Physical Electronics Slides of Chapter 3

PHYSICAL ELECTRONICS(ECE3540)
CHAPTER 3 – INTRODUCTION TO THE QUANTUM THEORY
OF SOLIDS
Brook Abegaz, Tennessee Technological University, Fall 2013
Tennessee Technological University Friday, September 13, 2013 1
Chapter 3 – Introduction to
the Quantum Theory of Solids
 Chapter 2: application of quantum mechanics
and Schrodinger’s wave equation to
determine the behavior of electrons in the
presence of various potential functions.
 an electron bound to an atom or bound
within a finite space can take on only discrete
values of energy; Energies are quantized!
 Pauli Exclusion Principle: only one electron is
allowed to occupy any given quantum state.
Chapter 3 – Introduction to
the Quantum Theory of Solids
 Chapter 3: generalization of these concepts to
the electron in a crystal lattice.
 Determine the properties of electrons in a crystal
lattice, and to determine the statistical
characteristics of the very large number of
electrons in a crystal.
 Since current in a solid is due to the net flow of
charge, it is important to determine the response
of an electron in the crystal to an applied
external force, such as an electric field.
Allowed and Forbidden Energy Bands
 The energy of the bound electron is
quantized: Only discrete values of electron
energy are allowed.
 It is possible to extrapolate the single‐atom
results to a crystal and qualitatively derive the
concepts of allowed and forbidden energy
bands.
Formation of Energy Bands
 The wave functions of the two atom electrons
overlap, which means that the two electrons
will interact. This interaction or perturbation
results in the discrete quantized energy level
splitting into two discrete energy levels.
Kronig‐Penney Model
 The concept of allowed and forbidden energy
bands can be developed more rigorously by
considering quantum mechanics and
Schrodinger’s wave equation.
 The result forms the basis for the energy‐band
theory of semiconductors.
 The solution to Schrodinger’s wave equation, for
a one‐dimensional single crystal lattice, is made
more tractable by considering a simpler
potential function in the Kronig–Penney model,
which is used to represent a one‐dimensional
single‐crystal lattice.
Kronig‐Penney Model
 For a single crystalline lattice, the Kronig Penney
model gives the relation between the wave
number parameter k=2π/λ, total energy E (through
the parameter α2=2mE/ħ2), and the potential
barrier bV0.
 It is not a solution of Schrodinger’s wave equation
but gives the conditions for which Schrodinger’s
wave equation will have a solution.
where a = width of the region, b = width of the
barrier, and Vo = amplitude of the potential barrier.
Electrical Condition in Solids
 Covalent bonding of Silicon determines how
the Silicon crystal is formed.
 As the temperature increases some valence

electrons of the Si atom can break the
covalent bond structure and jump into the
conduction band.
 In terms of the k‐space diagram:
 Drift Current: electric current due to applied
electric field.
 for a collection of positively charged ions having:
a) Volume density N(cm‐3)
b) Average drift velocity Vd(cm/s)
 Drift Current Density
 a collection of positively charged ions with a
volume density N (cm−3) and an average drift
velocity vd (cm/s), then the drift current density
would be:
Electron Effective Mass
 Movement of electrons in a lattice affects the mass
of electrons, which results in a different movement
of electrons than in a free space.
 Effective mass is a parameter that relates the
quantum mechanical results to classical force
equations. The parameter m , called the effective
mass, takes into account the particle mass and also
takes into account the effect of the internal forces.
 If E is the energy of the electron at the conduction
band, E is the applied electric field, e is the charge of
the electron, and a its acceleration, then:
Quantum Theory of Solids in 3D
 Particular characteristics of three dimensional
crystals in terms of E versus k plots, band gap
energy and effective mass are studied.
 The distance between atoms varies as the
direction through the crystal changes, for e.g. in
[100] planes and in [110] plane directions.
 Different directions encounter different potential
patterns and thus different k space boundaries.
 For crystal lattices, the E versus k diagram is
plotted such as [100] direction is along the +k
axis and [111] direction is along the –k axis.
 Direct Band Gap Semiconductors = semiconductor
lattice whose minimum conduction band energy and
maximum valence band energy occurs at the same k.
Example is GaAs.
 Transition between a valence band state and
conduction band state occurs without a change in
Crystal Momentum.
 These materials are better suited for semiconductor
lasers and optical devices.
 Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors = semiconductor
lattice whose minimum conduction band energy and
maximum valence band energy occurs at different k.
Example are Si, Ge, GaP, AlAs.
Density of States Function
 Aim
 We want to find density of carriers in a
semiconductor
 1st find the number of available states at each
energy level.
 2nd find the number of electrons by
multiplying number of states with the
probability of occupancy.
 It involves determining the density of allowed
energy states as a function of energy in order to
calculate the electron and hole concentrations.
 It is important to find out the available number
of electrons and holes available for conduction
and to describe the V‐I characteristics in a
semiconductor.
 Density of states in a semiconductor equals
density of number of solutions of Schrödinger’s
wave equation to unit volume and energy.
 In a crystal lattice, if a potential function V(x,
y, z) exists as a potential well such as:
 V(x, y, z) = 0 for 0 < x < a, 0 < y < a, 0 < z < a
and V(x, y, z) = ∞ otherwise,
(a free electron confined to three-dimensional infinite
potential well),
Using wave number k = nπ/a, and therefore n = nx +
ny + nz,
 Now, distance between two quantum states:
 Volume Vk of a single quantum state:
 Differential volume is (4πk2)dk because total volume = 4/3 πk3.
 Differential density of quantum states in space which is also
 where 2 is for two spin states allowed for each quantum state,
1/8 is for positive regions of each quantum state kx, ky, kz ,
4πk2dk is the differential volume, and (π/a)3 = volume of one
quantum state.
 Substitute k2, k and dk/dE as
 To find:
 This gives the total number of Quantum States
between E and dE. Then dividing by the volume
a3 gives the density of quantum states as a
function of energy.
 This equation gives the density of allowed
electron quantum states using the model of a
free electron with mass m, bounded in a
three dimensional infinite potential well.
 In general, for semi‐conductors, density of
allowed energy states equals
 in conduction band:‐
 In valence band:‐
Statistical Mechanics
 There are three distribution laws determining
the distribution of particles among energy
states:
1. Maxwell‐Boltzmann
 Particles are considered to be distinguishable and
numbered.
2. Bose‐Einstein
 Particles are indistinguishable with no limit to the number of
particles per energy state.
3. Fermi‐Dirac Probability Function
 Particles in a crystalline lattice are indistinguishable
and also only one particle is allowed per each
quantum state.
Electrons in a crystal obey the Fermi‐Dirac function.
 is the Fermi‐Dirac distribution function
where:
 N(E) = total # of electrons per unit volume
 g(E) = # of quantum states per unit volume
 EF = Fermi energy level.
 fF(E) = ratio of filled to total quantum states.
 An approximation to Fermi‐Dirac function is
Maxwell‐Boltzmann where:‐
Exercise
1. Let T = 300K. Determine the probability of
finding an electron at an energy level of 3kT
higher (above) than the Fermi energy EF of
the electron.
2. Assume the Fermi energy level is 0.3 eV
below the conduction band energy Ec.
Assume T = 300K.
a) Determine the probability of a state being
occupied by an electron at E = Ec + kT/4.
b) Find the probability of a state being occupied by
an electron at E = Ec + kT.
Solution
1. Using Fermi‐Dirac function at 3kT higher
energy level:
Solution
2. Using Fermi‐Dirac function at E = Ec + kT/4
and at E = Ec + kT where EF = Ec – 0.3eV
Substituting, we find,
a) 7.26*10‐6
and b) 3.43*10‐6.
Picture Credits
 Semiconductor Physics and Devices, Donald
Neaman, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill Publications.
 Spin up and spin down of Lithium atom in 1D array
of tubes, Courtsey: Professor Randall G. Hulet,
Rice University

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PHYSICAL ELECTRONICS(ECE3540)

 As the temperature increases some valence

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