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Research Paper PDF
Research Paper PDF
91
Geomorphology by Pmfias.com
Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion............................92
Interior Of The Earth .................................................................... 1 Marine Erosional Landforms ..................................................93
Seismic waves ................................................................................... 3 Marine Depositional Landforms ...........................................93
Propagation of Earthquake Waves ........................................ 5 Coastlines .........................................................................................94 Page
Earth’s Layers................................................................................... 6 Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ............................96 | 1
Earth Movements............................................................................ 8 Glacial Erosional Landforms...................................................97
Earth Movements – Exogenetic Forces.............................. 11 Glacial Depositional Landforms ............................................97
Continental Drift Theory - Tectonics .................................. 14 Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion..................................98
Convectional Current Theory – Tectonics ........................ 19 Erosional Arid Landforms ........................................................98
Paleomagnetism .......................................................................... 20 Arid Depositional Landforms............................................... 100
Concept of Sea Floor Spreading ............................................ 21 Lakes ............................................................................................... 102
Plate Tectonics .............................................................................. 22 Important Lakes on Earth..................................................... 105
Plate Tectonics - Interaction of Plates ............................... 24 Plateau ........................................................................................... 108
Comparison: Continental Drift – See Floor Spreading – Plateau Formation.................................................................... 108
Plate Tectonics .............................................................................. 27 Plateau Types .............................................................................. 109
Ocean - Ocean Convergence or The Island - Arc Major plateaus of the World ................................................ 110
Convergence ................................................................................... 29
Continent - Ocean Convergence Or The Cordilleran
Convergence ................................................................................... 32 Interior Of The Earth
Continent - Continent Convergence or The Himalayan
Convergence ................................................................................... 35 ▪ The configuration of the surface of the earth
is largely a product of the processes
Formation of Himalayans and Tibet .................................. 36
operating in the interior of the earth.
Continent – Arc Convergence or New Guinea
Convergence ................................................................................... 39 Exogenic as well as endogenic processes are
Orogeny ............................................................................................ 39 constantly shaping the landscape.
Granular Disintegration
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Estuaries
Drumlin
Youth
Rill
Climatology and Climatic The velocity and direction of the wind are
the net result of the wind generating
Regions by Pmfias.com forces.
The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3
Jet streams ......................................................................................... 1 km above the surface, are free from
frictional effect of the surface and are
Air Masses .......................................................................................... 6 controlled by the pressure gradient and Page
Fronts ................................................................................................... 8 the Coriolis force. |1
Classification of Fronts................................................................. 9 An air parcel initially at rest will move from
high pressure to low pressure because of
Tropical Cyclones......................................................................... 12 the Pressure Gradient Force (PGF).
Temperate Cyclones or Extra Tropical Cyclones or Mid-
Latitude Cyclones or Frontal Cyclones .............................. 25
Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones Comparison
.............................................................................................................. 28
Polar Vortex ................................................................................... 29
Ozone Hole [Ozone Depletion at South Pole].................. 31
El Nino .............................................................................................. 33
El Nino Southern Oscillation [ENSO] .................................. 35
Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El Nino year is
same in India)................................................................................ 36 However, as that air parcel begins to move,
El Niño Modoki ............................................................................. 36 it is deflected by the Coriolis force to the
right in the northern hemisphere (to the
La Nina ............................................................................................. 37 left in the southern hemisphere).
Koeppen’s scheme Of Classification Of Climate ............. 38 As the wind gains speed, the deflection
Tropical Wet Climate (Af) ....................................................... 39 increases until the Coriolis force equals the
pressure gradient force (2 – 3 km above the
Tropical Monsoon Climate ...................................................... 45 ground, friction is low and winds travel at
Savanna Climate or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate or greater speeds).
Sudan Climate ............................................................................... 49 At this point, the wind will be blowing
B: Desert Climate ......................................................................... 51 parallel to the isobars (perpendicular to
Pressure Gradient Force). When this
Steppe Climate or Temperate Continental Climate or happens, the wind is referred to as
Temperate Grassland Climate ............................................... 55 geostrophic wind.
Mediterranean Climate or Warm Temperate Western
Margin Climate or Warm Temperate West Coast Why winds don’t flow from tropical high
Climate.............................................................................................. 59 pressure (in upper troposphere) to polar low
(in upper troposphere) directly as shown in
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate..................... 62 figure below?
British Type Climate ................................................................... 65
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate .......................................... 69
Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate Eastern Marine
Climate.............................................................................................. 72
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate .... 75
Jet streams
Geostrophic Wind
Once this boundary resumes its forward Such a front is formed when a cold air
motion, becomes a warm front or cold mass replaces a warm air mass by
front. advancing into it or that the warm air
mass retreats and cold air mass advances
(cold air mass is the clear winner).
In such a situation, the transition zone
between the two is a cold front. Page
Cold front moves up to twice as quickly | 10
as warm fronts.
Frontolysis begin when the warm air mass
is completely uplifted by the cold air mass.
Weather along a stationary front
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All the wind that is carried upwards loses If ocean can supply more moisture, the
its moisture and becomes cold and dense. storm will reach a mature stage.
It descends to the surface through the
cylindrical eye region and at the edges of Mature stage
the cyclone.
Continuous supply of moisture from the At this stage, the spiraling winds create
sea is the major driving force behind every multiple convective cells with successive
cyclone. On reaching the land the calm and violent regions.
moisture supply is cut off and the storm The regions with cumulonimbus cloud
dissipates. (rising limbs of convective cell) formation
that of Port Darwin IOD develops in the equatorial region of
Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in
Pressure high over eastern Reverse October.
Pacific and low over With a positive IOD winds over the Indian
Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of
Drought conditions in Reverse Bengal towards Arabian Sea). This results
Eastern Pacific and good in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean Page
rainfall in Western Pacific near African Coast) being much warmer | 36
(Northern Australia and and eastern Indian Ocean around
Indonesia) Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
In the negative dipole year (negative IOD),
Good for Indian Monsoons Bad for Indian reverse happens making Indonesia much
Monsoons warmer and rainier.
It was demonstrated that a positive IOD
Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not
index often negated the effect of ENSO,
every El Nino year is same in India) resulting in increased Monsoon rains in
several ENSO years like the 1983, 1994
and 1997.
Further, it was shown that the two poles of
the IOD - the eastern pole (around
Indonesia) and the western pole (off the
African coast) were independently and
cumulatively affecting the quantity of rains
for the Monsoon in the Indian
subcontinent.
Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric
component of the IOD was later discovered
and named as Equatorial Indian Ocean
Oscillation [EQUINOO][Oscillation of
warm water and atmospheric pressure
between Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea].
Types of Rainfall
Conventional Rainfall
Ocean Relief
Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic,
volcanic, erosional and depositional
processes and their interactions.
Ocean relief features are divided into major
and minor relief features.
Ridges,
Hills,
Seamounts,
The continental shelves are covered with Submerged region between Australia and
variable thicknesses of sediments brought New Guinea.
down by rivers, glaciers etc.. The shelf is formed mainly due to
Massive sedimentary deposits received over 1. submergence of a part of a continent
a long time by the continental shelves, 2. relative rise in sea level
become the source of fossil fuels 3. Sedimentary deposits brought down
[Petroleum]. by rivers Page
Examples: Continental Shelf of South-East |2
Asia, Great Banks around Newfoundland,
There are various types of shelves based on The shelves are almost absent or very
different sediments of terrestrial origin — narrow along some of the margins like the
1. glaciated shelf (Surrounding Greenland), coasts of Chile, the west coast of Sumatra,
2. coral reef shelf (Queensland, Australia), etc. [Ocean – Continent Convergence and
3. shelf of a large river (Around Nile Delta), Ocean – Ocean Convergence].
4. shelf with dendritic valleys (At the It is up to 120 km wide along the eastern
Mouth of Hudson River) coast of USA. On the contrary, the
5. shelf along young mountain ranges Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the
(Shelves between Hawaiian Islands). largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km
in width.
Width
Cold ocean currents have a direct effect on They are responsible for moderate
desert formation in west coast regions of temperatures at coasts. [North Atlantic
the tropical and subtropical continents. Drift brings warmness to England. Canary
There is fog and most of the areas are arid cold current brings cooling effect to Spain,
due to desiccating effect (loss of Portugal etc.]
moisture).
Fishing
Rains
Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents
Warm ocean currents bring rain to coastal bear richest fishing grounds in the world.
areas and even interiors. Example: Example: Grand Banks around
Summer Rainfall in British Type climate. Newfoundland, Canada and North-Eastern
Warm currents flow parallel to the east Coast of Japan.
coasts of the continents in tropical and The mixing of warm and cold currents help
subtropical latitudes. This results in warm to replenish the oxygen and favor the
and rainy climates. These areas lie in the growth of planktons, the primary food for
western margins of the subtropical anti- fish population. The best fishing grounds
cyclones.
Under the influence of prevailing trade
winds [easterly trade winds], the north
equatorial current and the south
equatorial current start from the south of
Indonesian islands, moving from east to
west.
This raises the level of western Indian Page
(south-east of horn of Africa) ocean by few | 26
centimeters. And this creates a counter-
equatorial current which flows between
the north equatorial current and the south
equatorial current in west-east direction.
The north-east monsoons drive the water
along the coast of Bay of Bengal to
circulate in an anti-clockwise direction.
Similarly, the water along the coast of
Arabian Sea also circulate in an anti-
Indian Ocean Currents clockwise circulation.
Together, the gravitational pull and the The movement of the moon in relation to
centrifugal force are responsible for the earth.
creating the two major tidal bulges on the Changes in position of the sun and moon
earth. in relation to the earth.
On the side of the earth facing the moon, Uneven distribution of water over the
a tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite globe.
side though the gravitational attraction of Irregularities in the configuration of the
the moon is less as it is farther away, the oceans.
centrifugal force causes tidal bulge on the
other side. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CTQ6ciH
The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference ENgI
between these two forces; i.e. the
gravitational attraction of the moon On the surface of the earth, the horizontal
and the centrifugal force. tide generating forces are more important
On the surface of the earth, nearest the than the vertical forces in generating the
moon, pull or the attractive force of the tidal bulges.
moon is greater than the centrifugal force, The tidal bulges on wide continental
and so there is a net force causing a bulge shelves, have greater height. When tidal
towards the moon. bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands they
On the opposite side of the earth, the become low.
attractive force is less, as it is farther The shape of bays and estuaries along a
away from the moon, the centrifugal coastline can also magnify the intensity of
force is dominant. Hence, there is a net tides.
force away from the moon. It creates the Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal
second bulge away from the moon. magnitudes. When the tide is channeled
between islands or into bays and
Factors Controlling the Nature and estuaries they are called tidal currents
Magnitude of Tides (tidal bore is one such tidal current).
It is the plateau of eastern Rajasthan. the Aravali Range and flow towards
[Marwar plain is to the west of Aravalis northwest into Chambal river. The
whereas Marwar plateau is to the east]. erosional activity of these rives make the
The average elevation is 250-500 m above plateau top appear like a rolling plain.
sea level and it slopes down eastwards. [Rolling Plain: ‘Rolling plains’ are not
It is made up of sandstone, shales and completely flat: there are slight rises and fall
limestones of the Vindhayan period. in the land form. Ex: Prairies of USA]
The Banas river, along with its tributaries
[Berach river, Khari rivers] originate in Central Highland
At present these islands are collectively Drainage patterns
known as Lakshadweep.
The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of Based on the shape and formation of river
25 small islands. patters, there are different drainage
They are widely scattered about 200-500 patterns.
km south-west of the Kerala coast. Basics
Amendivi Islands are the northern most Page
while the Minicoy island is the Drainage basin | 37
southernmost.
All are tiny islands of coral origin {Atoll}
Other terms that are used to describe
drainage basins are catchment, catchment
and are surrounded by fringing reefs.
area, catchment basin, drainage area, river
The largest and the most advanced is the
basin, and water basin.
Minicoy island with an area of 4.53 sq
km. The drainage basin includes both the
Most of the islands have low elevation and streams and rivers and the land surface.
do not rise more than five metre above sea The drainage basin acts as a funnel by
level (Extremely Vulnerable to sea level collecting all the water within the area
change). covered by the basin and channeling it to a
Their topography is flat and relief features
such as hills, streams, valleys, etc. are
absent.
New Moore Island
single point.
In closed ("endorheic") drainage basins
the water converges to a single point inside
the basin, known as a sink, which may be
a permanent lake [Lake Aral], dry lake
It is a small uninhabited offshore sandbar [some desert lakes], or a point where
landform {Marine Landforms} in the Bay of surface water is lost underground [sink
Bengal, off the coast of the Ganges- holes in Karst landforms]. Other Examples:
Brahmaputra Delta region. Lake Chad [Africa], Dead Sea etc.
It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the Drainage Divide
aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in 1970. It
keeps on emerging and disappearing.
Although the island was uninhabited and
there were no permanent settlements or
stations located on it, both India and
Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it
because of speculation over the existence
of oil and natural gas in the region.
The issue of sovereignty was also a part of
the larger dispute over the Radcliffe
Award methodology of settling the
maritime boundary between the two
nations
Page
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