Exploration and Evaluation of the Orinoco Oil Belt G. Fiorillo Petroleos de Venezuela, SA Caracas, Venezuela During 1983, the regional exploration and evaluation program of the 53,000 km? (20,460 mi’) of the Ori noco Heavy Oil Belt was concluded. This evaluation, based on the interpretation of 25,000 km of seismic lines, 800 exploration wells, and 600 production tests, resulted in an estimation of 1.2 X 10” barrels of oil in place. This confirms the existence in southeastern Venezuela of one of the largest oil accumulations in the world. Production tests have shown great similarity with heavy-oil fields in traditional areas, i., average cold well rates between 100 and 800 b/d and a threefold increase of this figure upon steam soak. The oil discovered has an average gravity of 9.5° API, with an average viscosity of 1500 cp at 99°C (210°F), sulfur content 3.6%, vanadium 420 ppm, and nickel 95 ppm. ‘One of the fundamental parts of the evaluation was the construction of sedimentary models to support the geological interpretation and the estimation of oil in place. ‘The stratigraphy of the area was established, permitting sedimentary models to be constructed, based on a well-to-well correlation and the analysis of 3290 m (10,800 ft) of conventional cores. The main reservoir rocks are predominantly encountered in the basal section of the Tertiary and are formed of unconsolidated fluvio-deltaic sands. Some oil has been trapped in rocks of Upper Cretaceous age, especially toward the west. The trapping mechanism for oil in these conditions is mainly stratigraphic such as pinch-out and truncation of a complex set of meanders where intercutting of previously formed sand structures can occur. In some re- stricted areas, a combination of faulting and stratigraphy can be the trapping mechanism. The physical and chemical properties of the oil are probably due to long-distance migration (some 100-150 km [60-90 mil) and the consequent loss of volatiles and oxidation during migration. Applying a recovery factor of 30% as a result of cyclic steam injection followed by steam drive, recoverable oil is estimated to be 245 X 10” bbl. Faja oil is basically naphthenic Its presently foreseen that production requirements from the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt will be on the order of 500,000 bbliday by the year 2000. INTRODUCTION Exploration work in the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt, sponsored by several multinational oil companies, began in 1920. The activities were abandoned because of a lack of interest in the area at that time. Explora- tory activities were reinitiated between 1930 and 1940, with the drilling of 45 wells. During this decade, the different types of crudes of the area then known as the “Faja Bituminosa del Orinoco” (Orinoco Tar Belt) were roughly defined. Shortly after, the area was once more abandoned. It was in 1956-1957, with the drilling of new wells, that the production of heavy oil reached a level of 20,000 barrels per day (bid) and it was then that the name “Faja Petrolifera del Orinoco” (Orinoco Oil Belt) was given to the area, since it was proven that it contained predominantly heavy oil and not bituminous material, as originally thought In 1967, Galavis and Velarde presented the first formal study of the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt; based on the information existing at that time, the oil in place was estimated to be 693,000 million stock-tank barrels (STB). During the following decade, the Ministry of Mines and Hydrocarbons initiated an intensive exploratory program, which included the acquisition of 10,602 km of seismic “Dinoseis” lines and the drilling of 116 wells andlor stratigraphic boreholes in eight potential oil- bearing areas. In 1978, after the nationalization of the oil industry, the Venezuelan Government entrusted Petroleos de Venezuela, SA (PDVSA) with the responsibility of con: tinuing the exploratory evaluation of the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt, establishing 1983 as the deadline for 103104 Fiorillo the conclusion of the evaluation In order to complete the exploratory program in an area of 54,000 km* (1540 mit), PDVSA divided the belt into four areas, each one being assigned for evaluation to one of the four operating companies: Cerro Negro to LAGOVEN, Hamaca to MENEVEN, Zuata to MARAVEN, and Machete to CORPOVEN (Fig. 1). ‘The regional exploration program was concluded during 1983, and an integrated report was prepared under the supervision of the Coordination of the Ori- rnoco Oil Belt in Petroleos de Venezuela. The basic information analyzed and used in this final report is the following: © 49,483 km: (19,105 mi?) of gravimetric surveys; © 53,083 km? (20,495 mi’) of magnetometric surveys; © 10,602 km? (4090 mi*) of "Dinoseis” seismic surveys; 14,714 km: (5681 mi) of “Vibroseis” seismic surveys; © 53,983 km? (20,843 mi") of aeromagnetic surveys; # 116 exploration wells completed prior to 1972; © 662 exploration wells drilled 1979-1983; 593 wells intervals evaluated; © 373 oil analyses; © 129 gas analyses: © 206 water analyses; © 5.5 million m (18 million ft) of petrophysical logs; 3276 m (10,749 ft) of cores; and © 11 wells tested with steam injection. ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE STUDY The success achieved in the exploratory evaluation of the entire Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt is attributed mainly to the strategy employed, the great human and economic effort dedicated to the enterprise over a period of approximately 5 years, and especially to the multidisciplinary approach applied to all the activities, of the exploration program. The geophysical programs produced data of wide coverage and in the majority of cases sections with very good seismic resolution, from which reliable interpretation for structural control of the wells was obtained. In geology, regional geological models that define the main oil accumulations were made. The biostrati- graphic zonation in Zuata and Machete areas helped to resolve local correlation problems, especially in the separation of the Cretaceous and Tertiary, and in the correlation of the basal sand intervals of the Oficina and Roblecito-Chaguaramas formations (Fig. 2). The use of modern petrophysical techniques allowed the solution of problems related to fluid distribution in the formations; and computerized evaluation methods, applied to extensive areas, covered a large number of wells. This, combined with core studies, helped not only in the regional geological interpretation, but also in the interpretation of production tests, thus provid- ing results useful for the planning of future develop- ment programs. HeNeVEN Figure 1—Maps showing Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt and the areas assigned to the four operating companies. Geochemical analysis of the crudes also contributed to the evaluation of the fluid content of the accumula- tions. Through these analyses, it was possible to estab- lish the general trends and characteristics of the dif- ferent types of crudes, as well as their geographical distribution. Also, it was confirmed that the greater part of the crude migrated into the belt from an exter- nal source (Fig. 3). Through the analysis of the cold oil production tests and subsequent steam-soak performance, the areas of interest for future development, containing sufficient reserves and accumulation characteristics to permit production planning, were duly identified. GEOPHYSICS The earliest documented geophysical contribution to the evaluation of the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt dates back to 1937 when Standard Oil of Venezuela ran 200 km (124 mi) of refraction surveys in the north of Zuata, using dynamite as the energy source. Subse- quently, the program was extended by new surveys, also using dynamite. Until 1979, a total of 10,602 km (6588 mi) of seismic lines were accumulated and usedSECTION I. Regional Resources 105 MACHETE (corroven) zuaTa Caanavens THis sTuoY CERRO NEGRO (Lasovens THIS sTuoY uexeven [To wawaca { \ \ Figure 2—Stratigraphic correlation chart of Tertiary formations in the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt. in outlining the general structural model. A deep anal- ysis of the results of the vibroseis system led to the application of the new technologies of data acquisition of the vibroseis system, which at present enjoys inten- sive use in the industry. Special exploration studies and experimental semi- high resolution surveys using special methods and parameters, permitted a subsurface coverage of 4.8%. It was expected that a vertical resolution of up to 9m (30 ft) of separation would be obtained, but because of the low range of frequencies in the seismic signal, the resulting resolution was only on the order of 18 m (60 ft) A particular program that deserves special mention was carried out by INTEVEP and consisted of the delimitation of three gas-bearing sands in the Zuata area, found in well SDZ-79, by use of wavelet seismic processing. The results obtained made it possible to correlate amplitude anomalies with the probable limits of the reservoir, thus making this method applicable to the exploitation of gas in unconsolidated sands. Experiments were also performed with the vertical seismic profiling (VSP) in wells NZZ-88X and NZZ- 86X. These wells discovered a flow of basaltic rock that was previously confused with the crystalline basement. The objective was to determine the thickness of the Paleozoic sediments deposited in the Espino tectonic trend. The VSP logs processed in the field failed to show the basal reflector at the forecasted depth: thus, it became necessary to reprocess the data in order to determine whether this was due to a lack of coherence or to the fact that the reflector is really too deep. Cur- rently, INTEVEP is responsible for the reprocessing of the VSP profiles, in order to evaluate its use for pick- ing up basement reflections in this part of the basin.106 Fiorillo DEEP BASIN OIL SOURCE ROCK ! YALE DE LA PASCUA SAN FDO, DE APURE, MIGRATION OF OIL UP DIP ' 4 mm => 20° arr Be toss an oa Figure 3—Diagram showing the oil-migration pattern from the source rock on the north, where the basin is deep, to the reservoir rocks in the Orinoco Heavy Oil Bett GEOLOGY The Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt (Faja Petrolifera del Orinoco) constitutes the southern border of the East- ern Venezuelan basin. The subsurface rocks date from the Precambrian to the Recent and were affected by several tectonic periods, which gave rise to regional events, the combination of which favored large strati- graphic accumulations of oil. Regionally, the most interesting intervals are those of the Tertiary. In some locations interest extends to the Cretaceous, where important accumulations are also found. Because of their importance as reservoir rocks, a qualitative geo- logical synthesis of the Tertiary sediments, which wedge out toward the south, was made. The purpose ‘was to integrate at the regional level the information obtained by the subsidiary companies in the four exploration areas, which are, from east to west, the Cerro Negro, Hamaca, Zuata, and Machete, as well as the results of studies carried out by INTEVEP. INTEVEP integrated the results of the exploration activities performed by the operating companies with those of the research projects to obtain a regionally integrated geological model that includes strati- graphy-sedimentation, structure-tectonics, and char- acterization and distribution of the crudes. This model is considered to be representative of the current conditions in the region and serves as the basis for the assignment of priorities to areas and formula- tion of future development plans. Stratigraphy and Sedimentology An attempt was made to obtain by means of a sedi- mentological and stratigraphic study a general picture of the sequence, distribution, and sedimentary facies relationship of the Tertiary, in order to clarify prob- lems connected with the geological age and nomencla- ture of the sediments. A sedimentological model incor- porating the information of each area was proposed. Regional Stratigraphy Basement The sedimentary sequence was deposited on an igneous-metamorphic basement belonging to the Guayana Shield, which is represented by a diversity of lithological types involving a high percentage of rocks of granitic composition. Paleozoic The Paleozoic is initiated by the development of the Hato-Viejo sandstone and Carrizal argillite forma- tions. The latter contains fossils of lower Cambrian age. Toward the northeast of the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt (Zuata and Machete) a tectonic deep called the“Graben de Espino” is found, which includes Carboni- ferous rocks not identified in other parts of the basin Mesozoic After an extensive period of erosion, Mesozoic sedi- mentation began with a sequence of red beds in the Jurassic. These are associated with tectonic events of great magnitude that produced basaltic flows and intense faulting in the northeastern part of the belt presently known as the Altamira fault zone. Subse- quently, during the Cretaceous, the clastics of the Temblador Group were deposited, comprised of the Canoa and Tigre formations. The depositional envir- onments of these formations are continental and fluvial-marine, respectively. Cenozoic After the Cretaceous-Eocene orogeny and the epei- rogenic uplift of the Heavy Oil Belt and the shield, the area was again eroded to a peneplain. Toward the end of the Eocene, a new cycle of sedimentation started with the transgression of the sea and the deposition of the Roblecito Formation (Merecure Group equivalent), that persisted, with only minor interruption, through the deposition of the Oficina/Chaguaramas Formation. The Tertiary sedimentary column in the belt was deposited during three sedimentary transgressive-re- gressive cycles, The oldest cycle took place during the Oligocene and the other two in the Miocene. Locally, Pliocene deposits of continental origin lie discordantly on the Miocene. Cycle 1 (Oligocene) sediments are present only in the western part of the belt (Machete and western Zuata areas) and include three lithostratigraphic units: Basal sandstones of the Roblecito Formation (maxi- mum point of the transgression) and regressive sand- stones of the Chaguaramas Formation. The latter for- mation nomenclature is restricted in this synthesis to the sandy interval present only in the Machete area. Cycles 2 and 3 of the Miocene have been subdivided into five lithostratigraphic units, which were infor- mally extended regionally, with the view of simplifying the terminology used in each area. Cycle 2 comprises most of the Oficina Formation and Cycle 3 the upper section of this formation and the Freites Formation. The equivalent nomenclature by area is shown in Fig- ure 2. The basal unit of this cycle, the most important since it contains the major part of the hydrocarbon accumu- lations, is predominantly sandy and lies unconformably on pre-Tertiary sediments and on the basement. It is, known by different names along the belt (Fig. 2). Its top is identified in logs throughout the area. Sedimen- tologically, it is divided into two subunits. The basal part, containing the thickest columns of sediments, is quite variable, ranging from 0 to 244 m (0-800 ft), especially in Zuata and Machete. This subunit consti- tutes the fill of the paleotopography. The general direction of sedimentation is north-south and corre- sponds to various deltas nurtured by rivers flowing from the south. These deltas prograded in the same direction, concomitant with the advance of the trans- SECTION I. Regional Resources 107 gression over the Guayana Shield. The upper part of the basal unit is formed by trans- gressive sandstones of more uniform thickness (between 0 and 91 m (0 and 300 ft), oriented east- west. When both subunits are present and superi posed, the direction of this upper part becomes indis- tinct because of their disproportionate thicknesses. Figure 4 is a paleofacies map of Unit I, which shows an area without sedimentation in the south crossed only by rivers flowing toward the north, and later covered by transgressive groups of shore- and bar-type sand- stones. Toward the north, there are extensive areas where mud accounts for more than 50% of the sequence; these seem to be delta-plain deposits crossed by narrow areas of sandstone whose horizontal distri- bution widens toward the north, forming an extensive sand zone. The most important depocenters are located in this zone. Farther away, the narrow sandy areas, oriented toward the north, indicate the course taken by the dis- tributary channels through the delta plain. The north- ‘ern sector, with the widening of the sandy zone and the depocenters, corresponds to the deltaic front. The transgressive sands that cover the lower part of the unit and the distribution of the sand depocenters indicate a delta system influenced by marine waves and tides, The successive increase of mud areas in the delta plain from Hamaca through Zuata to Machete is inter- preted to be the result of a decreasing marine influence toward the west; the configuration of the lower to middle Miocene basin is that of a gulf, partly closed on the west (Fig. 5). Structure and Tectonics The major tectonic features of the belt are defined by use of maps and structure sections, making possible the identification of two structural provinces, sepa~ rated by the Hato Viejo fault system (Fig. 6). The Eastern Province is characterized by the Ter- tiary transgression over the igneous-metamorphic basement, with the exception of a narrow strip located to the north of the Cerro Negro and Hamaca areas, where the Tertiary lies on Cretaceous sediments. In the Western Province, to the west of the Hato Viejo fault, ina large section of the Machete and Zuata areas, the Tertiary lies unconformably on thick sequences of Cretaceous and Paleozoic sediments, which were deposited in a deep structural depression. Regionally, the belt is a result of fault tectonics, characterized by rigid blocks, without evidence of defined folding. The average vertical displacement of the faults does not exceed 61 m (200 ft). The faults are consistently of the normal-tensional type regardless of whether they are transverse or normal to the main trend. In the Eastern Province there are three preferential tectonic tendencies: (1) east-west, located along the hinge zone in the north of Hamaca and Cerro Negro; (2) N 60°- 70° E, trending parallel to the predominant direction of the oldest rock in Guayana, south of the Orinoco River; and (3) N 30°-45° W, a very prominent orienta- tion at the base, reflecting the pre-Tertiary topography108 Fiorillo ESTUARIES Tidal Delt <— CREVASSE stay Figure 4—Sketch of the paleogeographic elements that controlled the sedimentation of units I, I, and Ill of the Oligocene- Miocene sequence. transverse to the regional direction of the belt, with depressions that were filled with fluvio-deltaic deposits at the beginning of Tertiary sedimentation, In the Western Province the predominant direction of the major faults varies from east-west to northeast-southwest. ‘Some faults of the latter type are found only in the Machete area. There, the Altamira fault system forms the structural limit between the two areas: (1) the southern, where the basement is found at shallow depth, the Cretaceous is not recognized, and the Paleozoic is only present locally; and (2) the northern portion, where the basement is very deep and covered by thick sequences of Cretaceous and Paleozoic sediments. Structurally, the Machete high is interpreted to ‘cross the area in a northeast-southwest direction. This feature, confirmed by the basal sandstone of the Ter- tiary Chaguaramas Formation, is associated with the Monasterio arch. The high separates two major depo- centers and is assumed to be the western limit of the belt (Fig. 7) OPERATIONS The operational activities in the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt involved an integrated investigation in order to determine, with a high degree of reliability, the volume of hydrocarbons in place and to precisely measure the basic parameters required for future development plans. ‘The majority of the operations were carried out using conventional drilling techniques: completion, production testing, fluid analysis, pressure measure- ‘ment, gas-lift, transportation, and steam stimulation, However, in some cases it was necessary to develop new techniques applicable to conditions peculiar to the area, thereby optimizing results. It is important to ‘mention that, with the exception of a few accumula- tions in the Machete area, the type of crude found in the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt is mobile at reservoir con- ditions. This permits extraction by conventional methods, at costs that can be compared with those of other heavy-oil fields in Venezuela and world-wide. Another favorable factor is the positive response of the wells to stimulation with steam, which increased productivity fivefold, thus indicating good possibilities for the use of this technique. The exploratory program initiated in 1979 was carried out within the predicted time frame, with highly positive results. Its success is reflected in the drilling of 662 wells, of which 116 were dry holes and 546 were successful; this represents a success ratio of 83% (Table 1). The introduction of Benex 2s a drilling fluid, adapt- able to the characteristics of the formations of the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt, allowed the drilling of holes of uniform gauge and gave good penetration rates, which notably facilitated the taking of good petrophysical logs.SECTION I. Regional Resources 109 = HIGH LANDS (NO DEPOSITION) HH ~ ¥s00n sano accumutation = MARINE SHALY AREA RIVERS AWE DENA Papcu a SAN £00. Oe APURE ~ SHALY AREAS OF DELTA PLAIN ~ SANDY AREAS OF DISTRIBUTARY CHANNELS ANO MARINE BARS Figure S—Paleogeographic map of the delta distribution of the basal Oligocene-Miocene unit. On the south is a positive area crossed by rivers flowing toward the north, The Orinoco River did not exist at this time and is shown for reference only. The conventional completion techniques (open-hole gravel packing, internal gravel packing, and internal gravel packing with squeezing of sand and oil) were tested with success in the belt The production rates obtained were in general very attractive (see Table 1), and the widespread testing program permitted the definition of priority areas for future development. Another result of the exploration was the discovery of a few minor dry gas accumula- tions. PETROPHYSICS AND RESERVOIR PROPERTIES The contribution of the petrophysical studies to the evaluation of the belt represents the effort made by each operating company to address the problems of resource evaluation in their respective areas. Initially, during the operational phase, the petrophysical activi- ties generated the necessary information for comple- tion of the wells, elaboration of the models, and geo- logical interpretations in support of the exploration programs. After the exploratory campaign ended, the operating companies continued to process the petro- physical information, using their computer systems, and obtained the parameters that were subsequently used in reservoir studies, calculation of reserves, inter- pretation of data obtained from production testing, and delineation of prospective areas. ACTIVITIES Logging Inall the areas assigned to the operating companies, suites of logs were run to total depth, in order to make petrophysical evaluations of each well. The suites of logs recommended by the industry's Petrophysical Committee, in accordance with the type and objectives of each well, are shown in Table 2. In two cored wells experimental logs were run. The surveys of these wells formed part of investigation agreements between INTEVEP, the RED Institute of the Venezuelan Oil Industry, and the logging companies.110 Fiorillo WesT PROVINCE “ EAST PROVINCE BASEMENT WEST-EAST STRUCTURAL SECTION \ ae ae CHES Se OLY STRUCTURAL MAP Figure 6—East-west structure cross section and composite structural map drawn on the upper surface of the Precambrian, east of the Hato Viejo fault, and Paleozoic rocks to the west. sw NE APURE BASIN MACHETE HIGH EAST BASIN. Meets a8 comes) Figure 7—Section across the Machete high and associated Monasterio arch, which form the western limit of the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt.SECTION I, Regional Resources 111 Table 1—The Orinoco Oil Belt summary of operations. Total or ttem 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 average Wells drilled 46 260 216 121 19 662 Successful wells, 42 216 479 94 16 546 Success (%) 31 83 83 7B 84 83 Drilling time (days/well) 70 a? 76 96 143 86 ig years (number) 12 75 64 46 09 206 ‘Average depth per well (ft) 3253 3370 3164 2768 3504 3319 Evaluated intervals (number) 19 310 213 155 98 595 ‘Average production (STB/well) 152 144 127 119 107 125 Roads (km) 328 1154 1319 871 367 4010 Investment (million bolivar) 116 582 766 689 192 2345 Table 2—Logging programs tor exploration, stepout, and development wells Exploration and stepout wells, Intermediate logs DLWSP FOG/CNUGR LSS or BHCSL. DLUMSFL/SP or DLL/MLUSP FOCICNL/GR @r LOT/CNLIGR LSS or BHCSL' HDT/DV or SOT/OV wst RFT ws. Logs a total depth Development wells Intermediate loge Log at total cepth DLLISP, FOC/CNL? DLUMSFLISP or DLUIMLL/SP FOGICNUGR According to recommendations of the Exploration ang Reser- oir Engineering based on the adjectives ofthe well *To be run only in areas where shallow gas-bearing sands were detected during the exploratory campaign. EVALUATION TECHNIQUES CORPOVEN used the shaly sand techniques and the Simandoux equation to interpret the logs of 66 wells, drilled by them. MARAVEN applied the Waxman ‘Smits shaly sand technique in 154 wells, and MENEVEN used the same technique in about 150 wells. LAGOVEN used the shaly sand technique and Simandoux equation in 45 wells and will extend its use to the rest of the exploration wells. The evaluation parameters have been determined from core analysis, formation water analysis, and well logs. These parame- ters are grain density (D,), cementation exponent (m and m*), and formation water resistivity (R,) (Table 3) An estimated value of 2 has been assigned to the satu- ration exponent (n and n*) In order to determine the net oil sand thickness (NOS) using the petrophysical parameters, it was necessary to establish, for each area, cut-off values of porosity (6), water saturation (5.), pore-volume, oil saturation (6S), and the shaliness index (V,) (Table 4). The range of values for each of these parameters is as follows: (@, 15-30%; S,, 20-50%; S,, 7.5-16.0%; Vis, 15-30%), In the Cerro Negro area, cut-off resistivities of 14 cohm-m for the DLL log and 9 ohm-m for the induction log were used to determine NOS. To a certain extent, the variations are related to the technique used. It is advisable that these parameters be reviewed in future evaluations as more information becomes available. The results of the petrophysical evaluations were compared to those obtained in the production tests. ‘The production of water in some of these tests is. attributed to a diversity of problems of nonpetrophysi- cal nature, such as: coning from an oil-water contact, water sands overlying or underlying the completion zone, defective cementation, or heavily caved holes. RESERVOIR PROPERTIES In the beginning of the drilling campaign, the petro- physical analysis generated the basic information for well completion and started to give the parameters for the reservoirs and for the geologic models. Several dif- ferent computer programs were used for the determi- nation of the final petrophysical results, which are ap- plied to establish reservoir characteristics, oil in place and recovery estimations, interpretation of productiv- ity of the areas, and geologic models. The reservoir sands are unconsolidated, poorly sorted, subangular, and with varying quantities of interstitial clay. The clay is mostly kaolinite, and hence it has a limited ten- dency to swell in contact with fresh water. Basic reservoir data are given in Table 5. A knowl- edge of the volume of the different resources, their location in the areas, the dimensions of the individual accumulations, and their distribution constitute the basis for Future development planning. Volume of Oil Initially in Place The calculations made to determine the volume of stock-tank oil initially in place (STOUP) are based on the traditional volumetric method, using net oil sand isopach maps (Fig, 8) and computer processing the information. The results corresponding to the four areas shown in Figure 8 are given in Table 6.112 Fiorillo ble 3—Petrophysical evaluation parameters used by the subsidiary companies. Machete Zuata Hamaca G. Negro | Water salinity (ppm) 26,000-850 1,000-1600 17,000-1110 _27,000-4000 Water resistivity (R., Ohm-m) 0.25-6.0 0.45-3.50 0.35-4.6 0.23-1.34 Grain density (D,, g/co) 2.65-2.71 2.65 2.65 2.68 Cementation factor (m) 1.6-1.9 15 15 1.23-2.0 ‘Table 4—Cut-off values of parameters for the calculation of net oi! sand (NOS). Machete Zuata Hamaca C. Negro Effective porosity (%) 15-20 = = 20 Total porosity (%) — 25-30 25-30 = Water saturation (S.) 45-50 50 50 20-30 Minimum thickness (ft) 5-10 = S = Resistivity (Ohm-m) = - = a4 Shaliness factor (Vy) 20-30 = - = Etfective porosity Xoit saturation (ES.) 75-11.0 - - 14.0-16.0 Total porosity X oil saturation (6TS,) 12.5-15.0 12.5-18.0 = -_| ‘Table 5—Ranges and average values of reservoir data. Pay thickness (m) 15-30 (60-430 ft) Average pay thickness (m) 50 (160 ft) Range of top pay depth (m) 150-1300 (500-4300 ft) Average top pay depth (m) 600 (2000 ft) Average well elevation (m) 100 (330 ft) Porosity (%) 30-34 Water saturation (2) 10-25 Oil saturation (%) 80 Salinity (ppm NaCl) 850-27,000 Permeability (m?) 1 (14) Reservoir pressure (500 m subsea, kPa) 5633, (820 psig) Reservoir pressure gradient (kPa/m) 9614 (0.425 psifft) Reservoir temperature (500 m subsea, °C) 53 (127°F) Geothermal gradient (°C/m) 0.0324 (0.0178° Ft) CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF CRUDES In order to determine the quality of the crudes for inclusion in the exploratory evaluation of the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt, a study of the physical and chemical properties relevant to production, transportation, and refining processes was made. With the information obtained from the available crude sample, an attempt was made to locate the areas containing the better quality crudes and determine their distribution over the different geological provinces. To accomplish this, the data provided by different sources (laboratories, refineries, etc.) was gathered, evaluated, and inte- grated, thus accumulating information from a total of 288 samples. In order to establish the areal and vertical istribution patterns of crude quality, the geological information derived from stratigraphic correlations was combined with the physical and chemical proper- ties measured in the laboratory to define the regional distribution of crude qualities. At the same time, the state of alteration of the crude from each area was determined by gas chromatographic analysis of the saturated and aromatic fractions of 163 samples. From all the analyses made, and in accordance with the state of preservation of the saturated and aromatic hydro-SECTION I. Regional Resources 113 DE CA PASCUA wacnere Joan 00. MACHETE ‘ZUATA — -HAMACA CERRO NEGRO 255,000 500,000 214,000 213,000 TOTAL 1.182.000 LEGEND (Io 100" Nos. © too’ 20 NOS ° 50 FB 200- sou NOS — am > 200 wos Figure &—Map of major oil accumulations (million barrels of oil in place) and net ol sand thickness (NOS) in the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt. carbons, it was found that of the 163 samples ana- lyzed, 88% of the crudes were totally degraded and the remaining 12% were partially so. These partially degraded crudes are distributed in the areas of Ham- aca, Zuata, and Machete with a progressive increase of degradation from east to west. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE CRUDES Once the results of the crude analyses made by the laboratories were gathered, the information was screened in order to avoid discrepancies in the reported values as a result of analytical errors, and the possible influence of each of the variables used for practical purposes in the production, transportation, and refin- ing processes. The data obtained from the foregoing, appear in Table 7. Origin and Migration of Hydrocarbons The generation of hydrocarbons in a sedimentary basin is a function of the type of organic matter con- tained in the rocks and its thermal history. For the determination of these factors, oriented toward the definition of origin of the accumulations present in the Table 6—Volume of oil initially in place (million barrels) | 213,000 214,000 500,000 255,000 1,182,000 Table 7—Fluid properties of belt crude oils. Oil density (g/cm? at 15.6°C) 1,044-0.034 Oil gravity (° API) 47 Metal content (ppm) 00 (80% vanadium, 20% nickel) ‘Sulfur (%) a4 Napnthenic base Eastern basin and its southern margin, the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt, several regional studies have been conducted. The results obtained indicate that the oil found in the belt was generated farther north, where the sediments occur at greater depths, with tempera- tures high enough for the maturation of the organic matter and its transformation into petroleum (Fig. 3).114 Fiorillo DEFINITION OF RESERVES Having calculated the volume of the oil initially in place in the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt to be 1.2 trillion barrels, it then was possible to classify the various accumulations and determine their limits with relative reliability. The result is a clear grouping of the re- sources into two categories: 700,000 million barrels (60% of the total STOMP) are located in priority areas, where the accumula~ tion conditions are favorable for a reasonable level of economic recovery. {500,000 million barrels (40% of the total STOIP) are located in areas where negative factors such as high viscosity, intermediate water, and structural complexity can significantly reduce recovery. 1 2 ‘This subdivision constitutes a realistic base for the estimation of the gross recoverable reserves. Technical Criteria of Recovery In the estimation of reserves for the types of accu- mulations in the belt, there is doubt regarding the pos- sibility of compaction having a decisive role in the pro- duction mechanism. Uniaxial coefficients of compressibility measured in cores taken in the priority areas averaged 23 X 10~° to 25 X 10~* vollvollpsi. This level of compressibility is associated with a recovery by compaction of the order of 8% of STOIIP, in addition to that which can be obtained by solution-gas drive. In view of the limited production history, any estimation of recovery on this basis at present would be little more than an educated guess. Nevertheless, based on previous considerations and the extensively tested technology of steam soak followed by steam drive, the estimations given in Table 8 appear to be reasonable. FUTURE OUTLOOK With the incorporation of these reserves and the definition of the areas that can be developed in the belt, the industry will not be subject to limitations when planning the generation of potential production to meet requirements for heavy and extra-heavy crudes. Traditional areas may be expected to cover, Table 8—Estimates of recovery ‘actors in the belt and recov- erable oil in stock tank barrels (STB) In priority areas Recovery factors—'s of STOHP Production mechanism Gas in solution (stimulated by steam soak) 7 Compaction 0108 Primary subtotal 71018 ‘Steam orive 2 Total 271035 Total average at Recoverable reserves 700000 milion STBX 0.381 = 217,000million STB In nonprioety areas, Average total recovery 10% Recoverable reserves 500000MMSTBX0.10 = $0,000 milion STB. 267,000 milion STB requirements into the 1990s, but then increasing volumes of heavy crude from the belt will have to be incorporated into the system. It is believed that the offtake from the belt could be about 500,000 bid by year 2000 Even though the objectives of the regional explora- tion of the belt are considered to have been fully realized, the need to continue the evaluation studies, which will serve as the basis for future development plans, still remains. REFERENCES CITED Burkill G. C.C., and L. Giusti, 1983, The Orinoco Oil Belt World Petroleum Congress Fiorillo, G, et al, 1983, Evaluation exploratoria dela Faia Petroifera del Orinoco: Report, Ptroleos de Venezuela, 8.4. Galavis,j. A. and H. M. Velarde, 1967, World Petroleum Congcess, Preprint. Guevara, E., et al, 1983, Modelo geotogico integrado de la FajaPetrolifera del Orinoco: INTEVEP, 8. A.