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CRIMINOLOGY, textbook, 12th ed.

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Djordje Ignjatović
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Đorđe Ignjatović

CRIMINOLOGY, textbook, 12th ed.

Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Beograd, 2015. pp.292

SUMMARY

The 12th edition of the CRIMINOLOGY written by professor Djordje Ignjatović contains the
Introduction and five chapters. The purpose of this book has been to make an attempt to develop an
original system of criminology. It is defined as an independent science which by making use of the
knowledge and research procedures of other sciences (sociology, psychology and alike sciences
dealing with human behavior and community) empirically studies the criminal phenomenon, i.e., the
crime, the perpetrator and the victim of the crime, criminality, as well as the way in which a society
reacts to criminal behavior. Criminology studies its subject (the phenomenon of crime) on three
planes – phenomenological (descriptive), etiological (causal) and victimological (from the victim′s
standpoint). This synthetically approach which is deemed more fruitful also avoids the division of this
science into separate branches. That division has so far been one of the principal causes leading to the
formation of „separate criminologies“ which have developed separately and independently from one
another.
Proceeding from this conception of criminology, the entire system of this science has been
developed, including the original division of its methods into three large groups. The extremes are
comprised of the method of individual case study (which brings the individual case into the focus) and
the statistical method (its chief feature being the global approach and tendency to include the over-all
occurrences of a certain type), whereas the „medium size“ methods are found between them. Since all
of them are epistemologically limited, special attention is paid to the triangulation (simultaneous
utilization) of methods. The same also applies to theories. On the other hand, all theoretical
approaches in criminology are divided into the classical and positivistic theories, as well as the
theories of social reaction.
The benefits of the synthetically approach are best shown in the presentation of the three
dimensions of the criminal phenomenon. Criminality is divided into the violent, property, political
and traffic crime. In reference to the violent, there is a distinction between its traditional forms
(murders, bodily injuries, rape, robbery) and the more recent ones (family violence and child abuse).
Property crime is divided into the situational (occasional) and conventional, the white-collar and
corporation crimes, as well as organized crime. Political crime is determined in a broader sense and
includes two types of acts: those jeopardizing the internal and external security of a state and the acts
of the „abuse of power“.
Regarding the etiological dimension it points to two basic approaches of the causation in
criminology (monocausal and multicausal), as well as to the interinfluence of the two groups of
factors caused by every individual criminal behavior. Those are the external – environmental and the
internal – individual factors. The external are divided into the natural, physical and social factors. The
effect of the latter is viewed in the light of whether it is being exhibited in the periods of relative
social peace (hereby are noted: the individual status and deprivation of chance, political
rebelliousness, the impact of the contracultural groups, the inefficiency of the socialization
mechanisms, the mass media impact and the impact of the social repression mechanisms) or in the
periods of social disorder (hereby are noted: steep changes in the economic structure, crises and
economic collapses, migrations, wars and revolutions). Concerning individual factors, it points to the
personality of the perpetrator, dependence on addictive substances, low self-control and criminal
career.
The need to integrate the knowledge concerning the victim in criminology has governed the
presentation of the dimension relative to the victimization of the criminal phenomenon. Bearing in
mind the importance of the way in which the victim reacts to crime, as well as of the fact that the
perpetrator and the victim comprise an inseparable pair, it has been agreed that there is neither need to
single out victimology as an independent science, which should concern itself with studies of the
victims of crimes, nor is it necessary to constitute a branch of criminology under that title.
Chapter V is concerned with the way in which a society reacts to crime and criminality. This
chapter elaborates issues relating to image and mythology of crime. Author analyses some forms of
informal crime control. Than, he focus mechanisms of formal control: first of all the criminal law as a
normative system which determines limits and severity of criminal repression, the exercising of the
functions of the police organs and the sentences pronounced by courts which elucidates some
traditional questions (whether the courts pursue the „punitive policy“, whether the submitted
objections relating to mild penalties are justified, whether and to what extent they are independent in
the exercise of their functions).
There is a separate part of this chapter which is concerned with correctional institutions and
society attempts to use imprisonment as a means of keeping criminality under control. The guarantees
of the rights of man relative to the organs of formal social control comprise the self-contained unit
which points to the importance of the respect of human rights in every situation including judicial
process as well. In the final part the author analysis the new trends in crime control (as restitutive and
restorative justice, two main trends in juvenile justice and crime control in global perspective.
 CONTENTS

Contents (in Serbian) 5

Preface 9

INTRODUCTION
1. On the interest in crime 11
2. The need for the scientific study of crime 13
3. Survey of the fundamental notions 14
4. Criminological literature 17

Chapter I:
THE CONCEPT AND THE SUBJECT
OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. General overview and division of the definitions of criminology 19
1.1. Division of the definitions of criminology according to their scope 19
1.1.1. Broader definitions contents 19
1.1.2. Narrower definitions contents 20
1.2. Division of the definitions according to their meaning: disputes 20
1.2.1. Science of act or the science of perpetrator 20
1.2.2. Science of factors or the science of conducts 21
1.2.3. Crimino logy of act or criminology of social reaction 21
2. Definit ion of criminology and its essential characteristics 21
3. The subject of criminology 22
3.1. Crime as the subject of criminology 23
3.1.1. Various conceptions of crime 23
3.1.2. Broader and narrower definitions of crime 24
3.1.3. Crime and deviation 25
3.2.3.1. Definitions of deviation 25
3.2.3.2. Realationships: crime and deviation 26
3.2. Social reaction to criminal behavior 27
4. Place of criminology within the system of sciences 27
4.1. Relationship between criminology and other criminal sciences 27
4.1.1. Relationship to criminal law 28
4.1.2. Relationship to criminal policy 28
4.1.3. Relationship to penology 30
4.1.4. Relationship to criminalistics 30
4.2. Relationship to social pathology 31
5. Criminology and „criminological disciplines“ 31
5.1. Relationship between criminology and victimology 32
6. The importance of criminology 33
6.1. The importance of criminology in relation to criminal justice 33
6.2. Criminal justice administration and research results 33
6.3. Applied criminology 34
7. Role of the criminologist 35
7.1. Professional ethics 37

Chapter II:
METHODS OF CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH
1. Introduction 38
1.1. Importance of methodological education 38
1.2. Method and methodology 38
 1.3. Notion and forms of scientific research 38
1.3.1. Evaluative research 39
2. Research process 39
3. Method and object of research 40
4. Method and theory 40
5. Division of criminological methods 41
5.1. Division according to the type of data 41
5.2. Division according to the approach used when dealing with the subject 42
5.3. Historic, co mparative and predict ion research strategies 42
6. Individual case studies 45
6.1. Clinical method; the prognosis of criminal behavior; risk factor research 45
6.2. Anamnestical methods; participant observation 46
6.3. Unobtrusive methods; analysis of documents and contents; meta-analysis; crime mapping 47
7. „Medium size“ methods 48
7.1. Sample 49
7.2. Fear of crime surveys 49
7.3. Longitudinal inquiry 50
7.4. Experiment 51
8. Application of statistics in criminology 52
8.1. Application of statistical methods 52
8.1.1. Method of correlation 52
8.2. Statistical evidence of criminality 53
8.2.1. Data containing statistical evidence 53
8.2.2. History and comparative survey 53
8.2.3. Division of statistical evidence 54
8.2.4. Criticism of the statistical evidence 55
8.2.5. Dark figure of crime 56
8.2.6. Methods used to discover dark figure 58
8.2.6.1. „Self-report“ studies 58
8.2.6.2. Victim surveys 58
8.2.6.3. Evaluation of the method used to discover the dark figure 59
8.2.7. Figure of exaggeration 60
8.3. Evaluation of statistics application in criminology 60
9. Triangulation of methods 61

Chapter III:
THEORIES IN CRIMINOLOGY
1. Division of theories and early explanations of crime 63
2. Classical orientation in criminology 63
2.1. Founders and the most important representatives 64
2.1.1. Beccaria 64
2.1.2. Bentham 64
2.1.3. Feuerbach 64
2.1.4. Carrara 64
2.2. Strengths and criticism 65
2.3. Contemporary Neoclassicism 65
2.4. Right realism 65
3. Positivistic orientation in criminology 66
3.1. Cartography and „criminological Holy three“ 66
3.2. Anthropological, Italian school 66
3.2.1. Precursors: Physiognomy and phrenology 66
3.2.2. Lombroso 67
3.2.3. Garofalo 67
3.2.4. Ferri 67
 3.3. Biological conceptions 68
3.3.1. Crime and body constitution 68
3.3.2. The impact of the genetic factors 68
3.3.2.1. Families and criminal heredity 68
3.3.2.2. Twins and adoption studies 69
3.3.2.3. Chromosomal abnormality 69
3.3.3. General review of biological conceptions 70
3.4. Psychological conceptions 70
3.4.1. Psychoanalytical explanations 70
3.4.2. Theories of intelligence 71
3.4.3. Eysenck’s personality theory 71
3.4.4. Psychopathy and crime 72
3.4.5. Evaluation of psychological theories 72
3.5. Sociological conceptions 72
3.5.1. School of social environment 72
3.5.1.1. Tarde 73
3.5.1.2. Durkheim 73
3.5.2. Sociological school; Von Liszt 73
3.5.2.1. Aschaffenburg 74
3.5.3. Theory of historical materialism 74
3.5.3.1. Utopian socialists 74
3.5.3.2. Founders of the theory 74
3.5.3.3. The influence in criminology; Bonger 74
3.5.4. Chicago school and successors 75
3.5.4.1. General overview on early American sociological theories 75
3.5.4.2. Crime ecology 75
3.5.4.3. Cultural conflict theories 76
3.5.4.4. Learning theories 78
3.5.4.5. Strain theories 78
3.5.4.6. Control theories 80
4. Theories of social reaction 80
4.1. New social defense 80
4.2. Interactionism and the theory of labeling 81
4.3. Radical criminology 82
4.3.1. „Early works“ 82
4.3.2. Critical criminology today 83
4.3.2.1. Orientations within critical criminology 83
4.4. Feminist approach 85
4.4.1. „Early stage“ 85
4.4.2. Contemporary feminism: the main orientations 85
5. New criminological theories 86
5.1. Rational choice theories 86
5.2. New environmental theories 87
5.3. Cultural criminology theories 88
5.4. Masculinity theories 89
5.5. Reintegrative shaming and communitarian theories 89
5.6. Life course theories 90
5.7. Integrated theories 91
5.8. Triangulation of theories 92
5.8.1. New forms of traingulation: merge criminology and some other sciences
5.9. Evaluating theory criteria

Chapter IV:
THREE DIMENSIONS
OF CRIMINAL PHENOMENON
1. The phenomenological d imension of criminal phenomena 93
1.1. Data concerning criminality throughout the world 93
1.1.1. Comparison of data 94
1.1.2. Countries with high crime rates 95
1.1.2.1. Some possible explanations 97
1.1.3. Countries with the low criminality rate 98
1.2. Structure and trends of criminality in Serbia 100
1.2.1 Criminality of adults 101
1.2.1.1. Registered adult perpetrators 101
1.2.1.2. Convicted adults 101
1.2.2. Juvenile criminality 101
1.2.2.1. Registered juvenile perpetrators 101
1.2.2.2. Convicted juveniles 101
1.3. Criminality prognosis 102
1.4. Typology of acts and perpetrators 102
1.4.1. Legalistic typology 103
1.4.2. Social environment as criterion 103
1.4.3. Clinical typology 103
1.4.4. Motives as criterion 103
1.4.4.1. Hate crimes 104
1.5.1. Main types of criminality 104
1.5.1. Vio lent crime: notion, forms and roots of aggression 105
1.5.2. Forms of violent crime 106
1.5.2.1. Traditional forms 106
1.5.2.2. New forms 107
1.5.3. Property crime; concept and reaction of citizens 109
1.5.3.1. Types of property crime 110
1.5.3.1.1. Situational and conventional property crime 111
1.5.3.1.2. White-collar and corporation crime 111
1.5.3.1.3. Organized crime 114
1.5.4. Political crime 117
1.5.4.1. Terrorism 118
1.5.5. Traffic crime 119
2. Etiological dimension of criminal phenomena 121
2.1. Two approaches concerning causation in criminology 121
2.2. An attempt to explain causation 121
2.3. Factors of criminal behavior 124
2.3.1. External, ambiental factors 124
2.3.1.1 Criminogenic factors impact in the periods of relative social peace 125
2.3.1.2. Criminogenic factors impact in the periods of social disorder 127
2.3.2. Internal, individual factors 129
2.3.2.1. Personality of the perpetrator 129
2.3.2.2. Dependence on addictive substances 130
2.3.2.3. Low self-control 131
2.3.2.4. Criminal career 132
3. Victimological dimension of criminal phenomena 134
3.1. „Victimless crimes“ 136

Chapter V:
SOCIAL REACTION TO CRIME
AND CRIMINALITY
1. Forms of reaction of a society to criminal behavior 137
1.1. Image and mythology of crime 137
1.2. Informal reaction 138
1.2.1. Fear of crime 138
 1.2.2. Informal control from community 139
1.2.3. Collective response to crime 140
1.2.3.1. Lynch 140
1.2.3.2. Self-organized forms; strategies of community control 140
1.3. Formal reaction 141
2. Criminal law and the reaction to criminal behavior 141
2.1. Determination of the limits of criminal repression 141
2.1.1. Dynamics of incriminations: criminal law and culture 141
2.1.2. Hyperincrimination 141
2.1.3. Decriminalization 142
2.1.4. Incriminalization 143
2.2. Determination of the severity of criminal repression 143
2.2.1. The essence of punishment 143
2.2.2. The goal of punishment 144
2.2.3. Rules of sentencing 144
3. Police and crime control 145
3.1. Origins of modern police 145
3.2. Police tasks 146
3.3. Strategies of policing 146
3.4. Discretion and the conflict of roles 149
3.5. Police and use of power 149
3.6. Risks of profession 150
3.7. Stress and sub-culture of police officers 150
3.8. Objections to the police 151
3.8.1. Police costs and its efficiency 151
3.8.2. Bureaucratization 152
3.8.3. Politicization 152
3.8.4. Use and abuse of power 152
3.8.5. Police corruption 154
3.9. Further development of the police 155
3.9.1. Privatization of policing 155
3.9.2. Scientific research on police 156
4. Courts and sentencing 156
4.1. Sentencing trends in Serbia 157
4.1.1. Types of inflicted sanctions 157
4.1.2. Objections to the courts 158
4.1.3. Sentencing disparities 159
4.2. Independence of the judiciary 160
5. Prisons and control of criminality 160
5.1. The origins of imprisonment and prisons 161
5.2. The situation in the early prisons and their reformers 162
5.3. Classical systems of imprisonment 164
5.3.1. Systems of solitary confinement 164
5.3.2. Combined, „progressive system“ 166
5.4. „Modern“ system of execution 167
5.4.1. Resocialization as the goal of punishment 168
5.4.2. Individualization in treatment 168
5.4.3. Human treatment of convicts 170
5.5. Contemporary criticism of imprisonment and resocialization 171
5.5.1. Argumentation concerning imprisonment 171
5.5.1.1 The goal of arrest 171
5.5.1.2. Negative effects on the convict; Prison communuty 171
5.5.1.3. The length of the sentence 173
5.5.1.4. How many types of imprisonment 174
 5.5.1.5 Growth of prison population, overcrowding and costs of execution 174
5.5.1.6. Prison riots and violence among prisoners 175

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