EARTH MATERIALS AND GEOLOGIC PROCESS ON EARTH

EARTH MATERIALS
- Earth has naturally occurring materials of which many are necessary for existence. Earth materials include minerals
and rocks. These materials, along with other materials such as soil, water, air and organic matter are essential for the growth
and survival of organisms, the structure of the land, and the development of human civilization. All these earth materials
give information about the history of Earth and of life.

MINERALS - are inorganic compounds that are found naturally on the earth crust. They are solids, have fixed chemical
composition, and are made up of orderly arranged atoms with definite crystal structure.
MINERALOGY- The study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. Specific
studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their
geographical distribution, as well as their utilization.
- There are about 2,500 existing minerals, but only about 20 are common in the crust. The most common examples of
minerals are quartz, calcite, and gypsum.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

- The harder the mineral, the greater is resistance to scratching.

- The Mohs scale of hardness was developed in 1812 by a German mineralogist Frederick Mohs. It grades 10 fairly common
minerals on a scale from 1 being the softest to 10 being the hardest.
2. Luster - indicates the way a mineral’s surface interacts with light and can range from dull to glassy (vitreous). It
determines how brilliant or dull a mineral is.
* metallic luster – high reflectivity like metal : galena and pyrite.
* sub-metallic – slightly less than metallic reflectivity: magnetite.
* non-metallic luster
Adamantine – brilliant, the luster of diamond also cerussite and anglesite.

3. Diaphaneity/Transparency – describes how well light passes through a mineral. Hence, the degree of transparency may
depend on the thickness of the mineral. There are three basic degrees of transparency:
* Transparent – objects can be seen through a transparent mineral, such as a clear quartz crystal.
* Translucent – light passes through a mineral but no objects can be seen.
* Opaque – no light passes through the mineral.
Many minerals range from transparent to translucent or translucent to opaque. Calcite for instance, can be translucent or
opaque. Some minerals that are naturally translucent become opaque with weathering.
4. Color - indicates the appearance of the mineral in reflected light or as it absorbs light. This property may not be used in
identifying translucent to transparent minerals due to the presence of trace amounts of other minerals in them.

5. Iridescence – the play of colors due to surface or internal interference. Labradorite exhibits internal iridescence whereas
hematite and sphalerite often show the surface effect.

6. Streak – refers to the color of the powder a mineral leaves after rubbing it on an unglazed porcelain streak plate. Note
that this is not always the same color as the original mineral.

7. Cleavage – describes the way a mineral may split apart along various planes. In thin sections, cleavage is visible as thin
parallel lines across a mineral.

8. Fracture – describes how a mineral breaks when broken contrary to its natural cleavage planes.
* Chonchoidal fracture – is a smooth curved fracture with concentric ridges of the type shown by glass.
* Hackley is jagged fracture with sharp edges.
* Fibrous
* Irregular
9. Specific gravity – relates the mineral mass to the mass of an equal volume of water, namely the density of the material.
While most minerals, including all the common rock-forming minerals, have a specific gravity of 2.5 – 3.5, a few are
noticeably more or less dense, e.g., several sulfide minerals have high specific gravity compared to the common rock-
forming minerals.

10.Tenacity – is the level of resistance of minerals to stress such as crushing, bending, breaking, or tearing. It can tell if a
mineral is brittle, malleable, elastic, etc.

Other properties: fluorescence (response to ultraviolet light), magnetism (ability to attract or repel other minerals),
radioactivity, piezoelectricity, and reactivity to dilute acids.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

This classification was first used in 1848 by James Dana, a Yale University professor.
1. Silicates – contain a basic silicon – oxygen tetrahedral unit either alone or connected together in the crystal structure.

Subgroups:
* ferromagnesian – made up of ions of iron, magnesium, calcium and other elements. (ex. Olivine, biotite, augite,
hornblende)
* nonferromagnesian – do not have iron and magnesium. (ex. Feldspar, white micas or muscovite and quartz)
* clay materials – (ex. Kaolinite, chlorite)

2. Non-silicates – comprises 8% of the minerals on the Earth’s crust.

*carbonates – mostly found deposited in marine environments -- ex. Calcite, dolomite
* sulphides –has important metals such as copper, lead, and silver. -- ex. Pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite * phosphates
– contains minerals with phosphorus. -- ex. Apatite, arsenic, vanadium
* halides – usually form in lakes, ponds and other landlocked seas. -- ex. Halite, fluorite
* oxides – formed as precipitates close to Earth’s surface or as oxidation products of minerals during the process of
weathering. -- ex. Aluminum oxides, hematite, magnetite
*sulphates –forms in areas with high evaporation rates and where salty waters slowly evaporate.
-- ex. Anhydrite, gypsum, hydroxides
* native elements –contain metals and intermetallic elements. -- ex. Sulfur, diamond, silver, gold, copper

Ore minerals are mineral deposits that have economic value. Like pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, and fluorite.

Gem minerals are minerals that include the precious and semiprecious stones used in jewelry. The value of a gem is
determined by its size, lack of flaws, beauty of color, luster, hardness, and perfection of crystal form.

PETROLOGY

- Petrology is the study of rocks.

- Rocks are naturally occurring solid substances made up of one or more minerals.

TYPES OF ROCKS:

1. Igneous rocks – (meaning fire) forms when hot, molten rock called magma crystallizes and solidifies.
A. Extrusive or volcanic rocks – brought about by magma coming out of the earth’s surface through cracks or which gushed
out of volcanoes and then gradually cooled and solidified – such as: basalt, andesite, rhyolite, pumice, and tuff.
B. Intrusive or plutonic rocks – forms when magma inside the earth solidifies and hardens – such as : gabbro, dacite, granite,
diorite, and peridotite.
2. Sedimentary rocks (meaning to settle) – are made of loose earth materials called sediments.

Classified into three categories:

A. Clastic rocks – form from clasts or broken fragments of pre-existing rocks and minerals such as: sunstone, siltstones,
shale.
B. Chemical rocks – formed from precipitation or solidification of minerals usually from seawater or lake water such as: rock
gypsum, rock salt, chert/flint.
C. Organic rocks – forms when traces of animals and plants accumulate such as: coal, peat.

3. Metamorphic rocks (meaning change form) – develop when pre-existing rocks go through mineralogical and structural
changes effected by high temperature and pressure.

It has two types:

a) foliated – minerals have been rearranged into visible layers, like: slate, schist, gneiss.
b) non-foliated – does not show layering or banding, like: marble, quartzite, serpentines.

KINDS OF METAMORPHISM
A. Thermal metamorphism – is commonly called “contact metamorphism” which is a change brought about by heat, with
very little pressure being involved.
B. Dynamic metamorphism – rocks changed more by pressure than temperature.
C. Hydrothermal metamorphism – involves changes in rocks brought about by fluids that are released by the cooling of huge
igneous bodies deep below the earth’s surface.
D. Recrystallization – is the growth of minerals, reorganization and growth of minerals originally present.
E. Foliation – is the ability of a metamorphic rock to split along a smooth plane.

GEOLOGIC PROCESS ON EARTH

What cause the rock cycle and the continuous alteration of Earth?
The dynamism of Earth is attributed to its never-ending geologic processes driven by internal and external forces.
Geologic processes are broken down into two categories: exogenous and endogenous processes.

EXOGENOUS PROCESSES

1. Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soils, and minerals as well as artificial materials through contact with the
Earth’s atmosphere, biota, and waters.
- Weathering occurs in situ or “with no movement”, and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the
movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, wind, and gravity.

Two important classifications of weathering processes exist – physical and chemical weathering.
Mechanical or Physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric
conditions, such as heat, water, ice, and pressure.
Chemical weathering involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals (also known as
biological weathering) in the breakdown of rocks, soils, and minerals.

2. Erosion is the process of weathering and transport of solids (sediment, soil, rock, and other particles) in the natural
environment or their source and deposits them elsewhere. It usually occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice; by
down-slope creep of soil and other material under the force of gravity; or by living organisms, such as burrowing animals, in
the case of bio-erosion.
- is the process by which weathered materials are removed or carried away by natural agents.
- Movement of materials can be a direct result of gravity acting alone. They can be moved to a lower elevation
by gravity acting through some agents such as: running water, wind, or glaciers.

DEPOSIT FEATURES OF STREAM EROSION

*Floodplain - is the wide, level floor of a valley built by a stream and this is where the stream floods when it spills out of its
channel.
*Youth - is formed when the stream is on a recently uplifted land mass with steep gradient and vigorous, energetic ability to
erode the land.
*Maturity - is the erosion and carrying away the boulders, rapids, and waterfalls thus smoothening and lowering the stream
and gradient.

Glaciers - is a mass of ice on land that moves under its own weight and which flows gradually from snow in cold climates.

Two kinds of Glaciers:

1. Alpine glaciers - are glaciers which tend to flow downhill through a valley to be called “valley glaciers”.
2. Continental glaciers - are glaciers which cover a large area of continent as found in Greenland and Antarctic.

GLACIAL EROSION AND DEPOSITION

3 Different Techniques by which Glaciers Erode Materials:
1. Bulldozing - is the pushing along of rocks, soil, and sediments by the leading edge of an advancing glacier.
Moraines - are deposits of bulldozed rocks and other materials that remain after the ice melts.
2. Plucking - occurs as water seeps into cracked rocks and freezes, becoming a part of the solid glacial mass.
3. Abrasion - occurs as the rock fragments frozen into the moving glacial ice scratch, polish, and grind against surrounding
rocks at the base and along the valley walls.
Rock flour - pulverizing of rock into finer fragments eventually producing a powdery, silt-sized sediment.
Wind - also an agent shaping the surface of the land. It can erode, transport, and deposit materials, however, winds move
only a few percent as much materials as do streams.
Wind Abrasion - is a natural sandblasting process that occurs when the particles carried along by the wind break of small
particles and polish what they strike.
Deflation - named after the Latin word meaning to “blow away” and is the widespread picking up of loose materials from
the surface and most active when winds are unobstructed thereby exposing the materials not protected by vegetation.

Denudation occurs by erosion and mass wasting, which produces sediment that is transported and deposited elsewhere
within the lands cape or off the coast. On progressively smaller scales, similar ideas apply, where individual landforms evolve
in response to the balance of additive (tectonic or sedimentary) and subtractive ( erosive) processes.

3. Mass Wasting – refers to the movement of large masses of materials (e.g., rock, debris, soil, mud) down a slope or a
steep-sided hill or mountain due to the pull of gravity.

Mass wasting is very destructive in areas with increased water flow, steep, slopes, scarce or no vegetation, or vibrating or
moving ground.

EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION

Kinds of Losses Cause by Erosion:

1. Declining agricultural or forest productivity
2. Degradation of the landscape
3. Harmful effects of the transport and deposition or eroded soils.

CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION

1. Reforestation
- If the soil is covered with grass or tress, and vegetation will intercept raindrops and prevent them from washing away
soil.
2. Total Log Ban
- Slashing of trees in forest is prevented. In this way, wild animals and other creatures will not be deprived of their
habitat and soil erosion could be prevented.

ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES
- The endogenous processes on Earth take place within or in the interior of Earth. The driving force is the thermal energy of
the mantle. Most of the thermal energy originates from the decay and disintegration of radioactive elements in Earth’s core.
- The endogenous processes on Earth are responsible for earthquakes, development of continents, mountain building,
volcanic activities, and other movements related to Earth’s crust.

1. Magmatism – Magma is the original material that make up igneous rocks. Originally found beneath the surface of Earth,
magma is very hot and is constantly moved by the internal heat that reaches the mantle of Earth through convective flow.

Magmatism happens when magma is generated and develops into igneous rocks. The process can take place either under
the surface or on surface of Earth.

2. Volcanism (or Plutonism) – is the process that usually happens after magma is formed. Magma tries to escape from the
source through openings such as volcanoes or existing cracks on the ground.
Magma comes out with extreme heat and pressure and may cause destructive explosions. As soon as magma reaches the
surface of Earth, it is now called lava.

TYPES OF STRESS THAT INFLUENCE ROCK BEHAVIOR

The geologic processes that occur on Earth cause stress on rocks. Geological stress is the force that acts on the rocks thereby
creating different behaviour or characteristics.
Compressional Stress
In compressional stress, rocks push or squeeze against
one another. The stress produced is directed toward the
center. Hence, when these rocks meet, the orientation
could either be horizontal or vertical. Horizontally, the
crust may thicken or shorten.Vertically, the crust can
thin out or break off. Compressional stress is usually
what takes place in folding, which results in mountain
building.
Tensional Stress
Rocks are pulled apart. Rocks may separate in opposite
directions or move farther away from one another.
It is speculated that this type of stress is what separated
all the continents in the world during the breaking away
of the supergiant continent known as Pangaea.
Shear Stress
Some of the portions of a plate at the edges may
break away in different directions, eventually
making the plate smaller in size. Depending on
the conditions of the environment, shear stress
usually happens at different rates at the boundaries
of the plate. The friction caused by this stress can
cause earthquakes.
Confining Stress
The crust becomes compact, making it look smaller.
This is different from shearing as none of the crust’s
edges break away. However, if breaking away happens,
it would come from the inside. This may retain the shape
of the crust but not its weight. In short, nothing may
seem
to has changed in the appearance of the crust because
changes have occurred inside. Confining stress can cause
sinkholes where the inside portion of the ground has
already disintegrated without being apparent
.SEAFLOOR SPREADING AND CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity
and then gradually moves away from the ridge. Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate
tectonics.

Seafloor spreading starts as a rift in a continental land mass, similar to the Red Sea – east Africa rift system today.

Seafloor Spreading

- The concept of seafloor spreading was developed by geologists Harold Hess and Robert Dietz. They coined the term
seafloor spreading and showed how it aligned with the then unaccepted ideas of continental drift.

- Seafloor spreading happens along mid-ocean ridges. This is exhibited in the actual site of seafloor spreading occurring at
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

- The process starts with heating at the base of the continental crust which causes it to become more plastic and less dense.
Because less dense objects rise in relation to denser objects, the area being heated becomes a broad dome. As the crust
bows upward, fractures occur that gradually grow into rifts. The typical rift system consists of three rift arms at
approximately 120 degrees angles. These areas are named triple junctions and can be found in several places across the
world today.

Continental Drif

- Continental drift is the movement of the earth’s continents relative to each other. The hypothesis that continent’s “drift”
was put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596 and was fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912.

- Wegener claimed that there used to be only one supergiant landmass where all the continents came from.

- He called this massive landmass Pangaea.

- Over time, this continent broke apart into two huge landmasses and these landmasses moved away from each other.

- The two giant continents were Laurasia which comprised the continents in the present-day Northern Hemisphere, and
Gondwanaland (also Gondwana) which comprised the continents in the present day Southern Hemisphere.

- The separation continued until we have the continents that we can see on the map today.

*Wegener proceeded by providing strong pieces of evidence of his continental drift theory:
1. Similarity of fossils in different continents.
2. Presence of tillites in areas whose present climates do not suggest glacial formation.
3. Presence of coal seams in polar regions.
4. Continuity of rock layers found in different continents.
5. Similarity of rock types in different continents.

PLATE TECTONICS

-Plate tectonics is a scientific theory which describes the large scale motions of earth’s lithosphere. The theory builds on the
older concepts of continental drift, developed during the first decades of the 20 th century ( one of the most famous
advocates was Alfred Wegener), and was accepted by the majority of the geo-scientific community when the concepts of
seafloor spreading were developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

- Wegener’’s theory initially did not gain acceptance from the scientific community because he could not explain why the
continents moved.
- He just asserted that continents had been pulled apart by Earth’s rotational force and some astronomical influences.
Hence, his theory was given little interest that time.
- As early as 1929, Arthur Holmes, a British geologist, suggested the idea of thermal convection as the driving force for the
movement of the continents.
- The repeating process of heating and cooling may produce a current that is strong enough to make continents move.
- Holmes further suggested that thermal convection works like a “conveyor belt” where the pressure that goes up could
break apart a continent.
- In later years, the concept of thermal convection was changed to mantle convection currents to specify that heat is actually
radiating from the mantle.
- Geologist started to use a more precise term to refer to the moving piece of crust as “plate” because it was believed that
continents are not the only ones moving (as explained by Wegener).
- Recall that the lithosphere refers to the crust and the upper mantle of Earth. It is made up of several tectonic plates that
glide over the mantle.
- After the plate boundaries were discovered, scientists were able to identify eight major plates: Pacific Plate, Indian Plate,
Eurasian Plate, North American Plate, South American Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, Antarctic Plate, and African Plate and
several minor plates, one of which is the Philippine Plate.
 TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

1. Transform boundaries (Conservative) occur where plates slide or,

perhaps more accurately, grind past each other along transform faults.
The relative motion of the two plates is either sinistral
(left side toward the observer) or dextral (right side toward the observer).
The San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a transform
boundary exhibiting dextral motion.

2. Divergent boundaries (Constructive) occur where two plates slide

apart from each other. Plates move apart because of the magma
that is being pushed upward in boundaries of the plates.
When this happens, the slowly moving plates transport newly formed
crust away from the ridge as it spreads in both directions where
the plates go.

-Mid-ocean ridges (e.g., Mid-Atlantic ridge) and active zones of

rifting ( such as Africa’s Great Rift Valley) are both examples of
divergent boundaries.

3. Convergent boundaries (Destructive) (or active margins) occur where two plates slide towards each other commonly
forming either a subduction zone ( if one plate moves underneath the other) or a continental collision ( if the two plates
contain continental crust).
-This happens when two tectonic plates move toward each other
brought by mantle convection.-Two possible landforms can be created.
One is a trench, which is formed from subduction where a denser plate
sinks under the other plate. Another possible landform is a mountain or
a mountain range where neither plate is subducted but instead crumples
into each other and somehow pushed upward or sideward.

HANDFORMS CREATED DURING TECTONIC PLATE MOVEMENTS

Deep marine trenches are typically associated with subduction zones, and the basins that develop along the active
boundary are often called “foreland basins”. The subducting slab contains many hydrous minerals, which release their water
on heating; this water then causes the mantle to melt, producing volcanism. Examples of this are the Andes mountain
range in South America and the Japanese island arc.

Faults – are fractures in the earths’s crust caused by extreame forces acting on the crust due to slow rock movement within
the asthenosphere.
4 TYPES OF FAULTS
1.Normal Fault – occurs as a result of expansive forces that cause the overlying side of the fault to move downward realtive
to the side beneath it.

ROCK DEFORMATION

Diastrophism – refers to the series of processes by which the major features of the earth’s crust are formed and changed
because of relative changes of positions and deformation of rock.

The movemen of magma is called Vulcanism or Volcanism.

2 Major Rock Deformation

1. Folding
2. Faulting