Journal of Materials Processing Technology 225 (2015) 195–202

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Journal of Materials Processing Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmatprotec

Investigation of surface residual stress distribution in deformation

machining process for aluminum alloy
Arshpreet Singh, Anupam Agrawal ∗
School of Mechanical, Materials and Energy Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Ropar, Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Deformation machining is a combination of thin structure machining and single point incremental
Received 15 October 2014 forming/bending. It enables the creation of monolithic structures with complex geometries in one
Received in revised form 20 May 2015 setup, employing conventional manufacturing techniques. Previously, such components would either
Accepted 22 May 2015
be assembled or manufactured using complex dies and machinery. Residual stresses generated during
Available online 10 June 2015
the machining and forming has direct implications on the product life cycle and properties. It is essential
to understand the process effects on the residual stress distribution. In the present work, an experi-
Keywords:
mental study of surface residual stress for deformation machining (bending and stretching mode) has
Machining
Incremental forming
been performed. The nano indentation technique has been employed to examine the residual stresses.
Residual stress The experimental results have shown the generation of compressive surface residual stresses during
Nano indentation machining and tensile surface residual stresses during forming (bending and stretching) operations. Sig-
nificant variation in the surface residual stresses with varying machining and forming parameters has
been observed.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction First aspect of DM is the creation of thin structures out of the

Deformation machining (DM) is a combination of two emerg-
ing manufacturing processes—thin structure machining and single
point incremental forming (SPIF) (Smith et al., 2007). Firstly, the
bulk raw material is machined to get thin monolithic structures
(vertical or horizontal) depending upon the application. There-
after, the thin machined structure is formed incrementally using
a single point tool into the desired shape. This hybrid process, in
one setup, allows the creation of lighter weight components with
novel and complex geometries. This process enables the creation of
monolithic parts which were earlier assembled. Components with
complicated geometries, which generally require complex tool-
ing and equipment, can now be fabricated using much simpler
tools and conventional machines without compromising with the
quality. Therefore, enabling cost reduction in equipment, fabrica-
tion, assembly and weight of the components. Moreover, ability to
obtain a component in one setup, by a single process, instead of
sequence of processes makes the operation more sustainable and
environmental friendly.
∗ Corresponding author at: Room No.224, Administrative Block, IIT Ropar,
Rupnagar 140001, Punjab, India. Fax: +91 1881 223395.
E-mail addresses: arshpreet.singh@iitrpr.ac.in (A. Singh), anupam@iitrpr.ac.in
(A. Agrawal).
bulk raw material employing thin structure machining. Thin struc-
ture machining is different from conventional machining due to the
lack of stiffness of machined structure. Therefore, it requires differ-
ent machining techniques, Tlusty et al. (1996) used long slender
end mills, Smith and Dvorak (1998) employed high speed machin-
ing to reduce the contact time of the tool cutting edge with the thin
structure. Relieved shank tooling can also be used in the machining
of thin vertical geometries, so as to provide a relief for vibrating
thin machined geometry coming in contact with the tool. This
process is extensively used in aerospace and marine industries
replacing assembled part with thin monolithic parts. Thus, reduc-
ing the chances of failure and improving the overall strength of the
component. In machining thin sections, major chunk of material is
to be removed; therefore, high material removal rate is employed.
Second aspect of DM is forming the machined thin structure into
the desired shape on the same setup and machine. For this, single
point incremental forming (SPIF) technique is used. SPIF is a die less
forming process where a hemispherical shaped single point solid
tool is used to deform the thin structure to a desired shape incre-
mentally using computer numeric control (Jeswiet et al., 2005). In
this process, a thin structure or sheet metal is deformed locally
into plastic stage, enabling creation of complex shapes according
to the tool path generated by a CNC machining center (Malhotra
et al., 2010). Thus, by incorporating SPIF along with thin structure
machining, complex monolithic geometries can be easily fabricated

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2015.05.025
0924-0136/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
196 A. Singh, A. Agrawal / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 225 (2015) 195–202
on more conventional, simpler machines. SPIF has enabled flexi-
bility in creation of symmetric, asymmetric and random shapes.
Moreover, it is well established that incremental forming process
allows a higher formability as compared to the conventional form-
ing processes like stamping, stretch forming due to highly localized
deforming action (Allwood et al., 2007; Hussain et al., 2007). The
process accuracy of SPIF is poorer in comparison with conventional
forming techniques, mainly attributed to non-uniform distribu-
tion of residual stresses and spring back during forming operation
(Bambach et al., 2009). Deforming forces required in incremental
forming are significantly lower than conventional forming methods
(Duflou et al., 2007). Incremental forming has the application in the
diverse fields of engineering. Ambrogio et al. (2005) proposed the
application of incremental forming in customized medical prod-
ucts. Jackson et al. (2008) used incremental forming in the creation
of sandwich panels. The potential of thin monolithic parts with
complex geometries in aerospace industry (e.g. mold lines of fuse-
lage, avionic shelf, impellers, pressurized bulk heads), biomedical
engineering (cranial plate, bone and joint support, prosthetics),
heat transfer and dissipation (irregular, curved fins) is a close pos-
sibility.
Apart from the fabrication monolithic structures as an alter-
native to assembled components, deformation machining process
is better than sheet metal forming processes on the following
grounds: Agrawal et al. (2010) performed comparative studies on
dimensional repeatability of DM components with sheet metal
components. The DM components have shown better repeatability
than SPIF sheet metal components but poorer than convention-
ally bent components. Agrawal et al. (2012) did the comparative
fatigue life analysis for DM components with sheet metal compo-
nents. Product life of the DM components was found out to be better
than the sheet metal components. The reason for improved dimen-
sional repeatability and fatigue life of the DM components could
be attributed to the influence of residual stresses generated in the
process.
Deformation machining is classified into two modes: (i) Bending
and (ii) Stretching, based upon the orientation of the deforming tool
and the component (Smith et al., 2007).
1.1. Deformation machining bending mode
In deformation machining bending mode, the deformation is
perpendicular to the axis of tool resulting in bending of thin verti-
cal structure. Firstly, thin vertical sections are machined from the
bulk material and then incrementally bent to the desired shapes.
Fig. 1 shows conceptually deformation machining of a thin wall.
The applications of such type of structures are in straight and irreg-
Fig. 1. Schematic of deformation machining bending mode.
Fig. 2. Schematic of deformation machining stretching mode.
ular cooling fins, mold lines of fuselage of an aircraft, which were
earlier assembled to the body.
1.2. Deformation machining stretching mode
In deformation machining stretching mode, the deformation is
along the axis of tool resulting in stretching of thin horizontal struc-
ture. Firstly, thin horizontal sections are machined from the bulk
material and then stretch formed to the desired shapes. Fig. 2 shows
conceptually deformation machining of a thin floor. The applica-
tions of such type of structure are in pressurized bulkheads and
can also replace beaded panels to impart higher stiffness to the
structures, which were earlier assembled to the flanges.
1.3. Surface residual stresses in deformation machining
Residual stresses are defined as the stresses that remain in a
solid material, even after the removal of original cause of the stress
and with no temperature gradient (Brinksmeier et al., 1982). It is a
well established fact that residual stresses have significant effect on
strength, fatigue life, corrosion resistance and overall product life
cycle of the component (García Navas et al., 2011). These stresses
can be attributed to mechanical and thermal loads in machining
and forming operations (Jang et al., 1996). Optimization of these
processes can significantly control the final residual stress state
(Outeiro et al., 2006). It is not always the case that residual stresses
are detrimental to the material properties. Huber and Heerens
(2008) concluded that the influence of residual stresses on the
properties of the material can be positive or negative depending
upon the product application. For instance, fatigue resistance of
the material augments with compressive residual stresses. More-
over, compressive residual stresses on the surface are advantageous
to reduce stress corrosion cracking. This is advantageous for any
application in stress loading in corrosive environments. Whereas,
tensile residual stress decreases the fatigue resistance enhancing
the chances of stress cracking.
Residual stresses are induced in the component by deformation
machining on both the fronts; during machining of the thin struc-
ture and single point incremental bending or forming. Suzuki and
Shobu (2011) stated that the compressive surface residual stresses
are induced during the machining load. Heat generation during
the machining operation counters it with tensile stresses. During
incremental forming, the generated residual stresses are gener-
ally tensile in nature are non-uniformly distributed throughout the
deformed structure (Tanaka et al., 2007). Residual stresses gener-
ated during incremental forming have detrimental effect on the
process accuracy along with the unpredictable elastic spring back
(Radu et al., 2013). Therefore, by knowing the amount of resid-
ual stresses generated in the process and providing solutions to
optimize those according to the product application is of great
importance.
 A. Singh, A. Agrawal / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 225 (2015) 195–202
Table 1
Properties of Al 6063-T6.
Properties Density Melting point Poisson’s ratio
Magnitude 2.7 gm/cc 600 ◦ C 0.3
Fig. 3. Experimental setup for (a) DM bending mode (b) DM stretching mode.
Present study is an attempt to know the amount and distribution
of surface residual stresses generated during deformation machin-
ing (bending and stretching modes) on both the machining as well
as forming fronts. This study employs nano indentation technique
to examine the surface residual stresses which has been widely
used by the researchers to investigate the material properties (Zhu
et al., 2010; Shastry and Ramamurty, 2013).
2. Experimental methodology
Experimental methodology includes sample preparation, exper-
imental plan regarding selection of process parameters and
calculation of residual stresses by nanoindentation:
2.1. Sample preparation
The material used in the present study is Al 6063-T6, a
commonly used alloy in aerospace, aviation and marine indus-
try. Table 1 depicts mechanical properties of the alloy. A
50 mm × 50 mm aluminium square bar was used for bending mode
components, and a 12 mm × 100 mm aluminium flat was used for
stretching mode components. The samples were fabricated on a 3
Fig. 4. (a) Schematic of DM bending mode with process parameters; (b) actual DM bending mode component.
197
Modulus of elasticity Tensile strength Shear strength Proof stress
70 GPa 195 MPa 150 MPa 160 MPa at 0.2%
axis CNC vertical milling machine (Make: BFW, Model: VF 30CNC
VS) (Fig. 3).
2.2. Experimental plan
Samples were firstly machined to a thin structure using a tung-
sten carbide end mill tool and then formed incrementally using a
single point hemispherical tool. DM bending mode samples were
directly clamped through a vice and bolts on the machine. In case
of DM stretching mode samples, a fixture was designed and fabri-
cated to hold the samples. It consists of a holding plate and clamps
for holding thick components, a backing plate for supporting the
components during high speed machining, and a base plate for
overall stability of the fixture. During forming, the backing plate
was removed from the fixture, and the components were formed
through a circular orifice in the holding plate (Fig. 3(b)). Fig. 4(a)
shows the schematic of DM bending mode with the essential pro-
cess parameters like incremental bending angle ‘˛’, maximum
bent angle ‘˛’ along with the dimensional attributes of the compo-
nent, and Fig. 4(b) shows the actual DM bending mode component
with all dimensional attributes. Fig. 5(a) shows the schematic of
DM stretching mode with the essential process parameters and the
tool path approach for incremental forming; and Fig. 5(b) shows the
actual DM stretching mode component in section with all dimen-
sional attributes.
Table 2 depicts the fixed level of machining and forming param-
eters. Table 3 depicts the variable levels of machining and forming
parameter for which the surface residual stress was measured. For
example, if the variation of forming depth in incremental forming
on the surface residual stress is in question, then all the param-
eters are kept constant to the level given in Table 2 except for
the forming depth levels. The machining and forming parame-
ters chosen for the experimentation have significant bearing on
mechanical and thermal loading (Huber and Heerans, 2008; Duflou
et al., 2007). Increased feed rate in machining increase the cut-
ting forces and load significantly. Increased cutting speed results in
increased thermal loading while machining. Both mechanical and
thermal load have direct influence on the nature and magnitude
of residual stresses. In case of incremental bending and forming,
extent of deformation in terms of bent angle and forming depth
198 A. Singh, A. Agrawal / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 225 (2015) 195–202

Fig. 5. (a) Schematic of DM stretching mode with process parameters; (b) actual DM stretching mode component.

Table 2
Fixed levels of machining and forming parameters.

Process parameters Thin structure machining Incremental forming Incremental bending

Tool material Tungsten carbide Stainless steel 304 Stainless steel 304
Tool diameter 16 mm 10 mm 10 mm
Spindle (cutting) speed 80 m/min 100 rpm 100 rpm
Transverse feed 0.5 m/min 0.2 m/min 0.2 m/min
Axial feed N.A. 10 mm/min N.A.
Depth of cut/incremental depth/angle 0.5 mm 0.5 mm 5◦
Forming depth/max. bent angle N.A. 10–20 mm 45◦
Cooling/lubrication Flood cooling Mobil oil-40 Grease

Table 3
Variable levels of machining and forming parameters.

Process parameters Thin structure machining Incremental forming Incremental bending

Spindle (cutting) speed 80, 100, 120 m/min N.A. N.A.

Transverse feed 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 m/min 0.2, 0.6, 1.0 m/min N.A.
Depth of cut/incremental depth/angle N.A. 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 mm 1◦ , 3◦ , 5◦
Forming depth/max. bent angle N.A. 0–10 mm, 10–20 mm, 20–30 mm 15◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦
Cooling/lubrication Flood cooling, dry machining N.A. N.A.

ought to have significant bearing on the residual stress generation. contact area were estimated according to Oliver–Pharr method
After the respective machining and forming, the samples of size (Oliver and Pharr, 2004).
15 × 10 mm were cut with Buhler IsoMet® low speed saw. There- For the compressive residual stresses, the contact load to
after, the samples were cold mounted in epoxy resin. Each sample achieve a constant penetration depth are larger as compared to
was ground with different grades of abrasive paper and polished the unstressed (reference) samples (P1 > P2 ). Whereas, for tensile
with Buhler EcoMet 250® to achieve desirable surface finish for residual stresses the contact load to achieve a constant penetration
nanoindentation. Samples for nanoindentation were oriented par- depth are smaller as compared to the unstressed (reference) sam-
allel to the polishing plane. Raw material specimen was cut and ples (P3 < P2 ) (Fig. 6). This difference in the contact forces provides
grounded to desired finish and taken as a reference for nano inden- a basis for the residual stress estimation according to Suresh and
tation. The effect of cutting and polishing on the final outcome is Giannakopoulos (1998).The magnitude of residual stresses ( r ) can
avoided in nanoindentation as the stress values are relative to that be expressed in form of the ratio of contact areas A0 and A of the
of reference sample. indented samples without and with stress, respectively, and the
hardness value (H) as follows:
For tensile residual stress,
2.3. Residual stress estimation using nanoindentation
A0
 r
  A0

= 1+ or r = −H 1− (1)
Nanoindentation was performed with TriboIndenter® -TI 950 A H A
(Hysitron Corporation, U.S.A) using a Berkovich diamond inden-
For compressive residual stress,
tor. Seven random indents were made on each of the sample, and
average reading was taken into account, depicted with a standard    
error bar in each of the results. The indentation was executed in A0 r sinˇ A0
= 1− or r = H 1− /sinˇ (2)
the depth control mode with a maximum depth of 300 nm for each A H A
sample. The tip area was calibrated using standard quartz sample
provided by the instrument manufacturer. The mechanical prop- where sin ˇ is a geometric factor, ˇ is the tip angle for Berkovich
erties such as hardness and reduced Young’s modulus as well as tip = 24.12.
 A. Singh, A. Agrawal / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 225 (2015) 195–202
Fig. 6. Load vs depth comparison for compressive and tensile residual stresses.
Fig. 7. Effect of cutting speed on the surface residual stresses.
3. Results and discussion
In this section, effect of various machining, bending and form-
ing parameters on the surface residual stresses generated in the
component has been discussed in detail:
3.1. Effect of machining parameters on surface residual stresses
Effect of machining parameters like cutting speed, machining
feed rate and cooling has been discussed in this section:
3.1.1. Effect of cutting speed
Fig. 7 shows the effect of cutting speed on the surface resid-
ual stresses for both side milling condition employed for thin wall
machining and face milling condition for thin floor machining. The
results show that compressive surface residual stresses are gener-
ated in both the cases. From the figure, it is evident that the stresses
tends to decrease slightly with increase in cutting speed from 80
to 120 m/min. This is possibly due to the increased thermal loading
at increased cutting speed which tends to negate the compressive
stresses.
3.1.2. Effect of feed rate
The effect of machining feed rate on the surface residual stresses
for side and face milling are shown in Fig. 8. The results show
a significant increase in the compressive residual stresses with
increased feed rate attributing mainly to the higher machining load
199
Fig. 8. Effect of machining feed rate on the surface residual stresses.
Fig. 9. Effect of cooling on the surface residual stresses.
at higher feed rates. Thermal loading, reason for tensile residual
stresses might be negligible in comparison to the machining load
at the higher feed rates.
3.1.3. Effect of cooling
Fig. 9 shows the effect of flood cooled and dry machining on
the surface residual stresses for side and face milling operation.
The compressive residual stresses are significantly lower for dry
machining in comparison to flood cooled machining, presumably
to the increased thermal loading.
3.2. Effect of bending parameters on surface residual stress in DM
bending mode
Effect of bending parameters like maximum bent angle, incre-
ment bent angle on surface residual stresses has been discussed in
this section:
3.2.1. Effect of maximum bent angle (˛)
Fig. 10(a) shows the schematic of DM bending mode with maxi-
mum bent angle 15◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ and 60◦ . The samples were taken from
the actual bending zone (where the bent thin structure is attached
to the bulk material) from tensile as well as the compressive side of
the bent structure. Fig. 10(b) depicts the corresponding load–depth
curves from the nanoindentation for the various attributes. From
the curves, it is clear that residual stresses developed in the samples
are primarily compressive in nature, since the material with com-
200 A. Singh, A. Agrawal / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 225 (2015) 195–202

Fig. 10. (a) Schematic of DM bending mode showing different bending angles; (b) load–depth curves of DM Bending Mode samples.

Fig. 12. Effect of incremental angle on the surface residual stresses.

Fig. 11. Effect of maximum bent angle on the surface residual stresses.
pressive residual stress requires larger indentation load for same
magnitude of indentation in comparison to the reference stress-
free samples.
Fig. 11 shows the effect of maximum bent angle on both the
tensile side and compressive side of the wall over surface residual
stresses. During the incremental bending of the thin machined wall,
tensile residual stresses are generated on the tensile face of the bent
wall which tends to cancel out the highly compressive stresses gen-
erated during machining. Tensile residual stresses increases with
increase in the bending angle. Still the overall compressive nature
of the stresses dominates the actual deformed thin wall on the ten-
sile face. On the compressive face of the bent wall compressive,
residual stresses are generated; thus, adding to the compressive
stresses produced during the machining. This condition is similar
to bending in a cantilever beam and as the amount of springback in
increment bending is less (10–25% for varying range of parameters)
(Singh and Agrawal, 2015) the chances of stress recovery are also
minimal.
3.2.2. Effect of incremental angle (˛)
Fig. 12 depicts the effect of incremental angle on the tensile side
of DM bending mode components over the surface residual stresses.
A slight (insignificant) decrease in compressive residual stresses
with increase in incremental angle from 1 to 5◦ is noticed.
3.3. Effect of forming parameters on surface residual stress in DM
stretching mode
Effect of forming process parameters like forming depth, form-
ing feed rate and incremental step size on the surface residual
stresses has been discussed in this section:
3.3.1. Effect of forming depth
Three components with depth up to 10 mm, 20 mm and
30 mm were incrementally formed from the thin machined floors.
Schematic of forming depth zones is depicted in Fig. 13(a). Fig. 13(b)
depicts the corresponding load–depth curves from the nanoinden-
tation for the various depth zones and the machined floor. It is
 A. Singh, A. Agrawal / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 225 (2015) 195–202 201

Fig. 13. (a) Schematic of DM stretching mode showing different forming zones; (b) load–depth curves of DM stretching mode samples.

Fig. 14. Effect of forming depth on the surface residual stresses.

Fig. 15. Effect of forming feed rate on the surface residual stresses.

evident that surface residual stresses developed in the samples are

primarily compressive in nature.
Fig. 14 shows the corresponding values of surface residual
stresses at different forming depth zones. During the incremental
forming of the thin machined floor, tensile residual stresses are gen-
erated which tends to cancel out the highly compressive stresses
of the machining. Tensile surface residual stresses increases with
increase in the forming depth. Still the overall compressive nature
of the stresses dominates the actual deformed component. Since
deformed area would remain constant, irrespective of area of unde-
formed sheet with constant forming angle. Accordingly, the change
in residual stress values with increase in the forming depth should
be insignificant, as has been shown in Fig. 14.
Fig. 16. Effect of incremental step size on the surface residual stresses.

3.3.2. Effect of forming feed rate and incremental step size

Figs. 15 and 16 depict the effect of forming feed rate and incre-
mental step size on the surface residual stresses. The results reveal
the increase in the tensile stress generation with increase in form-
ing feed rate and incremental step size, though the overall nature
of the stresses remain compressive due to the prior machining. The
possible reason for such trends could be increased amount of ten-
sile loading per unit time with increased feed rates and incremental
step size.
The prediction of elastic spring back effect and dimensional
inaccuracies associated with the residual stresses becomes diffi-
cult, because of complex nature of the stresses induced during
incremental stretch forming and bending. The endeavor is to either
relieve the residual stresses from the fabricated component com-
pletely or manipulate them to enhance the particular properties
suitable for the particular application. Heat treatment processes
like annealing are used to relieve residual stresses, but they are
202 A. Singh, A. Agrawal / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 225 (2015) 195–202
costly and time consuming. Moreover, this may significantly soften
the material as well as can induce non uniform thermal stresses.
This work provides the initial insight on the behavior of surface
residual stresses in deformation machining process. Future work in
this direction goes into optimizing the various parameters involved
in deformation machining process either to minimise the genera-
tion of residual stresses in order to improve the process accuracy
or optimize them according to the required product application.
4. Conclusion
In the present study, behavior and magnitude of surface resid-
ual stresses generated in deformation machining process has been
presented. The results show primarily compressive surface residual
stresses in thin machined sections at the tested parametric levels.
Incremental bending resulted in lessening of compressive residual
stresses on the tensile face and increase in compressive residual
stresses on the compressive face of the DM bending mode com-
ponents. Reduction of compressive surface residual stresses was
noticed at different forming depths on DM stretching mode com-
ponents. Increase in incremental angle, incremental step size and
forming feed rate also results in decrease of surface compressive
residual stress generated by prior machining. Overall, stresses in
DM bending and stretching mode component were compressive in
nature due to the dominating effect of compressive surface residual
stresses generated during the thin section machining.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledges DST projectSB/FTP/ETA-254/2012 for
providing the financial support and IIT Ropar for providing the basic
facilities.
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