their hosts. Both remoras and pilot fishes feed on the leftovers of their hosts’ meals. Other
examples of commensals include bird species, such as the great egret (Ardea alba), that feed on insects turned
up by grazing mammals or on soil organisms stirred up by plowing. Various biting lice, fleas, and louse flies are
commensals in that they feed harmlessly on the feathers of birds and on sloughed-off flakes of skin from
mammals.

Mutualism
Mutualism has always been regarded as a barter system, whereby, two species exchange certain benefits like

 protection,

 supply of energy,

 transportation, and

 nutritional.

Abhijit Naik

Competition Definition in Biology

Competition is a relationship between organisms in which one is harmed when both are trying to use the same
resource related to growth, reproduction, or survivability. Competition stems from the fact that resources are
limited. There are simply not enough of some resources for all individuals to have equal access and supply.
Competition can occur between organisms of the same species, or between members of different species.

Competition between species can either lead to the extinction of one of the species, or a decline in both of the
species. However, this process can often be interrupted by environmental disturbances or evolution, which can
change the rules of the game. Competition is often involved when species are limited in their range, often by
direct competition from other organisms.

Examples of Competition
Intraspecific Competition

Intraspecific competition is a density-dependent form of competition. “Intra” refers to within a species, as

opposed to “inter” which means between. Intraspecific competition can be summed up in the image below.

Intraspecific competition

In this image, two wild dogs known as Dholes fight over a carcass. The carcass is a resource, something both
organisms need to survive. Intraspecific competition is density dependent for one reason. The more dholes you
have, the less food each one gets. To the individual dhole, food is everything. With very few predators of their
own, the most successful dholes (the ones who survive and reproduce the most) often are simply the ones who
eat the most.

Thus, while these dholes may have coordinated to take down this deer, they are now competing to see which
one will get to eat first. The one that eats first will get more, and be more likely to survive and reproduce. The
other one (or the last one if there are many) will not get as much. This will lower its survivability and the
chances it will get to reproduce. Since evolution relies mainly on which organisms reproduce, this form of
competition can quickly lead to changes in a population if only a few of the individuals are surviving and
reproducing.
Predation Definition

Predation refers to an interaction between two organisms, predator and prey, where there is a flow of energy
from one to another. The prey usually suffers a loss of energy and fitness, with a commensurate gain in energy
for the predator.

Predation includes carnivory, as well as interactions like grazing, parasitism and symbiotic mutualism. The
process of eating seeds and eggs is also considered a form of predation.

The word ‘predation’ derives from the Latin word praedari, meaning ‘to plunder’.

Types of Predation
There are four major types of predation:

Carnivory

Carnivorous predators kill and eat their prey. The common perception of carnivory involves a large animal, such
as a lion or a tiger, hunting smaller animals like rabbits or deer. However, carnivorous predation is widespread
in the animal world and carnivores can come in a variety of sizes – from sea otters hunting sea stars to blue
whales consuming zooplankton, each carnivore is adapted to its mode of feeding.

Herbivory

Herbivorous predation involves the consumption of autotrophs, such as plants or photosynthetic algae. Unlike
carnivory, not every herbivorous interaction leads to the death of the plant. Occasionally, herbivory can benefit
the plant as well. Fruit seeds are dispersed over wide areas as the herbivore moves. Tough seed coatings are
removed in the digestive tract of the herbivore, and its dung fertilizes the soil, providing an ideal environment
for seed germination.

Parasitism
Parasitism | Biology & Geology 4 ESO ...
bio4esobil2011.wordpress.com

Parasitism is a form of predation where the host supplies essential nutrients for the sustained survival and
reproduction of the parasite. In many successful parasitic interactions, the host suffers a loss of energy, falls sick
or loses access to nutrients. However, unlike carnivory, the host is not always killed. In most cases, the parasite
is much smaller than the host.

Mutualism

Mutualism involves the interaction between two organisms where the host provides the nutrition and space for
the growth and reproduction of another species. However, the host is not harmed and the interaction is mutually
beneficial.

herbivory
An herbivore is an organism that feeds mostly on plants. Herbivores range in size from tiny insects such as
aphids to large, lumbering elephants.
herbivore | National Geographic Society
nationalgeographic.org

Allelopathy

Allelopathy is a biological phenomenon where one plant inhibits the growth of another. How? Through the
release of allelochemicals, certain plants can greatly affect the growth of other plants either in a good or bad
way by leaching, decomposition, etc. In essence, plant allelopathy is used as a means of survival in nature,
reducing competition from plants nearby. Plant Allelopathy Various parts of plants can have these allelopathic
properties, from the foliage and flowers to the roots, bark, soil, and mulch. Most all allelopathic plants store
their protective chemicals within their leaves, especially during fall. As leaves drop to the ground and
decompose, these toxins can affect nearby plants. Some plants also release toxins through their roots, which are
then absorbed by other plants and trees. Common plants with allelopathic properties can be seen and include:
English laurel (Prunus laurocerasus) Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) Sumac (Rhus) Rhododendron

Read more at Gardening Know How: Allelopathy In Plants: What Plants Suppress Other Plants
https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/info/allelopathic-plants.htm

Hydrologic Cycle
The water, or hydrologic, cycle describes the pilgrimage of water as water molecules make their way from the
Earth’s surface to the atmosphere and back again, in some cases to below the surface. This gigantic system,
powered by energy from the Sun, is a continuous exchange of moisture between the oceans, the atmosphere,
and the land.
Diagram of the water cycle

Studies have revealed that evaporation—the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas—from
oceans, seas, and other bodies of water (lakes, rivers, streams) provides nearly 90% of the moisture in our
atmosphere. Most of the remaining 10% found in the atmosphere is released by plants through transpiration.
Plants take in water through their roots, then release it through small pores on the underside of their leaves. In
addition, a very small portion of water vapor enters the atmosphere through sublimation, the process by which
water changes directly from a solid (ice or snow) to a gas. The gradual shrinking of snow banks in cases when
the temperature remains below freezing results from sublimation.

Together, evaporation, transpiration, and sublimation, plus volcanic emissions, account for almost all the water
vapor in the atmosphere that isn’t inserted through human activities. While evaporation from the oceans is the
primary vehicle for driving the surface-to-atmosphere portion of the hydrologic cycle, transpiration is also
significant. For example, a cornfield 1 acre in size can transpire as much as 4,000 gallons of water every day.

After the water enters the lower atmosphere, rising air currents carry it upward, often high into the atmosphere,
where the air is cooler. In the cool air, water vapor is more likely to condense from a gas to a liquid to form
cloud droplets. Cloud droplets can grow and produce precipitation (including rain, snow, sleet, freezing rain,
and hail), which is the primary mechanism for transporting water from the atmosphere back to the Earth’s
surface.

When precipitation falls over the land surface, it follows various routes in its subsequent paths. Some of it
evaporates, returning to the atmosphere; some seeps into the ground as soil moisture or groundwater; and some
runs off into rivers and streams. Almost all of the water eventually flows into the oceans or other bodies of
water, where the cycle continues. At different stages of the cycle, some of the water is intercepted by humans or
other life forms for drinking, washing, irrigating, and a large variety of other uses.
(via http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Water/page2.php)

Oxygen-Carbon Dioxide Cycle

Plants use carbon dioxide in a process known as photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, plants give off oxygen
as a waste product. Carbon dioxide moves from the air into the leaves of plants through tiny openings in the
plant’s leaves. Oxygen moves out of the plant leaf through these same openings.

All animals, including humans, require oxygen to survive. Animals breathe in the oxygen made by plants and
breathe out carbon dioxide as a waste product. Even animals that live underwater need oxygen. These animals
pass water over their gills to take in dissolved oxygen that is made by water plants. The water plants in turn take
in the dissolved carbon dioxide from the water.

Animals and plants are connected to each other by the oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle. Plants need the carbon
dioxide from animals to live and animals must have the oxygen from plants to survive.

The nitrogen cycle

The key role of microbes in nitrogen fixation. How overuse of nitrogen-containing fertilizers can cause algal
blooms.

Key points

 Nitrogen is a key component of the bodies of living organisms. Nitrogen atoms are found in all proteins
and DNA\text{DNA}DNAD, N, A.

 Nitrogen exists in the atmosphere as N2\text N_2N2N, start subscript, 2, end subscript gas. In nitrogen
fixation, bacteria convert N2\text N_2N2N, start subscript, 2, end subscript into ammonia, a form of
nitrogen usable by plants. When animals eat the plants, they acquire usable nitrogen compounds.

 Nitrogen is a common limiting nutrient in nature, and agriculture. A limiting nutrient is the nutrient
that's in shortest supply and limits growth.

 When fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphorus are carried in runoff to lakes and rivers, they can
result in blooms of algae—this is called eutrophication.

 Introduction

 Nitrogen is everywhere! In fact, N2\text N_2N2N, start subscript, 2, end subscript gas makes up about
78% of Earth's atmosphere by volume, far surpassing the O2\text O_2O2O, start subscript, 2, end
subscript we often think of as "air".1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript
 But having nitrogen around and being able to make use of it are two different things. Your body, and the
bodies of other plants and animals, have no good way to convert N2\text N_2N2N, start subscript, 2, end
subscript into a usable form. We animals—and our plant compatriots—just don't have the right enzymes
to capture, or fix, atmospheric nitrogen.
 Still, your DNA\text{DNA}DNAD, N, A and proteins contain quite a bit of nitrogen. Where does that
nitrogen come from? In the natural world, it comes from bacteria!
  Bacteria play a key role in the nitrogen cycle.

 Nitrogen enters the living world by way of bacteria and other single-celled prokaryotes, which convert
atmospheric nitrogen—N2\text N_2N2N, start subscript, 2, end subscript—into biologically usable
forms in a process called nitrogen fixation. Some species of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are free-living in
soil or water, while others are beneficial symbionts that live inside of plants.
 [What are some examples of nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes?]
 Photosynthetic cyanobacteria are found in most aquatic ecosystems that get sunlight, and they play a key
role in nitrogen fixation.
 Another type of bacteria, Rhizobium, live symbiotically in the roots of legume plants—like peas, beans,
and peanuts—and provide them with fixed nitrogen.
 Free-living bacteria in the genus Azotobacter are also key nitrogen fixers in terrestrial—land-based—
ecosystems.
 Nitrogen-fixing microorganisms capture atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to ammonia—NH3\text
{NH}_3NH3N, H, start subscript, 3, end subscript—which can be taken up by plants and used to make
organic molecules. The nitrogen-containing molecules are passed to animals when the plants are eaten.
They may be incorporated into the animal's body or broken down and excreted as waste, such as the urea
found in urine.

The phosphorus cycle

The slow cycling of phosphorus through the biosphere. How phosphorus-containing fertilizers can cause aquatic
dead zones.

Key points
 Phosphorus is an essential nutrient found in the macromolecules of humans and other organisms,
including DNA\text{DNA}DNAD, N, A.

 The phosphorus cycle is slow. Most phosphorus in nature exists in the form of phosphate ion—
PO43−\text {PO}_4^{3-}PO43−P, O, start subscript, 4, end subscript, start superscript, 3, minus, end
superscript.
  Phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient, or nutrient that is most scarce and thus limits growth, in
aquatic ecosystems.

 When nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizer are carried in runoff to lakes and oceans, they can cause
eutrophication, the overgrowth of algae. The algae may deplete oxygen from the water and create a
dead zone.

Introduction
Is phosphorus important? That depends—do you like having DNA\text{DNA}DNAD, N, A, cell membranes, or
bones in you body? Hint: The answer is probably yes!
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for living organisms. It’s a key part of nucleic acids, like
DNA\text{DNA}DNAD, N, A and of the phospholipids that form our cell membranes. As calcium phosphate, it
also makes up the supportive components of our bones.
In nature, phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient—in other words, the nutrient that’s in shortest supply and
puts a limit on growth—and this is particularly true for aquatic, freshwater ecosystems.

Natural cycling of phosphorus

The phosphorus cycle is slow compared to other biogeochemical cycles such as the water, carbon, and nitrogen
cycles.1^11start superscript, 1, end superscript
In nature, phosphorus is found mostly in the form of phosphate ions—PO43−\text {PO}_4^{3-}PO43−P, O,
start subscript, 4, end subscript, start superscript, 3, minus, end superscript. Phosphate compounds are found in
sedimentary rocks, and as the rocks weather—wear down over long time periods—the phosphorus they contain
slowly leaches into surface water and soils. Volcanic ash, aerosols, and mineral dust can also be significant
phosphate sources, though phosphorus has no real gas phase, unlike other elements such as carbon, nitrogen,
and sulfur.
Phosphate compounds in the soil can be taken up by plants and, from there, transferred to animals that eat the
plants. When plants and animals excrete wastes or die, phosphates may be taken up by detritivores or returned
to the soil. Phosphorus-containing compounds may also be carried in surface runoff to rivers, lakes, and oceans,
where they are taken up by aquatic organisms.
When phosphorus-containing compounds from the bodies or wastes of marine organisms sink to the floor of the
ocean, they form new sedimentary layers. Over long periods of time, phosphorus-containing sedimentary rock
may be moved from the ocean to the land by a geological process called uplift. However, this process is very
slow, and the average phosphate ion has an oceanic residence time—time in the ocean—of 20,000 to 100,000
years.

The Sulfur Cycle

Sulfur, an essential element for the macromolecules of living things, is released into the atmosphere by the
burning of fossil fuels, such as coal. As a part of the amino acid cysteine, it is involved in the formation of
disulfide bonds within proteins, which help to determine their 3-D folding patterns, and hence their functions.
As shown in Figure 1, sulfur cycles between the oceans, land, and atmosphere. Atmospheric sulfur is found in
the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and enters the atmosphere in three ways: from the decomposition of organic
molecules, from volcanic activity and geothermal vents, and from the burning of fossil fuels by humans.
 Figure 1. Sulfur dioxide from the atmosphere becomes
available to terrestrial and marine ecosystems when it is dissolved in precipitation as weak sulfuric
acid or when it falls directly to the Earth as fallout. Weathering of rocks also makes sulfates available
to terrestrial ecosystems. Decomposition of living organisms returns sulfates to the ocean, soil and
atmosphere. (credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)

On land, sulfur is deposited in four major ways: precipitation, direct fallout from the atmosphere, rock
weathering, and geothermal vents (Figure 2). Atmospheric sulfur is found in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2),
and as rain falls through the atmosphere, sulfur is dissolved in the form of weak sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfur
can also fall directly from the atmosphere in a process called fallout. Also, the weathering of sulfur-containing
rocks releases sulfur into the soil. These rocks originate from ocean sediments that are moved to land by the
geologic uplifting of ocean sediments. Terrestrial ecosystems can then make use of these soil sulfates (SO4−),
and upon the death and decomposition of these organisms, release the sulfur back into the atmosphere as
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas.

Sulfur enters the ocean via runoff from land, from atmospheric fallout, and from underwater geothermal vents.
Some ecosystems rely on chemoautotrophs using sulfur as a biological energy source. This sulfur then supports
marine ecosystems in the form of sulfates.

Human activities have played a major role in altering the balance of the global sulfur cycle. The burning of large
quantities of fossil fuels, especially from coal, releases larger amounts of hydrogen sulfide gas into the
atmosphere. As rain falls through this gas, it creates the phenomenon known as acid rain. Acid rain is corrosive
rain caused by rainwater falling to the ground through sulfur dioxide gas, turning it into weak sulfuric acid,
which causes damage to aquatic ecosystems. Acid rain damages the natural environment by lowering the pH of
lakes, which kills many of the resident fauna; it also affects the man-made environment through the chemical
degradation of buildings. For example, many marble monuments, such as the Lincoln Memorial in Washington,
DC, have suffered significant damage from acid rain over the years. These examples show the wide-ranging
effects of human activities on our environment and the challenges that remain for our future.

Global Warming Causes

Global warming is primarily a problem of too much carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere
—which acts as a blanket, trapping heat and warming the planet. As we burn fossil fuels like
coal, oil and natural gas for energy or cut down and burn forests to create pastures and
plantations, carbon accumulates and overloads our atmosphere. Certain waste management
and agricultural practices aggravate the problem by releasing other potent global warming
gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide. See the pie chart for a breakdown of heat-trapping
global warming emissions by economic sector.
Global Warming Is Urgent and Can Be Addressed

CO2 survives in the atmosphere for a long time—up to many centuries—so its heat-trapping effects are
compounded over time. Of the many heat-trapping gases, CO2 puts us at the greatest risk of irreversible
changes if it continues to accumulate unabated in the atmosphere—as it is likely to do if the global economy
remains dependent on fossil fuels for its energy needs. To put this in perspective, the carbon we put in the
atmosphere today will literally determine not only our climate future but that of future generations as well.

Substantial scientific evidence indicates that an increase in the global average temperature of more than 3.6
degrees Fahrenheit (°F) (or 2 degrees Celsius [°C]) above pre-industrial levels poses severe risks to natural
systems and to human health and well-being. The good news is that, because we as humans caused global
warming, we can also do something about it. To avoid this level of warming, large emitters such as the United
States need to greatly reduce heat-trapping gas emissions by mid century. Delay in taking such action means the
prospect of much steeper cuts later if there is any hope of staying below the 3.6°F (2°C) temperature goal.
Delayed action is also likely to make it more difficult and costly to not only make these reductions, but also
address the climate consequences that occur in the meantime.

The Consequences of a Warming World

Over the last century, global average temperature has increased by more than 1°F (0.7°C). The 2001-2010
decade is the warmest since 1880—the earliest year for which comprehensive global temperature records were
available. In fact, nine of the warmest years on record have occurred in just the last 10 years. This warming has
been accompanied by a decrease in very cold days and nights and an increase in extremely hot days and warm
nights. The continental United States, for example, has seen record daily highs twice as often as record daily
lows from 2000 to 2009. While the record shows that some parts of the world are warming faster than others,
the long-term global upward trend is unambiguous.

Of course, land and ocean temperature is only one way to measure the effects of climate change. A warming
world also has the potential to change rainfall and snow patterns, increase droughts and severe storms, reduce
lake ice cover, melt glaciers, increase sea levels, and change plant and animal behavior.

Regional Actions Add Up to Global Solutions

We encourage you to visit the solutions section of this web feature to find out how you can take action to slow
the pace of climate change and help minimize the harmful consequences described in the hot spots!

Any action to reduce or eliminate the release of heat-trapping gases to the atmosphere helps slow the rate of
warming and, likely, the pace and severity of change at any given hot spot. Local sources of carbon emissions
vary from region to region, suggesting that solutions are often decided at the community level. The Climate Hot
Map points to regional examples of climate-friendly energy, transportation, or adaptation choices. Some
regions, however, must rely upon global solutions such as international agreements to reduce the carbon
overload in the atmosphere that threatens them. Small islands, for example, are a paltry source of carbon
emissions and yet are disproportionately affected by the consequences of global carbon overload as accelerated
sea level rise threatens the very existence of low-lying islands.

Individual, regional, and national actions can all add up to global solutions, slowing and eventually halting the
upward climb of CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere.

What causes the Earth's climate to change?

Global climate change has usually occurred very slowly over thousands or millions of years. For
further details look at our Climate through time poster or online map.

The British Isles had many glaciers, like this one in present-day
Iceland, during the last ice age.

Hotter or colder?
Here are some of the many factors that can cause the Earth's climate to get hotter or colder:

Strength of the sun

Only about 40 per cent of the solar energy intercepted at the top of the atmosphere passes through to the Earth’s
surface.
Almost all of the energy that affects the climate on the Earth originates from the Sun.

The energy emitted by the sun passes through space until it hits the Earth’s atmosphere.

Only about 40 per cent of the solar energy intercepted at the top of the atmosphere passes through to the Earth’s
surface.

The rest is reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere. The energy output of the sun is not constant, it varies over
time and it has an impact on our climate.

Changes in the Earth’s orbit

The Earth’s orbit around the Sun is an ellipse, not a circle but the ellipse changes shape.

Sometimes it is almost circular and the Earth stays approximately the same distance from the Sun as it
progresses around its orbit.

At other times the ellipse is more pronounced so that the Earth moves closer and further away from the sun as it
orbits.

When the Earth is closer to the sun our climate is warmer.

Circular orbit.
Elliptical orbit – when the Earth is closer to the Sun, its climate is warmer.

Changes in the orientation of the Earth’s axis of rotation

The Earth showing angle of axis of rotation. When the angle increases the summers become warmer and the
winters become colder.

The Earth rotates around an axis (imagine a line that joins the north and south poles) but the Earth’s axis is not
upright, it leans at an angle.

This angle changes with time and over about 41 000 years it moves from 22.1 degrees to 24.5 degrees and back
again.

When the angle increases the summers become warmer and the winters become colder.

Quantity of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

 The gases that contribute most to the Earth's greenhouse effect are: water
vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane and ozone.

These include carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour.

Of these three, water vapour makes the greatest contribution to the greenhouse effect because there is more of it.

These gases trap solar radiation (electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun) in the Earth’s atmosphere,
making the climate warmer.

Carbon dioxide content of the oceans

The oceans contain more carbon dioxide (CO2) than the atmosphere and they can also absorb CO2 from the
atmosphere.

When the CO2 is in the oceans it does not trap heat as it does when it is in the atmosphere.

If CO2 leaves the oceans and moves back into the atmosphere this can contribute towards a warmer climate.

Plate tectonics and volcanic euptions

Over time, plate tectonic processes cause continents to move to different positions on the globe.

For example, Britain was near to the equator 300 million years ago, and therefore was hotter than it is today. For
further details look at our Climate through time poster or online map.

The movement of the plates also causes volcanoes and mountains to form and these too can contribute to a
change in climate.
Mountain ranges formed by plate tectonics.

Large mountain chains can influence the circulation of air around the globe, and consequently influence the
climate. Warm air might be deflected somewhere cooler by the mountains.

Volcanoes formed by plate tectonics.

Volcanoes affect the climate through the gases and dust particles thrown into the atmosphere during eruptions.
The effect of the volcanic gases and dust may warm or cool the Earth's surface, depending on how sunlight
interacts with the volcanic material.

Ocean currents
Global ocean currents. Oceans store a large amount of heat, so that small changes in ocean currents can have a
large effect on coastal and global climate.

Ocean currents carry heat around the Earth.

The direction of these currents can shift so that different areas become warmer and cooler.

Oceans store a large amount of heat, so that small changes in ocean currents can have a large effect on coastal
and global climate.

Vegetation coverage on the land

On a global scale, patterns of vegetation and climate are closely correlated.

Vegetation absorbs carbon dioxide and this can buffer some of the effects of global warming.
Meteorite impacts

Nowadays, most of what is on the Earth stays on the Earth; very little material is added by meteorites and
cosmic dust. The only material lost to space is in space hardware.

However, meteorite impacts have contributed to climate change in the geological past; a good example is the
Chicxulub crater, Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico.

Large impacts such as Chicxulub can cause a range of effects that include dust and aerosols being ejected high
into the atmosphere that prevent sunlight from getting through. These materials insulate the Earth from solar
radiation and cause global temperatures to fall; the effects can last for a few years (Kring, 2007).

After the dust and aerosols fall back to Earth, the greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water and methane), caused
by the interaction of the impactor and its 'target rocks', remain in the atmosphere and can cause global
temperatures to increase; the effects can last decades (Kring, 2007).

Sum of the parts

Each of the above factors contribute to changes in the Earth’s climate, however the way they interact with each
other makes it more complicated.

A change in any one of these can lead to additional and enhanced changes in the others.

For example, we understand that the oceans can take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere:

When the quantity of CO2 in the atmosphere increases, the temperature of the Earth rises.

This in turn would contribute to a warming of the oceans. Warm oceans are less able to absorb CO2 than cold
ones, so as the temperature rises, the oceans release more CO2 into the atmosphere, which in turn causes the
temperature to rise again.

This process is called feedback.

References
Kring, D, A. 2007. The Chicxulub impact event and its environmental consequences at the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. Vol. 255, 4-21.

So what are the causes of water shortage?

1. Pollution

Pollution is a major cause of water shortage. Water is polluted when industrial wastes are deposited into water
bodies thus making it unfit for human consumption. Oil spillage and fecal matter also makes the water
contaminated. It cannot be used for drinking. This makes it scarce.

2. Overuse of Water

When water is overused, shortage occurs. Some people use too much water especially for irrigation purposes. It
therefore becomes inadequate for other equally important uses.

3. Water Wastage

Wastage of water is also a major cause of water shortage. Some people leave their taps running even when they
are not fetching water. All this is lost to the ground. The resultant problem is lack of enough water.

4. Drought

When drought strikes an area, there is usually no rain for a long period of time. This makes rivers to dry. Other
water sources such as streams, ponds, e.t.c also dry up. People therefore do not have enough water for domestic
and industrial use.
 5. Conflict

Conflict contributes to water shortages in areas. When people are fighting over control of water sources like
rivers, some will not have access to it.

6. Distance

In some areas especially arid regions, people stay far away from oasis and other sources of water like boreholes.
Traveling there takes a lot of time. It is also a burden to carry water from such distant places to homes. This
discourages them from going to fetch water. The result is water shortage.

7. Restriction by Governments

Some governments especially those that govern by dictatorship may restrict citizens from accessing certain
water sources.

8. Destruction of Water Catchment Areas

Water catchment areas such as forests are continually being destroyed through deforestation to pave way for
human settlement. This problem has been brought about by rapid population increase. As a result, there is not
enough rain thus causing water shortage.

What Are the Effects of Water Shortage?

A lack of water affects more than just physical health. Let’s see how drought can affect us in other ways.

– Lack of adequate drinking water

Water is important to our health. When there is shortage, people lack enough clean water to drink.

– Lack of education
When there is water shortage in an area, children often abandon school to help their parents look for water.
Some of them grow too weak to go to school.

– Hunger

Water shortage makes it difficult to grow crops especially in dry areas that depend on irrigation. When crops are
not planted, there won’t be enough food for people.

– Diseases and Parasites

Water is used for different domestic purposes including bathing. When there is shortage, people may not bath.
Their bodies will be dirty hence susceptible to infection by diseases and attack by parasites.

– Sanitation Problems

Lack of enough water makes cleaning of dishes, clothes and other household items difficult. They will remain
dirty and unhygienic. This will have a negative effect on the health of an individual.

What About the Solutions?

We’ve discussed the causes, and mentioned some of the effects. But more importantly, how can we act to
prevent water shortages? The solutions are simple, but often affected by bureaucracy and vested interests of big
business and government.

– People should be educated on the benefits of conserving water.

– Laws should be enacted to prevent water pollution. Those found polluting water should pay a fine or face
imprisonment.

– People should be encouraged to recycle rain water.

– Farmers should be encouraged to adopt farming practices that use less water.

– Water catchment areas should be preserved.

– People should contribute funds to support clean water initiatives especially in areas that face water shortage.

Drought due to El Niño to hit more provinces

Helen Flores (The Philippine Star) - March 6, 2019 - 12:00am
MANILA, Philippines — More provinces are expected to experience drought in the next two months due to El
Niño, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) warned
the public yesterday.

Ana Liza Solis, chief of the PAGASA climate monitoring and prediction section, said the dry spell would affect
Occidental and Oriental Mindoro, Palawan, Ilocos Sur as well as La Union this month.

Ilocos Norte, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga Sibugay, Maguindanao and Cebu have been experiencing
drought since February, according to Solis.

She said drought-hit areas may reach 22 by April.

Zamboanga City was declared under a state of calamity due to El Niño.

The city council approved yesterday the recommendation of the local Disaster Risk Reduction Management
Office (DRRMO) after more than 55 hectares of land with an estimated value of P1.265 million were affected
by the dry spell.

The city agriculture office earlier reported that around P7 million worth of rice, corn and vegetables were
damaged.

DRRMO chief Elmeir Apolinario said about P13 million was allocated to help cushion the impact of the dry
spell.

Water summit set

A water summit to address drought in Ilocos is slated next week as Gov. Imee Marcos called for immediate
actions to mitigate the impact of El Niño.

Marcos said the summit aims to put in place measures and provide the necessary assistance to areas affected by
the dry spell.

“The dry spell would trigger widespread drought. We must be proactive in helping our farmers who will bear
the brunt of El Niño,” she said.

She reiterated her call for the grant of LIFE or living income for farmers in emergency situations in affected
areas.

“Local government units in affected areas need the national government’s assistance to help farmers survive,”
she said.

Marcos said the government should release emergency funds in times of natural calamities such as El Niño.

Farmers in Laoag City started harvesting their crops earlier than scheduled.

Provincial Sustainable Development Office head Edwin Cariño said farmers and representatives from the
Department of Agriculture, National Irrigation Authority and Philippine Rice Research Institute are expected to
attend the summit.

PAGASA defines drought as three consecutive months of “way below normal” rainfall or less than 60 percent
reduction from average rainfall.
The country is experiencing less rainfall and warmer temperatures due to a “weak” El Niño, which is expected
to last until end of May or June.

The state weather bureau has yet to officially announce the start of the dry season. The weather agency declares
the dry season once the easterlies – or warm air from the Pacific – become the dominant wind system in the
country.

PAGASA weather forecasters earlier said a longer dry season is expected this year due to El Niño.

Several areas have been experiencing warm temperatures in the past days.

On Monday, PAGASA recorded the highest temperature so far this year in Tuguegarao City, Cagayan at 34
degrees Celsius.

The hottest temperature in Metro Manila reached 33.6 degrees Celsius.

Earlier, Solis said the temperature might reach 38.2 degrees Celsius in Metro Manila and 40.7 degrees Celsius
in Tuguegarao City in May.

Below normal rainfall is likely to continue over most parts of Luzon until June, she said. – With Roel Pareño,
Jose Rodel Clapano

What is La Niña?
La Niña is a phenomenon that describes cooler than normal ocean surface temperatures in the Eastern and
Central Pacific Ocean; regions close to the equator off the west coast of South America. In some parts of the
world, La Niña causes increased rainfall while in other regions it causes extreme dry conditions. The conditions
that cause La Niña recur every few years and can persist for as long as two years. El Niño occurs every 2-7
years and La Niña events sometimes follow El Niño events. La Niña in the past has also been called as anti-El
Niño and El Viejo (the old man in Spanish).

According to National Geographic,

La Niña is a climate pattern that describes the cooling of surface ocean waters along the tropical west coast of
South America. La Nina is considered to be the counterpart to El Nino, which is characterized by unusually
warm ocean temperatures in the equatorial region of the Pacific Ocean.
What Causes La Niña?
This phenomenon occurs when the easterly trade winds get stronger and blow more warm water west allowing
cold water below the sea’s surface to push towards the top near the South American coast to replace the warm
water. This, therefore, means that the easterly trade winds are to be blamed for partly causing La Niña. El Niño
is the opposite of La Niña. This occurs when the easterly trade winds become weaker and in some cases blows
in the opposite direction. The Pacific Ocean during El Niño becomes warm; gains heat and pushes eastward.

During a La Niña period, the sea surface temperatures across the eastern and central Pacific Ocean tend to be
lower than the normal temperatures (between 3-5 degrees Celsius). In the United States, for example, La Niña
occurs for at least five months of La Niña conditions. This phenomenon has widespread effects on the weather.
A usual, La Niña winter features drier and milder conditions across the Southern hemisphere. This causes
elevated fire conditions and the Southeast drought conditions. On the other hand, the Pacific Northwest
becomes wetter than normal and the Northeast experiences very cold conditions. La Niña sometimes follows El
Niño although they occur at asymmetrical intervals of approximately 2-7 years.

What is the Difference between La Niña and El Niño?

As per NOAA, “El Niño and La Niña are extreme phases of a naturally occurring climate cycle referred to as El
Niño/Southern Oscillation. Both terms refer to large-scale changes in sea-surface temperature across the eastern
tropical Pacific. Usually, sea-surface readings off South America’s west coast range from the 60s to 70s F, while
they exceed 80 degrees F in the “warm pool” located in the central and western Pacific.” During El Niño, this
warm pool expands to cover the tropics but shrinks to the west during La Niña. El Niño and La Niña are
opposite phases of El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. While El Niño as the warm phase of ENSO, La
Niña is sometimes referred to as the cold phase of ENSO. The El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the
coupled ocean-atmosphere process that includes both El Niño and La Niña.

What Are The Effects of La Niña?

La Niña (small girl in Spanish) and El Niño (little boy still in Spanish) are known to have severe effects on
atmospheric pressure, rainfall patterns and the global atmospheric circulation. The Global Atmospheric
circulation (GAC) is basically a huge movement of air. When combined with ocean currents, this air distributes
thermal energy to the Earth’s surface. These changes are the sources of inconsistency in the climatic conditions
worldwide.

1. Increased Rainfall

La Niña is described by lesser than average air pressure across the western Pacific. The low-pressure zones
contribute to increased rainfall in the Southeast parts of the world like Southeast Asia in countries like India that
benefit from the increased rainfall for agricultural purposes. For example in 2008, this phenomenon caused a
significant drop in temperatures of the sea surface (2 degrees Celsius) over Southeast Asia leading to increased
rainfall. It also led to heavy rainfall across the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia.

2. Catastrophic Floods

Extreme La Niña events are known to cause disastrous floods in northern parts of Australia. For example,
following the strong La Niña events in 2010, Queensland, Australia experienced the worst floods ever. As a
result of this catastrophic event, over 10, 000 people were displaced and forced to evacuate. After the disaster, it
was estimated that over $2 billion worth of property had been lost. This is a clear indication of how devastating
La Niña can be. In the past, Bolivia has also experienced a massive loss of lives and property as a result of La
Niña. In such incidences, people are always asked to move to higher grounds and others are evacuated to safer
places.

3. Drier Than Normal Conditions

Over the eastern and central Pacific, La Niña is characterized by over normal pressure. This leads to reduced
cloud formation and subsequently reduced rainfall in that particular region. In the tropical South American west
coast, lowland region of South America and the Gulf Coast of USA experience drier than normal conditions.
This phenomenon also causes drier conditions across equatorial East Africa during the months of December to
February. However, this period can be longer or shorter depending on the severity of La Niña. In the recent
times, the climate is unpredictable in most of these areas as there are times when drier conditions are expected,
but instead rainfall is experienced in these areas. This is just to show how unpredictable and irregular La Niña
can be.

4. Increased Commercial Fishing

La Niña is known to have negative effects to the weather patterns of several parts of the world. However, in
Peru things are different. The changes in temperatures mean a high fishing season for Peruvian fishermen. The
fishermen report increased fish presence along the coast line. This attributed to the fact that the waters are a
little warmer, and the winds come along with fish food. This attracts more fish to the surface making it easier
for the fishermen to fish different types of fish and in plenty.

5. Affects the Climate Patterns in Montana

Montana’s spring is known to be cooler and wetter than usual during a typical La Niña event. There are those
days when the temperature is extremely high and very cold nights. On top of that, the rainfall pattern also
changes whereby there will be more rain than average. This affects the planting season as farmers would opt to
plant their crops especially the red spring wheat when the weather is favorable. This is because the seeds will
not germinate as expected and if they do, they will take longer to grow.

6. Affects Canada’s Weather Cycles

The cooler temperatures associated with La Niña greatly affects the Canadian weather. This affects the British
Columbian west coast, the Prairie Provinces through to Ontario. It is during La Niña events that the Southern
British Columbia receives more snow than usual, and parts of southern Canada receive all manner of high
precipitation. On top of that, due to the lower temperatures, commercial fishing especially the fishing of the
Sockeye salmon is also affected. The different weather cycles affect the Canadian agricultural sector as farmers
will have to wait for the snow to melt for them to plant crops. The wildlife also has to adapt to the extreme
conditions. Otherwise, they will die of the extreme weather.

Economic Problems Around the Globe

The effects of La Niña are experienced globally. With catastrophic floods, hurricanes and cyclones in countries
on the western part of the Pacific and, on the other hand, bushfires and droughts along the west coast of the
USA and East Africa, farms are adversely affected, and crops can be produced as expected. This causes food
and agricultural produce shortage. Agricultural produce is considered by many a primary production material.
And if this is affected imports and exports will also be affected leading to an increase in the cost of importing or
exporting other products. This is usually passed down to the final consumer who in a way or another may have
not been affected by La Niña.

In summary, the ongoing temperature variations in the Pacific current and the unstable weather patterns caused
by the continuous changes in temperatures are all part of a continuous cycle. There are of course phases in
between the cycle, but the temperatures swing again. Although a number of people can shrug off and shovel
extra snow, to others these changes forces them to completely adapt their livelihoods for instance to plant their
crops at a different time of the season, catch fewer fish, move from one area to another in search of food or
simply go hungry for a very long period of time.